Just saw a NATO GEO doco on AMERICAN HATE last night, which covered the Black Panthers & 2 subsequent black separatist/nationalist groups including the New Black Panther Party (which has been labelled as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Centre). Now, WI there'd been such Black panther-style groups for self-defence & advancement established by the African-American community before the late 60s ? WI say such organised black nationalist self-defence groups, say with much stroinger Marcus Garvey/UNIA influence, had arisen back in WWI (in response to East St Louis 1917 & other race riots, plus the horrible spectacle lynchings of that era) or WWII (in response to the Detroit race riots of 1943) ? In both eras, there were assertive black ppl (esp, of course, vets who;'d just come back home from fighting for freedom abroad & were wanting that same freedom at home) who took up arms & fought back against white racism (in the form of both the bigoted white gangs & the local police or National Guard who often didn't lift a finger to protect blacks like they were supposed to)- such as during the Red Summer riots in Chicago & DC in 1919, plus the Elaine, Arkansas & Tulsa race riots of 1921- then also in Detroit & other cities which experienced racial tensions in WWII- but to my knowledge they didn't systematically organise along the lines of the Black Panthers or similar black self-defence groups like the Deacons for Defence. WI they had ?