Shattered Stars

I find your POD to be painfully plausible, which is quite pleasing. Boston is turning into and American Paris in the revolutionary sense. I could see John Adams' moves in the Confederation Congress leading to bloodshed. Canny wait for more.
 
Shattered Stars- Installment Six

Great Expectations


Unlike John Adams, Thomas Jefferson did not dive into the political maelstrom. Instead he retreated to Monticello, intent on researching the problem and writing. Never a speaker, he would be far more effective to the cause as a remote philosopher, sharing his views through carefully chosen phrases, calculated to stir common man and elite alike. This was a disappointing turn of events, for many Anti-federalists thought he would be a useful ally, bringing immense prestige, intelligence and legitimacy to their movement. Unknown to most of his supporters however, Jefferson was divided man.

At heart he sided with the Anti-Federalists. He was suspicious of the urban power brokers, centralizing power in some far-off capital, accountable to no one. What difference did it make if a farmer was taxed from a distant London or just as remote American capital? Jefferson worried that the Revolution would simply enshrine a different set of political elites, instead of distributing it out to responsible, yeoman farmers.

On the other hand, he approved of the Northwest Ordinance which would organize and unify the nation’s Western policy. A clear list of guidelines for making new, equal states appealed to him greatly (indeed, much of it dates back to some of Jefferson’s early work). He understood that a federal government had it’s place and he firmly disagreed with the rabble rousing populism of Sam Adams (which was becoming a defining feature of Antifederalism).

So the great man wavered, siding with no one. Like a brooding colossus, he perched atop his mansion and refused to take sides. This is not to say he remained idle, and Jefferson was busy writing letters to every man of influence across the nation. Letters, pamphlets, essays, all bound him to men of all stripes across the nation. While Adams attempted, by brute force and personality, to forge a consensus Jefferson attempted to gauge one first.
 
Shattered Stars- Installment Seven

Old New York

John Adams exploded on the New York scene like a meteor flashing across a dark winter sky. For the now embittered New Englander, the change from Boston to new York could not have been any more dramatic. Boston was a rollicking hive of political power, intrigue and violence, speakers and demagogues haranguing on every corner, everything political, everything charged with mob violence.

New York was, by contrast, a sleepy town. While commerce and trade booming it was a political wasteland despite being the home of the Congress of the Confederations. Adams rushed to Federal Hall, where the Congress was (supposedly meeting) but he found a nearly empty building. The details soon came out. There were hardly any members in session, committees left empty, and votes ignored. Few members even showed up in New York, let alone attended the dull (and pointless, compared to state capitals) meetings of the Congress. Even the current president of the Congress, Robert Morris was absent, visiting family. Adams faced that fact that the leading political body of the nation was effectively non-existent.

He threw himself into work. His first act, with the help of his wife Abigail, was to send letters to every state, asking for representatives to be sent, either existing members or elect new ones. Either way, ‘We must fill this august body.” and his earnest plea was sent through the nation. Due to Adam’s reputation, and the lack of power in the Congress, only the most determined Federalists answered his calls (some sent by states, eager to remove Federalists busybodies). Pushed or pulled, many came to fill the now far more active Federal Hall, and made 1790 a busy year.

Adams cheered each new member, arch-federalists like Alexander Hamilton, Rufus King (recently hounded out of Massachusetts), John Jay and Charles Pickney, as they poured into the city. Soon, the Congress was a regular beehive of activity, filled with a turmoil of ideas and ideals as many realized that reform was not coming and the Congress of the Confederation would have to rule the nation for an indefinite time.

The first act of this new Congress was to elect John Adams president of the Congress of the Confederation. The position usually held little to no power (indeed, several past presidents reigned to regain the power they held as representatives). Adams changed that however, through sheer force of personality, brilliance and political acumen. Through a delicate combination of carrot and stick Adams began the slow pace of reform in the Congress. the fact that he had, essentially, packed the Congress with allies paved the way.

One of the first changes was a overhaul of the office of president. Changing from the rapid turnover of one-year terms the Congress changed the term to a single six-year term with no re-election. Other small changes followed, giving the president more and more power over the now burgeoning committees and councils forming in the Congress.

Despite these gains, Adams still had huge issues in front of him as 1791, his first year as President wore on. The nation was still nearly bankrupt, New England was drifting ever farther away, trade was stifled between jealous states and the Northwest was the scene of American defeat after defeat as St. Clair futility tried to enforce the new Ordinance there.

Finally, desperately, Adams asked the states to provide the means to subdue the natives, kick out the British forts and truly begin American expansion. Despite his Federalist nature, even Adams saw that the federal government could not do this alone. Out of all the states only Pennsylvania Governor Thomas Mifflin came to his aid...with strings attached of course.
 
That was another interesting update, not too up on that period of American politics, will have to wait an see where this goes. It does look like a weaker federal government may evolve out of this, unless John Adams can enforce his will. Perhaps a federation of loosely grouped regional interests. Whatever happens I will waiting to see, nice work.
 
That was another interesting update, not too up on that period of American politics, will have to wait an see where this goes. It does look like a weaker federal government may evolve out of this, unless John Adams can enforce his will. Perhaps a federation of loosely grouped regional interests. Whatever happens I will waiting to see, nice work.

Thanks for the reply!

I am going a bit slow, seems better to cover detail then say 'And then the USA fell part', yes? And yes, the battle of wills of John Adams vrs everyone else will be quite the show....
 
I very much dig your details about the less prominent personalities in the early U.S. Can't wait to see how this goes!

No stone unturned....Anyone who was missed so far that you'd like to see highlighted?

I find your POD to be painfully plausible, which is quite pleasing. Boston is turning into and American Paris in the revolutionary sense. I could see John Adams' moves in the Confederation Congress leading to bloodshed. Canny wait for more.

American Paris is exactly what we are going for.

The next update will take use to the frontier of Ohio, Kentucky and Vermont.
 
The Tai-Pan said:
Elbridge Gerry.
The creator of the Gerrymander. Doesn't sound like this bodes well, even for New England.

New Hampshire, the Live Free or Die State, was also divided but generally saw that cooperating with Massachusetts was the only route for survival for the land-locked state. As time went on, Anti-Federalism became more mainstream there as well under the influence of the Triad.

Err, what? What happened to Portsmouth?
The Tai-Pan said:
The first act of this new Congress was to elect John Adams president of the Congress of the Confederation. The position usually held little to no power (indeed, several past presidents reigned to regain the power they held as representatives). Adams changed that however, through sheer force of personality, brilliance and political acumen. Through a delicate combination of carrot and stick Adams began the slow pace of reform in the Congress. the fact that he had, essentially, packed the Congress with allies paved the way.

One of the first changes was a overhaul of the office of president. Changing from the rapid turnover of one-year terms the Congress changed the term to a single six-year term with no re-election. Other small changes followed, giving the president more and more power over the now burgeoning committees and councils forming in the Congress.
Sorry, not possible.
Articles of Confederation said:
to appoint one of their members to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of president more than one year in any term of three years;

The president of the Congress, by the AoC, can only serve 1 year of every 3. So, a change to a 6 year term requires an amendment, which would have to be ratified by ALL the States. Which isn't going to happen.
 
Last edited:
The creator of the Gerrymander. Doesn't sound like this bodes well, even for New England.

That's the idea.


Err, what? What happened to Portsmouth?

Can I just admit I messed up there without everyone pointing and laughing? I just had a blank mind there...

Sorry, not possible.


The president of the Congress, by the AoC, can only serve 1 year of every 3. So, a change to a 6 year term requires an amendment, which would have to be ratified by ALL the States. Which isn't going to happen.

I am thinking though, if there is no hope of major reform and everyone at the Congress generally agrees with him (the ones who don't, who actually make up a majority of the political realm, are absent) surely you'd be able to do something? Doubly so when the office of president is essentially a placeholder. I know that was the point but already it is becoming obvious someone needs to do something. You don't think a Congress full of Federalists could do something to length the term? Is is that crazy that some shenanigans took place?

Or is there another road that I missed?
 
The Way West

Vermont

Even as the state capitals and New York City tore themselves apart with debate and controversy, indecision and confusion rippled out, even to the remote mountains of New England and distant reaches of the Mississippi. Let’s examine these areas, each in turn.

Vermont, alone of the rebellious states, had created an independent republic, alone and aloof in its sheltering mountains. Disputes over territory with New York had slowed down the path to statehood but it was never seriously in doubt. Indeed, the current Governor of the Vermont Republic, Thomas Chittenden, had spent the Revolution in committee to try and join the Union. Even now most of his time was taken up negotiating with the Congress of the Confederation (and the state of New York) to get favorable terms for statehood.

His job became more complex after the eruption of Anti-Federalism which swept the Northeast and exploded in reaction in Arch-Federalist New York. Adams, now safely in control of the Congress was less then eager to add another New England state to the nation, one which might harbor strong anti-federalist feelings. For their own part, the Triad of Boston did their best to court the Republic. Indeed, John Hancock even traveled to Vermont to meet with Chittenden secretly, to influence the Republic and gauge sentiment for his new ‘Son of Liberty’ which held the whip hand throughout much of New England already.

Chittenden, canny as ever played both sides off of each other, hoping for a better deal for his small, land-locked state. He had always been keen to take advantage of division and debate to further the ends of his home. It should be remembered, even in the Revolution, he held out olive branches to Britain and negotiated a possible return to the Crown right up until Yorktown. He was no stranger to taking a bold risk in a tense situation and 1791 offered this chance.

While New York dithered and debated (both the state and the city) Chittenden acted, to force their hand. In concert with Boston he announced that Vermont would be joining the “New England Anti-Federalist Committee” without becoming a state first. Boston hailed it as a great coup and a blow struck directly at those ‘monarchists under King Adams.”

The reaction in New York by Adams is hard to underestimate. Chittenden hoped to force the Congress of the Confederation to act, and act swiftly, and give in to his deals in upper New York state. Instead he drew himself into the epic battle of Federalist and Anti-Federalist. John Adams took it, personally, of course, as he did all setbacks. He regarded Chittenden as betrayer to the nation and its people, not to mention placing Vermont in the tender mercies of the ‘Sons of Liberty’ who even know (rumor had it) were forming militia and mobs against Federalist inhabitants. After his famous volcanic anger had erupted though he soon cooled on the issue, to a glacial, implacable calm. If Vermont hoped to force Adams to act, they underestimated him. When asked on the subject he answered, “I am determined to control events, not be controlled by them.” And with that, and his power in the Congress, no move toward Vermont statehood was made. It languished in a weird state of union with New England but not of the United States.


Ohio

But the fate of distant Vermont was nothing to the Congress as compared to the issues surrounding the vast Northwest territory, particularly the section called Ohio. As it might be remembered, General St. Clair had come to grief there twice, defeated by Miami chief, Little Turtle and his native alliance. The nation despaired of actually occupying the land it claimed. The federal government, weak and divided as it was, had no hope of raising a force to contend with Little Turtle.

When the calls when to the states for help, only neighbor Pennsylvania heeded the call. The Govenor, Thomas Mifflin, was a scandal ridden figure, with whispers that he had profited greater during his time as Quartermaster for George Washington’s army. But nonetheless he was now a powerful figure, with a large and populous state behind him and when he spoke, Adams at least deigned to listen.

Mifflin proposed that his state could conquer Ohio and dispatch he troublesome Indians, with minimal federal aid. For this help their cost would be little. First the federal government would give the Erie Triangle (which the federal government held due to a land deal some years ago) to his state, free of charge. Also, Pennsylvania would gain claims on the so-called ‘Western Reserve’ a section of Ohio that Connecticut continued to claim. Mifflin assured Adams that his state only wished to sell the lands, not hold them as part of his own state. In addition to those two ‘minor cartographical oddities’ Pennsylvania would assume control over the trade and law of the territory until it achieved statehood, at some distant point.

Adams considered the offer, in the context of a poor and fractious nation, embittered over St. Clair’s defeats (and his own, still questionable change of the role of the President of the Congress of the Confederation). A military victory just might give him the sway in Richmond, Charleston and the other centers of power. Not to mention, he would gain Mifflin and Pennsylvania as an ally. And, as always, Adams calculated things with an eye to revenge. Removing the Western Reserve may teach Connecticut a lesson about the power of his ‘National Government’.

Adams agreed to the plan, and his complacent Congress agreed with him. Mifflin, delighted with the plan, soon moved into action as 1791 drew to a close.

Kentucky
Farther south, the USA was also expanding. Kentucky, long the ‘dark and bloody ground’ was to remove itself from Virginia control and become a state in its own right. This had long been granted, and the people of Kentucky were eager to join the nation. Sadly, federal disagreements had slowed statehood and the turmoil following the Failure at Philadelphia, all pushes to statehood were halted. Now, though with Adams finally chopping through the backlog, the Congress finally had a chance to act on the matter.

With much fanfare, but little debate (the ground work had been done years before) Kentucky entered as the 14th state.

1791 had been an eventful year for the divided Republic. Many thought that 1793 would surpass it….
 
Map of the USA at the end of 1792. The exact meaning of the 'Anti-Federalist League' will be made clear in the next post.

Shattered Stars-1792.png
 
The Perfect Storm

1792 was a busy year for the Triad in New England expanding the Anti-Federalist power, a time of growth, intensification and organization. The Triad it still was, of Hancock, Gerry and Sam Adams but by now Sam Adams was dominating them all, becoming the true driving force of the movement.

It was Adams who kept up a steady stream of pamphlets, letters and speeches to ‘educate’, inflame and organize his followers. He also took control, by hook or by crook of the many newspapers that abounded in Boston, making sure only anti-federalist messages went by unscathed. He often appeared in the Massachusetts General Court (as the House and Senate were called), railing against John Adams and ‘cypro-royalists’ in New York. Most importantly, he organized the ‘Sons of Liberty’, re-using the name for the old Patriots groups that had rabble-roused for independence.

Sam Adams looked to the veterans, the ‘cold and hungry men’ that the federal government did not have the energy or money to care for. Betrayed, angry and now-trained to violence they warmed to Adam’s fiery rhetoric. The ‘Sons’ soon became the violent, paramilitary arm of the Anti-Federalist movement, eager to start a riot, create a mob or burn down a building. It was a short step from looting and distributing Loyalist goods to doing the same for Federalists. Throughout 1792 Adams built the group, and developed his power, as chapters sprang up all over New England.

The other two members of the Triad were not quiet however. Hancock became the traveling representative for the movement, all over New England. He became a common sight, traveling by small ship or winding road. Indeed, the travel wore on him and he nearly died in a blizzard in late 1792, stuck in the White Mountains. His health began to deteriorate but he still commanded great respect and force of personality.

For all the wearing travel, his job was easy though, promoting the Anti-Federalism Committee (which some were now calling the ‘Patriot’ movement). Massachusetts was in Adam’s pocket and needed no encouragement. Ting Rhode Island was, if anything, more fervent if less organized. Connecticut became easier to convince after the federal government cavalierly sold the rights to the Western Reserve in distant Ohio. Cooler heads that might have protested now gave heed to Sam Adams’ rhetoric and Hancock’s pleas for unity ‘against the forging of crowns in New York’.

New Hampshire was a hard sell, but the movement had a tide and rhythm of its own and many people got caught up in the excitement and anger it unleashed. Even in Vermont Hancock found fertile ground among those independent people, now stymied from statehood by a vengeful John Adams.

Elderbridge Gerry played a smaller, quieter part. His great skill was managing the Massachusetts Senate and House, turning them into Sam Adam’s rubberstamp. No memorandum, recommendation or letter escaped the Court without Gerry’s eyes upon it. He soon gained a special skill at re-arranging the complicated districts of Massachusetts to favor the Anti-Federalists. The convoluted twists, turns and curves he introduced cemented the power of the loud and growing movement. While few knew of his influence, he was the true architect that turned the Anti-Federalist movement from a few angry politicians into a true political force. It was Gerry who, after Vermont joined the movement, decided the old name the ‘New England Anti-Federalist Committee’ no longer made sense and it needed expanded it again. He coined the term ‘the Anti-Federalist League’ which soon became the watchword of Adams and Hancock as they organized New England along lines they wanted.



So as 1793 dawned, Sam Adam’s felt strong enough to eliminate any challengers to his authority. Armed mobs began appearing in the streets of Boston, led by the Sons of Liberty, terrorizing anyone who dared disagree with the anti-federalists. Dissent newspaper were burned, federalist men tarred and feathered and Federalists political meetings disrupted.

No one was exempt, not even the rich and powerful in Boston. Things came to a head in May of 1793, when the Sons of Liberty attacked Thomas Handasyd Perkins, a prominent and open Federalist. Perkins, a rich merchant in the slave and China trade, had fought in the Revolution and openly dismissed Adams and the Sons as ‘a rabble that would had fled Bunker Hill’. He soon found that his money and influence were of little defense however, as his shop was burned, his warehouses looted twice and even one of his trading ships are harbored damaged by nighttime raiders. The city did nothing and instead Perkins was refused even a hearing by a local (terrified) judge. The trader even went before the General Court to plead his case, but the benches were packed with Anti-Federalist men and he was shouted down. It was too much to bear and soon Perkins left New England, forced out by Adam’s growing power.

This story could be repeated dozens of times as every enemy was eliminated and marginalized. More and more people were accused of being ‘tyrannically inclined’ and were harassed. No force opposed them and soon all of Massachusetts answered, in fact if not in name, to Sam Adam’s and his Sons of Liberty. The pace of looting quickened and soon whole estates and city blocks were burned and pillaged.

Even the state militias were too infiltrated to do much except extinguish Patriot fires and wring their hands. In other states the same tide began to flow, as the ‘cold and hungry’ men realized they now held the whip hand. By the end of 1793 Anti-Federalists had seized every government office and, in many places, re-written the rules and boundaries to suit them.

In Boston Sam Adam’s realized that he would not have to be merely content with stopping Federalism. He could re-create New England to suit his views and the needs of the people. He began to plot a much bigger, stronger vision of the League then any yet dreamt. As the United States tore itself during the ‘President Crisis’ Adams had free reign, and he intended to use it.
 
Arms and the Man

Ohio

Thomas Mifflin, Governor of Pennsylvania had gotten exactly what he wanted. The federal government had given him a free hand in the Ohio Territory, which he intended to use to his state's advantage. But first he had to uphold his end of the bargain and bring this 'savage land' full of dark woods and rebellious natives under American control. Twice now, federal invasions had failed, foiled by the cunning and bold stratagems of Little Turtle and Blue Jacket, (of the Miami and Shawnee tribes respectively) two native leaders who (with British backing) had forged a strong network of tribal alliances to hold back white settlement and governance. It would not be easy for Mifflin to impose his will on the territory.

He needed a military mind of skill, boldness and a certain amount of romantic panache to pull it off. Luckily Pennsylvania had produced just such a man, and who has tempered in the fires of the War of Revolution. 'Mad' Anthony Wayne, famed victor of the battles of Stony Point and Green Spring. A bold, even reckless commander with a reputation for turning unruly Americans into drilled soldiers, he was perfect for the job. In 1792 he was dwelling in distant Georgia but even before words came back from New York, Mifflin had sent word. The vegetating commander eagerly seized the chance for glory and battle and traveled north quickly.

He arrived in Philadelphia early in January 1793, meeting with Mifflin several times. He was given cart blanche to 'pacify the Ohio Territory' by any means necessary. Wayne would be given full support of money and influence to get the job done. After given his orders the impetuous general set off to Pittsburgh, and a harrowing late winter crossing of the wild Alleghenies. His hardy constitution and drive saved him and he soon found himself in the small but fast growing 'Gateway to the West' of Pittsburgh.

Quickly he began recruiting local men (at excellent wages) and building a barracks outside of town. Wayne named the group the Pennsylvanian Legion, and the barracks (which soon grew to a small suburb) Legionville. Even as he set up shop in the spring, Anthony Wayne sent letters north to recruit another Revolutionary War hero to help him train his growing army, one he had worked with before.

Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, famed drill master and author of the basic training manuals for the federal military was languishing in ill-paid retirement in upstate New York. Wayne's words of glory, purpose and money, rang true to him. Despite begin quite aged, being 62, the famed hero made his way to Legionville to help whip the local men into trained soldiers. While Steuben would take no active part in the campaigns, he would do a great deal in imparting the basics of drill and fundamentals of soldiering to the men.

Throughout the entire year of 1793 Wayne (and Steuben) trained the men. The marched them all over the rugged terrain of Pittsburgh in every type of foul weather. They practiced musket re-loading in the heat of summer, bayonet charges in blinding blizzards and column marching in fall mud. Despite this abuse the men adored their mad 'General' who often took the worse punishment with them, riding (and marching alongside them. Even the irascible Steuben (who could serviceable swear in most languages) was regarded as a 'dear bastard' during the brutal training regime.

Unlike previous invasions Wayne intended to have a competent and well-drilled force. He also added his own thoughts int heir training. He focused on making his men independent, ready to seize the initiative and of course (in classic Anthony Wayne style) always look to close with bayonet. Energetic charges and flanking movements were Wayne's bread and butter.

Finally by the spring of 1794, The Pennsylvania Legion was ready, 3,000 men strong. They marched into the Ohio Territory by April, amid spring rains and mud. The terrain proved little hindrance to the veterans of last year's training. For months they fought with ghosts units of raiding Native Americans who tried to cut off the supply lines and scare the troops into panic (as they did with St. Clair). But the Legion was not easily put off. Throughout the summer they built several forts all throughout Ohio, projecting their power and defending delicate supply lines.

Finally, by late September Little Turtle and Blue Jacket (who was ill) decided they needed to win a great victory to not only throw the whites back out of Ohio but to prove to the wavering British they were worth supporting. Organizing the network of alliances, Little Turtle managed to cobble together a force of 1,500 men, mostly veterans of raids and armed with British weapons.

The Battle of Two Springs proved to be the death knell for any hope of a native run Ohio. Wayne;s well drilled troops assaulted the defense's with vigor and skill, just as they were trained. The natives, more skilled in hit and run attacks, had no stomach for a determined bayonet charge and broke under the onslaught. Little Turtle was killed in the rout and command fell to the ill Blue Jacket.

For the rest of the fall the Legion relentlessly took the war to the natives. Villages were burned up and down the territory, breaking the natives ability to resist. British support withered away and several native tribes switched sides and joined the American conquest, hoping for better terms. The Native Americans held on through winter, but in the early spring of 1795 Blue Jacket surrendered at the Treaty of Greenville. He signed away much of Ohio and in realistic terms the military power of the natives were broken.

Anthony Wayne had done exactly what Mifflin had wanted. The aging general would now hand over a docile and conquered Ohio, free of British influence and dotted with new American forts. He had also given Pennsylvania a well-trained and tested battle force, that would be used greatly in the future.

For now Mifflin told Wayne to govern the territory as a military district and 'order the district on sensible and commercial lines'. In essence Ohio would help pay for it's conquest and trade began to flow east, back into Pennsylvania. Settlers poured into the fertile zone but few were allowed to settle there, under Wayne's hawk-eyed administration. He was given strict orders by Mifflin to prioritize 'loyalist' Pennsylvania landowners and investors, and only give his hand-picked men the best lands. Mifflin used this as a tool to cement his control over his own state, and a way to reward his cronies.

In addition to these men, many Federalists were New England, fleeing the dangerous and radical Sam Adam's regime, were allowed to settle. They added a distinctive Yankee flair to the territory, mostly centering in the old 'Western Reserve'. These maritime Federalists would be one of the main power bases in the Ohio District, and eagerly jumped into the Great Lakes trade.

While the rest of the nation was concentrated with the 'President Crisis' few noticed a state's militia was ruling a large part of the 'American' Northwest.
 
All the President’s Men

The start of the 'President Crisis' came in 1792, when, according to the Articles of Confederation, a new President would be elected. Many Americans shared relief that the bellicose and Federalist John Adams would soon be forced to leave office, and rejoiced that the system worked.

His year term came and went, and Adams simply refused to leave. In his defense he pointed to his 'reform' of the office from last year, in particular where he (with Congress's haphazard approval) had extended the term of President to a single six year term. The change had been ignored in the states, either lost in the flurry of papers streaming from New York or misunderstood. For example Virginia Governor Henry Lee later stated that he had assumed John Adams had simply made a minor parliamentary change, not fundamentally restructured the nation's government. The sheer boldness of the move took time to understand and grapple.

For his part Adams was convinced he was acting perfectly legally and, besides, the old system was utterly useless and dysfunctional. He was not alone in this view and gained a surprising amount of support. With the threat of Patriot New England growing many northern and middle states reluctantly agreed that a stronger national government might be needed. A few, such as Alexander Hamilton openly endorsed Adam's move and supported him with pamphlets and essays. In addition, Pennsylvania, needing Adams to cement the Ohio invasion, backed Adams strongly.

Despite this patchwork popular and political support, many states began to declare Adams an outlaw and renegade, openly defying the will of the nation. Many of the states, mostly Southern ones, began agitating that something must be done. From Charleston and Richmond word was sent to New York, telling Congress to do something about this 'power hungry tyrant'. Jefferson, long silent finally 'came down from his mountain' and entered the fray saying Adams had clearly over-stepping his legal powers and joined the calls for Congress to do something.

In response to this outcry, the anti-Federalist forces in Congress finally rallied. It took months but in July they finally held a session about Adam's claim to the presidency. The anti-Federalist faction found themselves in the minority as a strong force of Federalists (with a triumphant Hamilton and slightly more hesitant Aaron Burr in the lead) defending reform and announcing the 'insufficiency of the present Confederation to the preservation of the Union. ' Adam's presidency was confirmed in a landslide and John Adams emerged stronger then ever.

Faced with this, to them, blatant power grab, the anti-Federalist members of Congress left citing 'illegalities and misdemeanors'. While some of the members gladly watched the South leave others saw the beginning of a rift that would divide the entire country.

Leaving behind New York the anti-Federalist Congressmen moved to Maryland, setting up in Baltimore. But when that state proved to be uncomfortably Federalist, they continued southward, reaching Williamsburg by Christmas 1792. Meeting at the College William and Mary, they declared themselves the 'true and sole' Congressional body. In turn the New York Congress declared the Williamsburg body as a 'Rump Congress' and called all states to ignore it.
 
Building a Congress

The Congress that opened in Williamsburg was in a precarious position. For one thing they were few in number and only united by their dislike for John Adams and his strong, centralizing stance. Most were Southerners although a few Anti-Federalists joined them, notably Thomas McKean and Phillip Pell. Unlike the New York Congress, meeting in the elegant New York City Hall in the middle of a important and growing city, The College of William and Mary at Williamsburg was a cramped, hasty affair in a backwater city.

The Williamsburg Congress probably would have melted away and been forgotten if an infusion of support hadn't rushed in in early 1793. See the 'Rump Congress' (as the New York Congress named it) as their chance, the Southern states rushed to assist the struggling anti-Adams group. Important and influential men, those had avoided the powerless Congress of the Confederation for years, swarmed onto the College campus sent by states eager to discredit the Federalist Adams.

Luminaries such as James Madison, Charles Pinckney and Edmund Randolph filled out the rolls. The crowning jewel was Thomas Jefferson himself, author of the Declaration itself. Concerned that the 'great experiment' was disintegrating he arrived in Williamsburg and was soon made President of the Congress. Under Jefferson's deft guidance the 'Rump Congress' soon became a worthwhile rival to the still furious New York Congress.

In both Congresses a demand for reform arose from both the public and the now divided states. Weather in sleep Williamsburg or bustling New York the men were faced with the obvious fact the Confederation had failed. What would replace it? The last united effort had failed in Philadelphia. Perhaps divided, something could be constructed?

Both parties considered their situations improved, no longer inhibited by differing opinions. Adams and Hamilton were now part of a largely compliant Congress, happy to vote and approve radical Federalist changes to the government. Conversely, Jefferson and his allies had a free hand untroubled by Northern merchants and anti-slavery feelings. In late 1793 both cities began the long, slow task of re-forming the Articles of Confederation, each hoping to craft a government that all could unite behind. In a sense it was a contest of which vision would hold in America. The strong, centralized mercantile future imaged by Federalists or the agrarian, state driven 'freedom' of the Anti-Federalists?

No one was sure, certainly not the states. Many waited to see what would hatch out of the two rival Congresses before committing to one or the other. Many powerful and influential men waited, seeing where the best opportunity laid. Everyone from frontier speculators to rich trading magnates watched the proceedings deciding who they (and the states they often controlled) would back.
 
Tale of Two Cities

Even with the simplifying event of splitting the nation into North and South, the quest for reform was difficult. Achieving the fundamental changes needed required maneuvering among varied agendas, polices and personalities. Factions formed for both political reasons as well as personal ones in both cities. This problem, as well as the wider issues of constructing a unified government out of disparate states and peoples confronted both Congresses. Although the proposed answers differed both groups grappled with many of the same problems and debates.

One of the more confusing issues was the issue of delegate legitimacy and creditability. In both Congresses there were many sitting delegates who represented states that were currently in the uncooperative Anti-Federalist League. Revolutionary and radical, Samuel Adams had no respect for the drama of a split Congress or the compromises being made in either New York or Williamsburg. Should the delegates from these states, in either Congress have a voice? Debate was complicated by the varying opinions of the delegates themselves who ran the full gamut of political opinions.

In Williamsburg, distant from the League’s influence decided to keep the delegates as 'advisory deputes' fully able to join in debate and committees but with no power to sign or commit states to resolutions. This compromise had been James Madison's idea, which served to not only keep the momentum of reform going, but also to give those supporting a stronger central government (including Madison himself) a wider base of allies.

In New York, much closer to the tribulations engulfing New England, a stronger stance was eventually decided on. Hoping to one day re-integrate New England the delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut and New Hampshire (Vermont was still not a ratified state) were accepted as full members.

Even more complicated were the delegates representing states with deputies at both Congresses. Maryland was the most famous example but nearly every state in the north (fewer in the south with only Virginia and North Carolina) had delegates in both camps. In this case, New York and Williamsburg came up with the same answer, all states would be welcome and it would be up to the state at home to decide which Congress to follow and which reforms to ratify (and be governed under).

Regardless of these state problems, both Congresses faced the problems of competing factions and personalities. While the details will be explained later a brief overview will suffice to compare the looming problems with the push for reform of the Articles of Confederation. In New York the conversation was dominated by Alexander Hamilton pushing for a strong, nearly total central government opposed by powerful New York Governor, George Clinton who wanted stronger states. While other personalities rose and fell ranging from president John Adams, Daniel Carroll, Aaron Burr and Gouverner Morris all were set against the backdrop of the battling titans of Hamilton and Clinton.

In Willaimsburg the problem was more complex. Most wanted simply an adjustment of the Articles, simple changes that would operate in the same framework. Only a few, notably James Madison and Charles Pickeny, wanted true fundamental change such as was happening in New York. That road would be fraught with disagreement and obstacles ranging from the innate conservatism of southern planters to the imposing figure of Thomas Jefferson himself.

Next, we will examine each Congress in turn to see how the ebb and flow of reform and debate progressed.
 
Top