Senatus Populusque Romanus-How Pompey, Cato, and Cicero Saved The Republic

Okay, so I was thinking about a controversial reform for Cicero to impose, but the more I think about it, the more it sounds too ASB. So I was hoping you guys could help me out on this one.

My idea was for Cicero to open up voting to a second Italian city. Now what city, I am not sure about, but it would most likely be Corfinium (an important Italian city which happened to be the capital of the Italians during the social war). This would be to make the Italians feel more represented.

Now the problem with this is, I have a feeling it wouldn't go down well with the senatorial elite. I am doubtful whether it would have any support at all, or whether Cicero would even do such a thing. And if it does, I am starting to doubt it would last. Cato especially might be a stubborn opponent of it.

What do you guys think?
 
Ok so I scratched that idea after consulting a few people. What reforms do you guys think the senate could stomach?

Not sure, difficult to say. In many ways Rome really does need a strong man to implement such wide ranging reforms. Sulla tried but ultimately the reforms didn't outlive him. In my timeline the Roman Republic is restored (partially) but that is due to the nature of the Emperor having the ability to force such a restoration. You might be able to use an idea I had which abolished the Comitia Centuriata as the electoral body for the senior magistrates and relegated it to the Senate. The Senate became the main legislative body of Rome, with the Comitia Tributa only reduced to the electoral body for the lower magistrates like Quaestors, Aedile's and in my timeline also Plebeian Tribunes (the Concilium Plebis is abolished). This weighs the balance of power firmly with the Senate but still gives the plebs an opportunity to change the composition over time. What is also absolutely essential in my opinion, is to remove the legislative power of the Tribal Assembly - don't allow it as a route for a potential usurper (Senatorial or otherwise).

I'm not sure if this would be enough to save Rome, but in my opinion would certainly make it more stable. My interpretation is that Rome would still suffer civil wars etc, but it would be a civil war consisting of different senatorial factions not centred around an individual despot.
 
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Excellent! I always wanted to see a pompy beat that meddlesome upstart caesar! just one thing though.......would pompy really just retire to the country? I doubt it. Dont forget that before the civil war he had been the undoubted ruler in all but name in rome, holding the title of dictator and all the powers that came with it for some time. Given that he was sulla's protege and almost as ruthlessly ambitious as caeser, i think he may wello have been tempted to retain control in rome.

Unless of course pompy is playing the long game and secratly controlling rome through his puppets......
 
This shortened Civil War will have some interesting knock-on effects in Egypt and Judaea. Looking forward to more!
 
Not sure, difficult to say. In many ways Rome really does need a strong man to implement such wide ranging reforms. Sulla tried but ultimately the reforms didn't outlive him. In my timeline the Roman Republic is restored (partially) but that is due to the nature of the Emperor having the ability to force such a restoration. You might be able to use an idea I had which abolished the Comitia Centuriata as the electoral body for the senior magistrates and relegated it to the Senate. The Senate became the main legislative body of Rome, with the Comitia Tributa only reduced to the electoral body for the lower magistrates like Quaestors, Aedile's and in my timeline also Plebeian Tribunes (the Concilium Plebis is abolished). This weighs the balance of power firmly with the Senate but still gives the plebs an opportunity to change the composition over time. What is also absolutely essential in my opinion, is to remove the legislative power of the Tribal Assembly - don't allow it as a route for a potential usurper (Senatorial or otherwise).

I'm not sure if this would be enough to save Rome, but in my opinion would certainly make it more stable. My interpretation is that Rome would still suffer civil wars etc, but it would be a civil war consisting of different senatorial factions not centred around an individual despot.

Actually, I was just about to take a look at the reforms made in your timeline when I logged on lol.

Excellent! I always wanted to see a pompy beat that meddlesome upstart caesar! just one thing though.......would pompy really just retire to the country? I doubt it. Dont forget that before the civil war he had been the undoubted ruler in all but name in rome, holding the title of dictator and all the powers that came with it for some time. Given that he was sulla's protege and almost as ruthlessly ambitious as caeser, i think he may wello have been tempted to retain control in rome.

Unless of course pompy is playing the long game and secratly controlling rome through his puppets......

He will be making a return in my next update I have ready.

This shortened Civil War will have some interesting knock-on effects in Egypt and Judaea. Looking forward to more!
Indeed. Glad you like it. :D
 
Opposition In The Senate
Nobody can give you wiser advice than yourself.
-Marcus Tullius Cicero​
senate.jpg
Fierce Debating In The Senate​

Cicero faced a daunting task. On the one hand, he was put in this position for the sole purpose of reforming, and saving the res publica. Yet on the other hand, he was well aware the senators were too stubborn and self-centered to stomach any serious reform. While he was confident his famous oratory skills could win him some of his reforms, he knew words could only get him so far. The simple fact of the matter was, if the optimates threw in their support the populares would be against it, and vice versa. Then there was the fact that few senators would make any meaningful concessions willingly. Cicero was a great mediator and middle man, but even he was not sure he could tackle this political divide.
Yet Cicero was not one to back down from a challenge like this, and set to work. Once again, his door was kept open all day and night, with only his 24 lictors protecting him. Yet, his early attempts at reform were receiving bitter opposition and conflict. Cicero used every oratory trick he knew, but it gained him little ground. In an excerpt from a letter to Atticus, he let loose his frustration:

I am starting to lose faith in the senators I had once revered. Before I said we, the elites of Rome, knew what was best for the people, and knew how to govern. Now however, after conversing with even the poorest men in the city, I am starting to believe they can do better than this group of bickering dogs who claim to work for Rome.

Cicero was truly exhausting his resources. Cato had rallied the optimates to his cause, along with Brutus, but that only further drove the Populares away. Order seemed to breaking down in Rome, and organized mobs seemed to be surfacing again. There was only one thing left Cicero could count on to get his reforms through. It wasn't long before the two consuls, Cicero, and Brutus agreed on a course of action. For the good of the republic, the four men set off to Pompey’s estate in Etruria.

Meeting With Pompey
None of the four men had ever wanted it to come to this. The fact that they were travelling to see Pompey in the first place, showed they had exhausted almost all other options. Being the only person they could count on supporting them with the power to back it up, Pompey may have been the only man who could force Cicero’s staunch opposition to back down. However, Pompey was retired, and there were doubts that he would want to get involved in the tricky situation unfolding. If he would choose to support them however, no doubt the veterans he had given land to all across Italy, as well as the soldiers still in service, would gladly come to his aid if called on. One could say the fate of the republic rested on Pompey’s shoulders.
Whatever went down at Pompey’s villa must have led to the satisfaction of Cicero, Phillippus, Cato, and Brutus. Pompey presumably agreed to make at least a brief return from retirement, and to put an end to the bickering. All he would need to do was make threats of a Sulla esque march on Rome, and hint at a return to the proscriptions or some form of forceful military action. The substance to back up his claims would be there as well, as the senators knew the soldiers, and the people, revered him as a hero. Initially, Pompey gave a letter to Cato, (as Cicero wanted to be seen as having as little involvement in this as was possible) for it to be read in the forum. In “The men who saved Rome”, Titus, writing in the last years of the 1st century BC, gives us a glimpse at what the letter contained.

Pompey handed Cato the letter, with instructions to read it before the senate. In it, Pompey warned the senate to listen to Cicero, and end the violence immediately. If they ignored this, Pompey assured them he would not hesitate to march there himself and restore order. He emphasized that bloodshed, particularly of senators, would possibly be shed if he was forced to return.

When Cato read the letter, some of the senators were taken aghast. Many of the populares backed down. A few however, called it a bluff, guessing he wouldn't dare march on Rome. Pompey, upon seeing that the senators were clearly not getting the message across, proceeded across Italy to gather loyal veterans and volunteers alike, to march on Rome. He never attended to march on the city, expecting a simple show of force would compel the outspoken senators into obedience. His intended goal was achieved, and fearing they would end up like Marius and Cinna before them, the senators fell silent. During the rest of Cicero's dictatorship, Pompey kept his army within a few miles of Rome, making sure the senators fell in line. His opposition brought to heel, and with few suspecting his involvement, Cicero was now able to turn his complete focus to reforming the republic without any interference.
 
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Opposition In The Senate
Nobody can give you wiser advice than yourself.
-Marcus Tullius Cicero​
senate.jpg
Fierce Debating In The Senate​


When Cato read the letter, some of the senators were taken aghast. Many of the populares backed down. A few however, called it a bluff, guessing he wouldn't dare march on Rome. Pompey, upon seeing that the senators were clearly not getting the message across, proceeded across Italy to gather loyal veterans and volunteers alike, to march on Rome. He never attended to march on the city, expecting a simple show of force would compel the outspoken senators into obedience. His intended goal was achieved, and fearing they would end up like Marius and Cinna before them, the senators fell silent. During the rest of Cicero's dictatorship, Pompey kept his army within a few miles of Rome, making sure the senators fell in line. His opposition brought to heel, and with few suspecting his involvement, Cicero was now able to turn his complete focus to reforming the republic without any interference.

Ah! Always knew that Pompey would make a Sulla-like coup on the city. And their i was worried he had just retired completely!
 
Okay, so I am stuck on what exactly I should do with the century assembly. Cicero is a conservative, so I doubt he would consider any real radical changes. I may have a slight general idea of what I might want to do with it, but as for specifics, I am lost.
 
Cicero's Reforms
"And men who wish to be populares and who therefore either try to pass some agrarian law, in order that the occupants may be driven away from their residences, or think that money loaned should be remitted to the debtors are undermining the foundations of our society; they are in the first place, disrupting public harmony, which cannot exist when money is taken away from one group to another, and, secondly, they are abolishing equity, which is completely swept away if each man is not allowed to keep what belongs to him."

-Cicero An Essay About Duties

map_roman_republic_caesar.jpg

Map of Roman Provinces At The Time of Cicero's Reforms

Cicero had a distaste of the populares, and was certainly a conservative optimate. However, unlike Cato and his camp, he was flexible and willing to bend, although not very far. He still held a firm belief in the traditional republic. In A Book About Constitutions, Cicero described his view of an ideal political system.

Cicero, A Book About Constitutions 3.3.6-9​
"In the army there will be military tribunes who will command those over whom they are placed. In the city, there will be officers [quaestors] who will administer the public finances...
There will be aediles who will oversee the city's markets, merchandise, and food supplies, and also the regularly held game. ...
The censors will record the ages, children, slaves, and property value of all citizens. They will undertake construction of the temples, roads, and aqueducts in the city, and will audit the records of the public treasury. They will divide the citizen body into tribes; they will also make other divisions according to wealth, age, and class. They will enroll young men in the cavalry and the infantry. They will regulate the morals of the people and will allow no one guilty of shameless behavior to remain in the Senate. ...
There will be a praetor, an arbitrator of legal disputes, who will himself judge or will arrange to have judged civil suits. He will be the administrator of civil law. And there will be as many praetors, all within the same power as the Senate shall decree or the "people" order.
There will be two magistrates with royal power...who will be called consuls. They will have supreme authority in military matters, and everyone will obey them. Their most important charge will be the safety of the people. ....
There will be tribunes, ten officers whom the plebeians have elected to help protect them from violence. And whatever they veto and whatever legislation has been passed by the Concilium Plebis, over which they preside, will be binding. And they will be sacrosanct."


Cicero still stuck to many of these ideals of which he wrote about. To him, they were the emodiment of a perfect government, and were only being corrupted due to populares. His reforms would stick to the traditional ideals of the republic he loved so much, with slight reforms to improve its stability and ward off civil war.

Military Reforms
The first set of reforms Cicero enacted were military reforms. Although not a military man in the slightest, Cicero recognized that the military was the gateway to ending the republic for an ambitious general. To ward this off, he ordered for the creation of 4 legions to be stationed in Italy at all times, under the direct authority and control of the senate. These 4 legions would be recruited and maintained from the coffers of the Senate. Of course these legions could hardly be expected to hold their own against a determined veteran force, but they would serve as a deterrent from marching on Italy, and could at the very least act as a delaying force for a professional and experienced army to gather for confrontation.
That is not to say however, that there were not veterans in these legions. Some former soldiers would enlist in this Italian defense force, and they would often be given officer roles, and become integral in improving the abilities of the ragtag green forces that made up the bulk of the legions.
Since most of their time would be spent idly sitting back in Italy, the legionaries would engage in various building and construction projects doing everything from constructing and maintaining roads, to building and repairing aqueducts. They were essentially the engineers of Italy, doing everything. Suffice to say, there was never a shortage of recruits for these simply danger-less legions, compared to the rough far-away provinces.

Government Reforms
Like mentioned earlier, Cicero was not interested in any sweeping changes to the fabric of the republic. He still believed the core foundations of the republic were strong, and looked for small tweaks here and there to stabilize its institutions. One of these was removing the privilege Patricians held allowing them to run for office two years younger than the requirement for Plebeians. No doubt Caesar using this to his advantage to gain influence and power was the major reason for this decision.

The next reform he enacted was placing a 5 year interval between governorships. He was no stranger to the very blatant abuse of the immunity holding a government position gave senators. To avoid being tried for abuses and corruption, senators would run for positions year after year. In addition, Pro-magistrates were limited to a provincial governorship of no more than 3 years, with the ability for it to be extended no more than two years. By enforcing a five year waiting period before obtaining a second governorship, Cicero hoped he could at the very least make it harder for senators to abuse the system in such a way. In accordance with that, he added a minimum of 2 years after ending their office, before they could run for another office. For tribunes, an interval of 10 years had to pass, before they could run for the tribunate again. Additionally, Cicero extended the length of a censors term to 5 years[1]. Prior to this, censors only served 18 months.

Cicero then tackled the tribal assembly. Recognizing it had become way too powerful and influential, Cicero stripped it of its judicial powers. Although it would in all likelihood have been a smart idea to remove them of their legislative powers as well, the tribal assembly's legislative powers had always been a component to his ideal government mentioned in A Book About Constitutions. Despite not curbing the Tribal Assembly as far as he should have, the removing of its judicial powers was certainly an important and necessary move.

Finally, Cicero took on mob violence. Mob violence had become a common sight in the late republic, most notably by Clodius (formerly Claudius) who was not afraid to use the masses of Rome to his advantage whenever he needed. Confirming the duty of the censors to remove senators whom displayed shameful behavior from the Senate itself, Cicero intended to make inciting mobs worthy of fitting that criteria. Any Senator who incited mob violence could be removed from the senate, and at the very least tried. The punishment for being found guilty would be exile and removal from the senate anyway. While exile was often luxurious, chances for furthering a public career would be completely ruined for senators, which Cicero hoped would serve as a deterrent. (despite the fact that it was hardly a deterrent previously.)

[1] Cicero mentioned in his ideal republic a censor would serve for 5 years.
 
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Interesting. I'm eager to see how these reforms work out, particularly the idea of the four legions permanently stationed in Italia.
 
One thing that you might want to look into would be curbing the excesses of Roman tax farming with a more regularized administrative system. That way, provincial governors and other wealthy Romans won't be as able to bleed provinces and client states dry in order to fund their political activities in Rome itself. Cicero's own experience in prosecuting Verres' corruption in Sicily would be useful in that respect.

Along the same lines, Cicero might want to establish a system of appeal and/or prosecution accessible to provincial elites that holds Roman governors/pro-magistrates accountable at the end of their terms. Naturally these courts or reviews would have to be a purely Roman affair in terms of the law applied, but regularizing the practice of pro-magistrates reporting their activities, expenses and provincial developments to the Senate or Consuls would be valuable in its own right, and offer those governors the opportunity to defend their record. There is some precedent for this sort of thing--Cato the younger was very meticulous about his record-keeping and tax collection to prove his incorruptibility when he governed Cyprus. Making it a mandatory and standard practice could only improve things.

In terms of the military, the legions in Italy seem like a good idea for all the reasons you describe, but also for maintaining a permanent core group of personnel with military experience. In fact, those 'Home Legions' could be an excellent way for the common soldier to experience social mobility with sufficient merit. Veterans of other legions could more easily be promoted there, and the Senate has every reason to want those legions staffed with 'new men' without previous aristocratic connections, men who owe everything about their position to the Senate itself. One could further 'domesticate' those Home Legions by granting their soldiers the dispensation to marry, perhaps at or above a certain rank.

Now, if Cicero wants to be really creative, there's one further thing I might suggest. Landless poor Roman citizens are a major source of domestic instability and social upheaval, but you can't just grab someone else's land to give them. It's politically impossible, and the urban poor aren't farmers. What the Republic needs is to revitalize the rural free economy in order to reduce the squalor of the cities, and that means addressing slaves. My suggestion is this: Put a very small, perhaps even token tax on slaves. You could limit this to only Italy, or only to rural areas. Since there are so many, you'll raise a fair amount of money even with a token slave head-tax. Use that cash for several things: Exempt small farms in Italy owned by Roman citizens from tax or tenancy payments if they're on public land, establish a permanent and continuous system of subsidized citizen settlement in the provinces, and begin purchasing clusters of small farms from the tenancy of large landholders to grant to army veterans and Roman families.

For the last bit, you could have them pay for the farm over a long period of years, or perhaps more flexibly take payment in-kind from a fixed share of their production. If the towns and villages associated with this land can be politically integrated into this settlement process, it'd be even better. Ensuring that there are (reasonably) accurate records of land title for ownership and use in Italy would be enormously useful as well, and fortunately such concepts existed in Roman law to support that.

Sorry for the long post!
 
Interesting. I'm eager to see how these reforms work out, particularly the idea of the four legions permanently stationed in Italia.

Thanks. :D


One thing that you might want to look into would be curbing the excesses of Roman tax farming with a more regularized administrative system. That way, provincial governors and other wealthy Romans won't be as able to bleed provinces and client states dry in order to fund their political activities in Rome itself. Cicero's own experience in prosecuting Verres' corruption in Sicily would be useful in that respect.

Along the same lines, Cicero might want to establish a system of appeal and/or prosecution accessible to provincial elites that holds Roman governors/pro-magistrates accountable at the end of their terms. Naturally these courts or reviews would have to be a purely Roman affair in terms of the law applied, but regularizing the practice of pro-magistrates reporting their activities, expenses and provincial developments to the Senate or Consuls would be valuable in its own right, and offer those governors the opportunity to defend their record. There is some precedent for this sort of thing--Cato the younger was very meticulous about his record-keeping and tax collection to prove his incorruptibility when he governed Cyprus. Making it a mandatory and standard practice could only improve things.

In terms of the military, the legions in Italy seem like a good idea for all the reasons you describe, but also for maintaining a permanent core group of personnel with military experience. In fact, those 'Home Legions' could be an excellent way for the common soldier to experience social mobility with sufficient merit. Veterans of other legions could more easily be promoted there, and the Senate has every reason to want those legions staffed with 'new men' without previous aristocratic connections, men who owe everything about their position to the Senate itself. One could further 'domesticate' those Home Legions by granting their soldiers the dispensation to marry, perhaps at or above a certain rank.

Now, if Cicero wants to be really creative, there's one further thing I might suggest. Landless poor Roman citizens are a major source of domestic instability and social upheaval, but you can't just grab someone else's land to give them. It's politically impossible, and the urban poor aren't farmers. What the Republic needs is to revitalize the rural free economy in order to reduce the squalor of the cities, and that means addressing slaves. My suggestion is this: Put a very small, perhaps even token tax on slaves. You could limit this to only Italy, or only to rural areas. Since there are so many, you'll raise a fair amount of money even with a token slave head-tax. Use that cash for several things: Exempt small farms in Italy owned by Roman citizens from tax or tenancy payments if they're on public land, establish a permanent and continuous system of subsidized citizen settlement in the provinces, and begin purchasing clusters of small farms from the tenancy of large landholders to grant to army veterans and Roman families.

For the last bit, you could have them pay for the farm over a long period of years, or perhaps more flexibly take payment in-kind from a fixed share of their production. If the towns and villages associated with this land can be politically integrated into this settlement process, it'd be even better. Ensuring that there are (reasonably) accurate records of land title for ownership and use in Italy would be enormously useful as well, and fortunately such concepts existed in Roman law to support that.

Sorry for the long post!
This sounds really good. Thanks for the info. About the last part though. Do you think a conservative like Cicero would do that? And if so, do you think the senate would go with it?
 
This sounds really good. Thanks for the info. About the last part though. Do you think a conservative like Cicero would do that? And if so, do you think the senate would go with it?

Honestly, I don't know. It isn't a direct kick in the teeth to the conservatives or the large landowners in general like mandating the use free labor would be, and it's a very soft approach when compared to eviction. Cicero could see it as a compromise between both sides that doesn't threaten or even much affect the constitutional structure of the Republic. Voluntary purchases and appropriate compensation aren't after all the proscriptions of Marius and Sulla, and don't even rise to the level of thuggish expropriation.

The only really 'offensive' thing is the tax itself. And that's not a constitutional problem, but a political one. Are the Roman elites going to fight to the last line over a small tax that funds otherwise popular measures? No doubt too there would be exemptions written in for urban or household slaves, and for slaves working in mines or quarries.

If someone knows better I hope they'll comment, but this looks like it'd be a judgement call depending on the political situation in general.
 
The majority of senators at this time I think didn't want to sacrafice any personal potential gains, for anything. Pompey being around could make them stomach it for the moment, but I don't think it would last more than a few years.

There's also the problem of Cato, who put Cicero in this position in the first place. Cato and compromise never seem to go together lol. :(
 
Administrative Reforms

Cicero looked next at how to make it more difficult to go about corrupt provincial governance in the first place. As we have seen, he already ironed out measures to discourage corruption. Cicero was no stranger to fighting corruption, as his prosecution of Verres quite some time ago for corrupt administration in Sicily would show. The precedent he drew on for his reform, was none other than Cato The Younger's actions in Cyprus.

Cato had been given the quaestorship for Cyprus thanks to Clodius, who wanted him out of the way in order to stop him from getting in the way of exiling Cicero. While in Cyprus, Cato took the opportunity to prove his incorruptible nature, as Cyprus was rich in gold and extortion opportunities. Cato meticulously prepared his accounts to be seen by the senate. These accounts were nothing short of immaculate, as Cato neither took gold nor extorted the people of their wealth. This was something he had always wanted to be made common practice, and now Cicero was going to do exactly that.

Cicero made it mandatory for all pro-magistrates and provincial governors to report their activities while governing. This would certainly encourage magistrates to be more careful, and while it certainly wouldn't get rid of corruption, Cicero hoped it would at least place a dent in it. At the same time, it would help former governors defend their record if a prosecution were ever to be brought before them.
 
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