Hallo,
I am very sorry for the length of this timeline! I did not mean for it to be so incredibly long, but when you begin writing the length takes a backseat to quality. I tried to explain everything, but please critique it. I got bashed enough for making the British lose when I first posted the old version
here, I will probably get it again
So if anyone has the time to skim or read, I'd appreciate it! FYI, I have not finished the American Civil War/Road to Civil War section partly because my knowledge of it is not what it should be.
Regards,
Zach
Point of Divergence
The year 1807 opened with Napoleon Bonaparte in firm control of Europe. His great armies had smashed away Austrian and Prussian opposition to his control of the continent although the British had dealt a blow to the plans of Napoleon after totally defeating the French at the Battle of Trafalgar. As a result, Napoleon resorted to economic warfare to defeat the British, initiating the Continental System to destroy the British economically. By late 1807 just Denmark and Portugal were still open to British trade and Denmark was soon attacked by the British and forced into an alliance with Napoleon. Portugal still remained a thorn in Napoleon’s side. He cajoled the Spanish into letting him attack Portugal, which he did in late 1807. In short, the French invasion of Portugal was precipitated by their lack of embrace for the Continental System. Spain was sure to not make such a mistake. Under the leadership of the largely unpopular Prime Minister, Manuel Godoy, appeasement to the French Emperor became the predominant attitude for the Spanish government. In 1807, the French and Spanish were fairly close allies, at least in regards to the upper class and royalty. Napoleon was quick to subdue the defiant Portuguese in a brief military campaign, having sent the Armee du Portugal under General Junot to impose the Continental System upon them. Backed up by numerous Spanish divisions, the Portugal was defeated swiftly. With that being done, Napoleon was content with leaving Iberia alone. It may have crossed his mind to take advantage of his Spanish allies while so many French soldiers were in the area, but no orders were given out to act. On the Third of May, 1808 the French and Spanish signed the Treaty of Madrid which reinforced the Franco-Spanish relationship.
As for Portugal itself, the country was divided into three parts as per the Treaty of Madrid. The southern portion, with a northern border on River Tagus, was given to Manuel Godoy who was crowned King of the Algarve, title of the ruler of the area which was known as the Kingdom of Southern Lusitania. His coronation was met with both enthusiasm and relief by Spaniards; they were glad to have him out of their country. Everything north of the River Douro was greedily annexed by Spain while the remaining area was given to Napoleon’s brother Joseph. Appropriately, it was called the Kingdom of Portugal and Joseph was crowned King of Portugal and King Joao VI was declared an imposter. The partition of Portugal further strengthened the relationship between France and Spain. Although there were a few resistance groups in Portugal, most insurrections were ruthlessly crushed with the use of the Armee du Portugal and the newly promoted Marshal Duvot.
World from 1807-1840
Immediate Effects
The Portuguese royal family managed to escape Portugal and sail to Brazil under heavy Royal Navy escort. When Dom Joao VI learned of the conquest and partition of his country he was deeply shaken but declared himself King of Brazil and Portugal. The fact that Brazil came first in the illustrious title mirrored his idea that the regaining of his homeland would be futile especially since most insurrections have been failing miserably. Nevertheless, the very fact that the true Portuguese king lived and reigned inspired many resistance groups to act. Still more Portuguese actually left their homes in Portugal and made the arduous transatlantic journey to Brazil, to settle among loyal Portuguese. Although some hotheads vowed to fight for their mother country, others were content in Brazil. The arrival of the cream of Portuguese society enhanced the power of Brazil on the South American continent and the former aristocracy of Portugal became the ruling class of Brazil.
The defeat of Portugal with the combined forces of France and Spain expelled the British totally from the continent. They thus committed themselves to destroying the trade Spain had with her American holdings and blockading European ports. Rather then seek an honorable peace with Britain, the Spanish and French go about to reorganize their navies and plan on creating a massive new fleet “from the ashes of Trafalgar”. Not that they did not try. On the contrary, Napoleon was very much in want for a peace with Britain so long as they admitted defeat. Britain was by no means defeated and declared they would fight till Europe was rid of the Bonaparte menace.
The Fifth Coalition
The Austrians bravely entered the war with Britain on April 10th, 1809 but the lack of either Russia or Prussia on their side resulted in a disastrous war for Austria. It was shrewd diplomacy and vague monetary promises from the vast vaults of the British Treasury that enticed the Hapsburgs into war; however it was quite unpopular once announced. It is wrong however to say the Austrians were completely drawn into this futile war because of greed. They wanted to avenge the memory of Austerlitz that had haunted the Austrian nation for nearly four years. A series of reforms and improvements in the Austrian army gave the Austrian leaders false hope that a victory would be easy. Strategists for the Austrians noted a number of pros for their side. With the majority of French soldiers at the coastline and elsewhere, the border with Bavaria was quite thin. Certainly the reforms had strengthened the Austrian confidence and they were eager to have another go at the French. Austrians military leaders hoped for a series of quick blows to the French that would culminate in a favorable peace for them. They were quite wrong on a number of counts unfortunately. The short war culminated in the crushing Battle of Wagram in which the Austrian army was nearly wiped out. The Treaty of Schönbrunn was concluded on October 14th 1809 which gave 75 million francs to France as well as much of the Adriatic coastline and various other lands to Bavaria, Warsaw and Russia. It was a total humiliation for the Hapsburgs.
Meanwhile the Netherlands were formally annexed to France in 1810. Napoleon’s displeasure at the way his brother Louis was handling business of state led to the action. Louis in turn retired to his Duchy in Berg and Cleaves while the French Empire greatly increased in size.
In 1810, a marshal of Napoleon, Charles Bernadotte was chosen to be crown prince of Sweden, a position he graciously accepted. He became King Charles XIV in 1818 at the death of his adopted father, Charles XIII. His treatment of Swedish prisoners had made him popular in Sweden and he was elected heir to the Swedish throne, a post he held from 1818-1848.
The Fight against Britain and American Entry
The British blockade of both France and Spain was kept although by this time the British were extremely overstretched. With just Britain left to fight Napoleon turned once again to his navy to vanquish his old foe. A massive new fleet, backed by the millions of francs gained from recent wars, was put on order to be completed by 1813. His plan was just to gain naval superiority in the channel for just a few days at most or at least keep the English out of their channel. Starting in 1809 much more attention was spent on naval affairs and not even secretly. Headed by the capable Denis Decrès the French Navy started to slowly and surely rebuild itself and with little British interference from the blockading British as they were so overstretched. Admiral Decrès also founded the Académie française impériale de la marine in early 1809 with the aim of turning out capable sailors. Previously the lack of capable sailors was what led to the defeat of the French but soon hundreds are applying from across France. For many, the navy appeared to be the “way to go” as it was where the future and glory lay. Certain incentives were handed out toward possible recruits and sailors enjoyed, at least for this period, a higher pay than the average soldier.
British public opinion remained staunchly anti-French with peace “out of the question” for most, despite a growing imperial navy, lack of foreign allies and no British troops on the continent anywhere, save Gibraltar. Under the government of Spencer Perceval the British began to strengthen their shore defenses which have been built and rebuilt time and again with each invasion threat. Perceval’s anti-Catholic bigotry strengthened feelings of Anglophobia across Catholic Europe, most notably in France. His administration saw the Orders of Council drafted to counter the Continental System. These were generally unpopular and led to his assassination by John Bellingham in May, 1812. He was succeeded by Robert Jenkinson, 2nd Earl of Liverpool who was a very capable and all around good man. He mediated the opposing sides and created a coalition government, the first of any kind in Britain, against the new French threat which was quite evident by June 1812. Liverpool’s kind and honest attitude gave the British strength during the invasion scare of 1812-1813.
Across the Atlantic in the halls of the Capitol, the War Hawks were screaming for war against Great Britain for a variety of reasons. Most notably, the impressments of American citizens and the instigation of Indians on the United State’s western border were cause enough for war. Others viewed an American conquest of Canada as glorious and necessary. War was declared on June 1st 1812 and ratified on June 18th.
Napoleon was quick to see the benefits of the American declaration of war on Britain and sent Talleyrand himself to Portugal to negotiate an alliance with the American ambassador there. The Agreement of Lisbon was signed on July 16th 1812 and brought the Americans and French together against Britain. Napoleon was delighted, but the Americans were somewhat reluctant as they saw Napoleon as more of a dictator that suppressed freedom rather than a man fighting for the liberties the United States cherished so highly. Nevertheless, the War Hawks were delighted at the thought of expelling the British from the North American continent and applauded the agreement.
Meanwhile the French fleet had grown tremendously especially with the help of patriotic funds across France which helped pay for many ships. Even though the Continental System was beginning to show a strain on Europe, the funds for the great naval projects were never dried as Napoleon put it at top priority. The Second Imperial Flotilla, numbering some 2,300 ships by mid-1813, was comprised of some original ships from 1803-1804 but most were new. Also by that time a staggering 70 new French warships had been created - yet all remained in French harbors due to a much strengthened British blockade. It was led by the incapable Admiral St Vincent who was nearly eighty years old, former First Lord of the Admiralty, yet still a self-proclaimed hero. This seemed to be the same situation as 1805 except there was no inspiring Nelson, accomplished Cornwallis or sturdy Pitt to guide Britain. In fact the deep debt Britain was in because of the creation of more ships was starting to hurt the economy and several were put on hold. The English had no massive amounts of war booty to help support their navy, rather, irregular convoys from far flung colonies which were increasingly under attack by French and Spanish raiders.
In January 1813 Napoleon appointed Admiral Ganteaume as commander-in-chief of the Grand Imperial Fleet which was supposed to rendezvous at Brest in April of that year. This would include numerous Spanish ships under the command of Admiral Hidalgo de Cismeros who was wounded at Trafalgar. Around 30 French ships and 15 were in ports east of the straits with a further 7 French, 12 Spanish and 4 Portuguese (built in the puppet state under King Joseph) west of the straits on the Atlantic. The remaining 33 French warships were across French Atlantic ports, 23 of them in Brest alone. This gave a total of 101 ships for the Grand Imperial Fleet!
The order of battle of the Combined Fleet on February 10th 1813 -
Mediterranean Fleet
(Admiral Allemand)
Toulon
13 French warships
1 French warship
Marseilles
9 French warships
Cartagena
4 French warships
10 Spanish warships
Other (Italy, etc.)
4 French warships
4 Spanish warships
Iberian Atlantic Fleet
(Admiral Rosily)
Cadiz
5 French warships
3 Spanish warships
El Ferrol/La Coruna
2 French warships
6 Spanish warships
Vigo
3 Spanish warships
4 Portuguese warships
Atlantic Fleet
(Admiral Gourdon)
Brest
23 French warships
Rochefort
10 French warships
February 21st 1813 saw the departure of Allemand’s Mediterranean fleet, with the Toulon and Marseilles squadrons (a total of 23 ships) meeting the next day. Sailing toward Cartagena to meet up with the 14 warships there, they meet head-on into elements British Mediterranean Fleet numbering 15 ships by the Balearics. It was a surprising French victory and they manage to capture one prize as the British fled eastward. The Battle of Minorca becomes the first French naval victory in an extremely long time. Meeting up with the ships in Italy and those at Cartagena, the French Mediterranean Fleet was chased by the somewhat superior British fleet past Gibraltar. A number of inconclusive actions between the two fleets result in the loss of two French ships, but the French manage to sail out of the straits by the 28th of February.
The further blockade of French ports, especially Brest result in the delay in time for them to rendezvous. One particularly bad storm one day blows the British blockade away from Rochefort and the French there are quick to move towards the Iberian Atlantic Fleet, which had been moving north. The entire Iberian Fleet and Rochefort squadron meet on March 11th creating a fleet of 33 ships. The French Mediterranean Fleet attempts to catch up with this new fleet and reaches El Ferrol on March 15th, soon after the Iberian Fleet had left it. In the second time during the campaign, a storm hurts the British blockade and the French slip out of Brest to meet with the Iberian and Rochefort elements after sailing south for a day. On April 3rd the Mediterranean fleet met and combined with the large fleet southwest of Brest, thus creating a massive fleet of 99 ships. Admiral Ganteaume - who was aboard his flagship the Empereur and was part of the original Rochefort squadron - was delighted with the massive fleet and he promptly sailed the fleet toward the British and a great battle.
Within site of the port city of Brest a great battle was fought. Opposing the large French fleet of 99 ships was the British Channel Fleet, comprised primarily of those ships that had blockaded Brest along with a couple dozen more. They numbered 62 ships of the line under the Admiral St Vincent. Behind the French were the 14 ships of the British Mediterranean Fleet in addition to 13 others that tagged along, most from the Atlantic, bringing a total of 27 ships behind the French. However this fleet kept a respectful distance for a number of reasons. One, their commander was afraid the French would turn on their smaller fleet and destroy the two British fleets one by one. Second, they were unable to combine with the Channel fleet because the French were blocking the way.
April 29th, 1813 the Battle of Brest was started and it became the bloodiest and most awful naval battle in the history of man. It lasted nearly 24 hours and not a ship came out unscathed. Despite being extremely outnumbered the British managed to sink 3 French ships and capture 6. However the French were just as successful, sinking 2 and capturing a magnificent 24 ships! Admiral St Vincent was wounded but managed to escape the battle on the HMS Victory. Many British ships were damaged and unable to sail back and an additional 7 were captured. The outstanding numbers of the French fleet and their courage can not be overshadowed by the effort put into place by the Royal Navy who fought gallantly and with awesome skill. The Battle of Brest was the twilight of the British Empire and the end of their supremacy on the seas.
The vanquished Channel Fleet flee back to their ports to make much needed repairs while most sailors are taken off the ships with many cannon to help guard the coastline against the inevitable invasion. The Mediterranean fleet backs away from the massive and victorious French fleet but shadows them. Slowly and surely the French fleet now number 75 - minus losses and prize escort duty - sails into the Channel now almost unopposed. The Second Imperial Flotilla, numbering 2,300 ships, sets sail with their full complement setting their sights on England. Around 200,000 men had waited for the invasion for twenty two months at several mammoth army camps across northern France. It had taken a tremendous effort to feed the men during the waiting tenure and at last they were ready to move. When the time came, these veterans of Austerlitz, Jena, Lisbon, and Wagram boarded their ships and sailed, with great dreams of conquest, to England.
The landings took place in Kent, as anticipated by the Duke of York, commander-in-chief of the British defense forces and second son of King George III. The defenses in Kent were by far the strongest with many squat yet powerful Martello towers hindering any sort of French advance. A withering fire from the French Navy helped demolish some defenses but when the first French troops landed just to the north of Dover on May 1st 1813 they were met by a terrible fire from the strong defenses present there. General Dundas of the Kent military district had 90,000 soldiers at his disposal that day, with 20,000 in the Dover area. For a moment it had seemed like the French would falter, but a push drove the British away from their frontal defenses and within a few hours French troops were pouring into the area including the first artillery batteries. Towards the evening of “the Fateful First” Dundas launched a disorganized counterattack which was an immediate failure as units (the majority being freshly created militia comprised of enthusiastic volunteers) failed to coordinate their efforts and are defeated piecemeal by the newly landed French.
An attempt to land south of Dover early the next day was repulsed due to the heroic efforts of the 50th West Kent Regiment under General James Duff who repulsed three efforts to land in this particular stretch of coastline. However this small victory was quickly overshadowed by growing events north of Dover, as more and more French troops landed. By the end of the second day the French had advanced ten miles inland and Marshal Davout’s entire corps of 65,000 had been landed in an outstanding organizational feat. May 3rd saw the attack on Dover itself take place which fell on the 4th following a costly battle. The third of May also saw Napoleon himself arrive on the island which was a massive propaganda event and a gigantic morale booster. He took command of the invasion from that point.
The fall of Dover provided the French with a nice port to land the remaining troops which soon happened from May 5th - May 15th. Meanwhile light cavalry were making raids as far as Canterbury and on May 6th the 80,000 men present marched north to take that town, as well as nearby Sandwich. The Battle of Canterbury was fought on May 10th and further showed that the new militia was not proving itself to be very worthy in battle. Not at all short of bravery, they were short of skill and organization despite the best efforts of veteran officers. A French victory thoroughly crushed a part of the defenders here resulting in 2,000 British casualties but only 400 French. The British retreated to west of Canterbury and thus gave up all of eastern tip of Kent to the invaders. The French continued to advance westwards toward London and a series of small engagements did not halt the great blue columns of France. Troops from all over Britain were streaming south toward London and a great showdown was inevitable.
By May 15th, approximately 200,000 French soldiers were in Kent with a daily shipment of reserves from France coming into Dover. The French met many setbacks, including a very hostile civilian population and the flooding of the Romney Marshes, although the latter wasn’t as successful as it planned to be. The 200,000-strong army advanced as a solid wall, ravaging the countryside for food and fodder. About 225,000 British soldiers were in the London area at this time under the command of the Duke of York and they set out toward Rochester, with men continuing to arrive in London.
By no coincidence the large French army was moving toward Rochester. Napoleon realizes that without defeating the British in a large-scale battle, he cannot take London and win this war decisively. That battle came on May 23rd - 25th 1813. The British were barring the way to Rochester by setting up just to the southeast of it. Their left flank was the River Thames while their right was given the most attention and commanded by a General Wellesley, who had won brilliant battles in India. The French however attacked the left flank in full force, turning it and causing the numerous militia there to retreat. The British in turn attack the French salient - on the French right - thus drawing considerable numbers from the center and right. Another attack into the center broke through and now both salients joined together to surround some 5,000 British soldiers, who were led back as prisoners of war. The first day of battle ended in French victory. The next day the shattered divisions of the left and center withdrew to create an oblong line with Wellesley’s undamaged divisions to be the anchor and most southern units. The French viciously attack the southern flank at dawn and after three bloody charges start to roll the British line up. The cost in life was horrendous and Wellesley’s orderly retreat nearly turns into a chaotic route. Along the banks of the Thames were the soldiers of Soult’s corps who would be the anvil in the next days attacks. When night came, the cries of the wounded sounded and the piles of dead stacked up. The last day of the battle saw the British utterly surrounded save for Wellesley’s divisions who held out against the French and retreated. Unfortunately they numbered a mere 54,000 by this time and the remainder of the British army was annihilated by the pincers known as Soult and Davout. Napoleon had won his victory at a tremendous cost. Seventeen thousand French and 25,000 British casualties littered the fields near Rochester while a further 20,000 were taken as prisoner, the majority being not-so-enthusiastic militia. The Duke of York’s army was demoralized and beaten and the retreat back toward Greenwich was an unpleasant experience.
When news of this defeat reached Prime Minister Liverpool he was visibly shaken but regained himself and vowed to throw this evil off the isles. Another French victory at Hastings by Marshal Ney’s troops on the 27th was largely symbolic and British morale plummeted. The fighting continued deep into June although no significant battles took place until July 5th when the British launched a large offensive aimed at cutting the French from their supply lines. That offensive failed and the British were repulsed at the Battle of East Kent. During that battle General Wellesley was wounded and had his left leg amputated.
London was reached two weeks later after long and bloody campaigns. The French numbers had dropped to 160,000 but reinforced to 210,000 after reserves came. A bloody battle for the outskirts began, with nearly everyone pitching in to fight. The French could very well have been lost in the meat grinder known as London, but instead Napoleon asked for an “honorable peace” on August 1st. Since the invasion, public opinion had changed from anti-peace to pro-peace. Being alone in the world against the French menace and with Americans threatening Canada the British were in a poor position. Thousands were dying against Napoleon’s large army and Kent was devastated. Prime Minister Liverpool, despite his earlier attitude, showed his mediating side and accepted Napoleon’s offer for an honorable peace.
The war was over.
Delegates traveled to Paris while the large French army maintained its presence in Kent, fighting an occasional skirmish against rowdy soldiers. Finally after a month of deliberating the Treaty of Paris (1813) was signed. Napoleon was master of Europe.
Treaty of Paris and the Canadian War Conclusion
The Treaty of Paris was a humiliation for the British but the desperate situation in which they were in allowed the French to squeeze out as much as they could from the beleaguered nation. The terms included the following:
- The immediate end to all hostilities and the disallowing of a British declaration of war on France for the following thirty-five years.
- A reduction of the British navy and army. The navy would have all ships over 80 guns given to France and Spain as payment, while the army was not allowed to ever surpass 65,000 internationally.
- A monthly report to be sent to the Emperor showing the size, strength and location of all regiments and ships.
- Twenty thousand French troops would be stationed in major cities to keep “seditious activities to an extreme minimum”. This was the most humiliating clause of the treaty but luckily the proposed number of 135,000 was dropped way down. These 20,000 Frenchmen would endure the most miserable service and a high number of suicides would befall these soldiers. A posting to Britain was as good as a death sentence in the eyes of French privates.
- As for land exchange the British lost quite a bit in the Caribbean. Every British holding was given to the French except for Jamaica and Anguilla. Ireland was hotly disputed but after much debate, allowed to remain under British jurisdiction. India stayed under British dominion as well. British Guinea in South America was given to France as well. Some minor posts in Africa were given up and lastly Malta was given French jurisdiction.
- A payment of 100 million francs
The effects were immediate and soon many of the largest British ships soon bearing French flags. By no coincidence, a number of them were burned before being handed over to the French, who, after years of war, could only resignedly accept this. In an act of kindness, Emperor Napoleon allowed the vanquished British to keep the HMS Victory as their own “in honor of my greatest foe”, Nelson. The Armee du Angleterre was established and the 20,000 unfortunate soldiers were sent to their various posts to the spits and anger of the local civilians.
Across the ocean the Canadian and British were fighting their own war and doing a well enough job with it. Several American attempts to invade Canada ended in failure while their own attempts to wage war on American soil met little success. The war was obviously going nowhere so when news of the peace in Europe reached the Americas a separate peace was signed in Toronto on October 24th. However a quick American offensive from Maine into eastern Canada gained a lot of land for the American cause before a cease-fire was declared.
The Peace of Toronto was not nearly as strict as the Treaty of Paris mainly because the latter had already weakened the enemy. The Peace of Toronto merely ended the war and demanded a payment of some $5 million as an indemnity. A land change did take place though when New Brunswick and Nova Scotia were annexed into the United States.
Repercussions
This treaty humiliated the British to a great degree and the general public sought to find a scapegoat for their awful defeat. The scapegoat was found in Lord Liverpool who endured an awful political life after the treaty and resigned soon after. King George III was certifiably insane by this point and so the Prince Regent appointed George Canning as the new Prime Minister and he was brought into office, carrying a banner of anti-French sympathies which would characterize a universal attitude in Britain for many years. Despite the close presence of French troops, Canning’s francophobia helped unite Britain in what could otherwise be a disorderly time. The government and attitude of Britain turned to the right-wing after the war, toward a sort of “revenge” banner while private militia groups sprung up everywhere to get around the army size restriction.
The United States enjoyed great prosperity following the war. They had gained land and great national pride while finding new trade partners in France and their allies. The Federalist Party died its sad death after the ‘victorious’ war against Britain and in the election of 1816, James Monroe ran without any opposition, replacing his highly respected predecessor, James Madison. The nationalism showed during this time boosted American confidence and belittled any sort of slave dispute. It was during his administration that Florida was bargained from Spain who was having a bit of colonial problems of their own at this time. It was bought for $10 million in 1819. Also, American adventurers and brave settlers started to head in the westerly direction into the vast Spanish lands of the west. Some moved past St. Louis, some as far as the Rockies, a handful all the way to Pacific. The Spaniards would later give these same people a hard time, but until 1824 it was an “era of good feelings”.
And as for France, the repercussions were huge. An immediate boom in the economy followed the victory. The income and the treasury of France grew to amazing new heights. Napoleon was the undeniable leader of Europe and for days his victorious armies marched under the newly erected Arc de Triumph. Nationalism in France was colossal French culture and ideas blossomed throughout Europe. Previously, France had been largely agrarian with little industry but with Britain opened up for French to see and wonder, new industrial ideas began to develop within France. Many British entrepreneurs, several of whom cared naught for anything except profit, traveled to France to get their own businesses started there. Obviously, that was where the future lay and where all the money was to be made. Nearly overnight the industrial capacity of France grew and soon factories across France were mass-producing many household items. Clearly, France was entering a Golden Age.
Spanish Colonial Problems
Starting with the British blockade of Spain leading up to their ultimate defeat at Brest, the Spanish ties with their vast colonies in the Americas was strained. An uprising in Paraguay threw out local Spanish officials and soon rumblings for independence were heard all over the vice-royalties. The Spanish under no conditions would allow such a thing to happen and immediately asked Napoleon for help to quell the rebels which were sprouting up all over the Spanish colonies. The victorious Napoleon dispatched Marshal Massena with 60,000 troops to various Spanish colonies. In a series of open battles, he defeated the rebel armies one by one.
On June 18th 1815 the Battle of Caracas took place in which 18,000 French troops took on 30,000 rebels who were led by a man by the name of Simon Bolivar. Sometime during the course of the battle, the rebel leader was killed, bravely leading his men in a battle against tyranny. His army was soundly defeated and the rebellion in the area sputtered out. To the south, a joint Franco-Spanish army defeated the forces of another rebel named Jose de San Martin near Santiago in the hills of the Viceroyalty of Peru. His fate was capture where we died years later in a stinking Spanish prison. This was the fate of many other captured leaders, including Morelos in North America.
All large-scale resistance was crushed by 1817 and the French withdrew, leaving Spain alone. During the American Campaign, the French learned about guerrilla warfare which had to the potential to be awesomely terrible if only the rebels were more numerous. French militarists quickly studied this type of warfare and attempted to figure out able defenses against it.
After the defeat of the various rebellions, the Spaniards graciously thanked the French and gave them large chunks of New Granada. They sent more soldiers to guard against remaining colonies and enforced Spanish law a bit more harshly. Although for a time this caused peace and order to be restored, concealed rifts between the colonials and the peninsulares grew deeper. A renewed interest in their colonies led to the creation of a few groups of progressive Spaniards who favored industrialization in the colonies. Their ideas led to not much avail but nevertheless the idea was planted among the locals.
Spanish-American War
As mentioned, many thousands of Americans moved into the vast lands of Spanish North America which was quite unsettled by any sort of Spanish presence except for a handful of distant outposts and forts as well as a number of far-off missions. With a renewed interest in their colonies, strict Spanish officials combed the area Americans had settled and promptly detained them where these brave individuals were promptly deported back to the American border. The reasoning for this was rather simple. The Americans allegedly were bringing ideas of freedom and liberty and consequently ideas of rebellion into the Spanish colonies, something which was totally unacceptable to the Spaniards. The first of these deportations began in 1822 and were continued until 1824 when the American finally took notice of what was going on.
At this time Monroe was ending his second term but the election of 1824 would prove to cause a split in the Democratic-Republicans. The main issue at this time was of course “The Spanish Question” as the deportation of a few thousand Americans to the frontier became to be known. Henry Clay got his party’s nomination under the awning of war against Spain, or at least very strong measures. John Quincy Adams led faction away from the Democratic-Republicans, who were simply called the Democrats, under a more isolationist and non-interfering approach. Henry Clay swept the south and west and won the election with the majority of electoral votes. His first act was to demand the resettlement of the deported Americans (numbering some 7,000 or so) back to “their proper homes which were built under brave conditions yet so wrongly taken away!”
The Spanish - confident of their military skill because of the wars against the rebels - kindly rejected the offer and moved several fairly large armies into the reaches of their northern territory. They were hoping for a destruction of the American armies and then a possible invasion of Louisiana. The Americans were only hoping for a few Spanish defeats by their small, professional army which would lead to more reasonable diplomatic talks, contrary to Clay’s election words. General Andrew Jackson changed all of that, and changed American history forever.
Henry Clay asked Congress for a declaration of war on Spain and on May 1st Congress voted for war. Immediately General Jackson’s Army of the West was dispatched to defeat any enemy force. General Jackson was a pretty unknown person during this period, but a brave and competent military officer who served valiantly in the Canadian War. His army numbered some 10,000 on paper but probably never surpassed 8,000. American numbers were woefully small to wage a war so far from the populated areas so once again President Clay turned to Congress to ask for 50,000 18 month volunteers. The American Navy was pretty powerful at this time and immediately set out to wreck Spanish trade with their colonies. Spain requested French aide against the Americans but by no means were the French ready to fight any of their former allies. At first the Spanish people welcomed the war as more glory for Spain and King Ferdinand VII was almost declared a saint. As the war progressed however, its popularity and for its main instigator (Ferdinand himself) became less popular.
Jackson’s advance across the west was incredibly remarkable. The first action was merely a skirmish deep in the Rockies but it was a clear American victory and gave the small army great confidence. The summer of 1825 saw this small army makes its way all the way to the Pacific coast by September. The vast wilderness shocked many of the troops, many of whom came from the eastern coast. The site of the Pacific Ocean was mind-boggling for most soldiers, considering how only a few Americans had seen it until this time. During the winter they camped near the missions of San Francisco which were captured in the fairly mild weather that characterized that part of the world. The advance was taken up again and the over-stretched Spanish armies in this area (never really “armies” but more like battalions or companies) were never able to stop the superior Americans. By June they had reached San Diego where a small battle raged but for the most part this remarkable army had been unopposed. Meanwhile other armies had invaded across the Rio Nueces and defeated several Spanish armies there. By September, 1826 the army of “Action Jackson” had finally met up with a large Spanish force under a somewhat obscure soldier named Santa Anna. His army had marched fresh across New Spain to meet this now legendary force who had marched thousands of miles. Santa Anna’s own army numbered close to 20,000. Near the village of Villa de Pitic the two forces clashed. It was in this dusty village that the smaller American force inflicted 4,000 Spanish casualties and captured the same number therefore mauling the enemy to such a degree that he could no longer fight. A further defeat in January of 1827 against a new army at Guayamas, local Spanish leaders ask for a cease-fire in the area and a week later an entire cease-fire is in affect along the entire front. By this time other American armies had taken land all the way to Monterey, destroying every Spanish army thrown at them.
It took another month for President Clay to learn of these developments and another month for Ferdinand VII to sue for peace. The long distances made it impossible to have a sure peace before March of 1827 probably causing needless deaths. France offered to host the peace talks in Martinique and the Treaty of Martinique was signed on March 8th, 1827 thus ending the most successful war in America’s short history. The terms ceded massive amounts of land to the Americans. All Spanish territory on the Pacific coast down to Guayamas (including Baja California) was given up and Monterey became a border town on the Mexican side. The treaty was extremely one-sided but the Spanish could not risk more as they were afraid the Americans would advance even further. This defeat over an old war power gave the United States - barely 50 years old - great prestige in the international community and much more power. As in Europe with Napoleon, the United States was supreme in the Americas. Just overnight they had doubled in size and the vast new territories that were generally empty, save for a few Native Americans and Spanish settlers, beckoned to American settlers.
Utterly humiliated and broken, the Spanish over went a massive military overhaul, spending millions that they simply did not have. New insurrections across the empire were brutally crushed, especially in Paraguay where many thousands of Guarani were massacred quietly. King Ferdinand VII vowed for to hold on to the remaining colonies “at any cost so long as the standing of Spain is preserved.”
Europe: 1820-1840
Europe during this period underwent a period of peace, at least for France and her allies, who reigned supreme in Europe. Russia, although part of the Continental System, was as far away from France as any European nation except the Ottoman Empire. Technically, Russia and France were allies but relationships between both Emperors were quite strained by the 1820s. The death of Alexander I in 1825 and the declining health of Napoleon put contact between Russia and France at a standstill temporarily.
However, Austria had by far the short end of any bargain, being all but a vassal of the French Emperor. A lot of its land has been stripped away during the wars and even the Austrian Emperor’s daughter had been married to the French ruler. Austria was forcibly allied to France, albeit quite reluctantly, and was a part of the Continental System as well.
Prussia was in a weakened state by 1820. The Napoleonic Wars had ruined the country in spite of a fearsome reputation of Prussian soldiers. Like Austria, it was stripped of much of its land - most notably those in Poland, now a French ally/puppet -, was forced into an alliance with France and had adopted the Continental System. People in Prussia particularly resented this set-up but (as in the case of Austria as well) the younger generation was being taught in schools that France was not quite the enemy and that it stood for something good.
As for the rest of Germany, it remained a collection of French dominated states, the most prominent being Saxony, Bavaria and Westphalia. The Confederation of the Rhine loosely bound the numerous states together into one entity but the actual confederation as the states cooperated independently. Really their only thing in common was allegiance to the Emperor of France. To the east the Grand Duchy of Warsaw prospered with help from Napoleon who in 1818 promoted it to the Kingdom of Poland whose first king was none other than Józef Poniatowski, a marshal of France whose loyalty remained with that of Napoleon. He was crowned King Joseph I of Poland on Christmas Day of 1818. With the kingdom came independence from the Confederation of the Rhine of which it was a part of until it became a kingdom. Although reliant on France, the hard-working people were motivated to become self-sufficient.
Italy also remained French dominated. Southern Italy was dominated by the Kingdom of Naples ruled by Murat. The Kingdom of Italy was in fact under direct control of the French crown, with whomever having the title Emperor of France also having the title King of Italy.
On November 20th, 1829 Napoleon I, Emperor of France, died at the age of 60, allegedly of stomach cancer. The man who had forged the modern Europe, the man who had conquered and vanquished all of his foes passed away peacefully in his sleep. His son, Napoleon II, was just 18 years old but he took firm control of the imperial throne and immediately declared a week of mourning for his accomplished father. At his funeral a representative from nearly every country in the world was sent, including Czar Alexander II and Napoleon’s old enemy, the old Francis I of Austria. Napoleon’s son additionally insisted that his father be known as Napoleon the Great which took hold mostly in Europe but most certainly not in Britain. Napoleon II became an immediate popularity across the French Empire. Young, charismatic, ambitious and clever, Napoleon II strove to outdo his father in accomplishments. He was also unmarried and overnight became a favorite with various princesses across Europe. He had the choice of any woman in the world. On a state visit to Prussia in 1830 the Emperor was smitten by the King’s unmarried daughter Princess Luise Augusta who was beautiful, smart, absolutely loyal to him, and three years his senior. The two were married in April of 1832 in a grand ceremony and soon the dashing young couple became the talk of Europe as their grand balls and concerts impressed almost all guests. Napoleon II, already with an Austrian mother, now has a Prussian wife, thus bringing these families into France and strengthening ties with them.
Meanwhile in Britain, the popular George Canning resigned in 1822 due to fatigue and a decline in health. After his resignation John Copley, 1st Baron Lyndhurst, was ushered into the position of prime minister and continued the francophobic policies initiated by Canning despite the presence of French troops in London itself. Copley had no love for the French either and secretly went about supporting “militia clubs” that were comprised of disgruntled ex-soldiers who trained for an eventual expulsion of the French from their land.
Also in 1822, Greek nationalists rose up against their Ottoman overlords with the intent of independence. They had seen ideas of “liberty, fraternity and equality” sweep across Europe and desired it for themselves. It was a time when all of Europe could agree on one thing. At first sympathy poured into the Greek fight as they were steadily defeated by the Ottoman forces. In 1824, mercenaries from all over Europe were joining the Greeks, including Lord Byron of Britain. Even Russia added pressure on the Ottoman border with the ascension of Nicholas I in 1825 to the Russian throne. A combined Anglo-French fleet defeated the Turks at Rhodes in 1828 and the following year the Ottoman Empire was forced to grant Greece its independence. Napoleon, though somewhat sick at the time, managed to maneuver the allies into granting the Greek throne to his young nephew Louis Napoleon, the son of his brother Louis, and he was coroneted King of the Greeks in 1830 as King Louis I.
Besides the death of rulers and the changing of various governments, the 1820s remained quite monotonous and peaceful in Europe. Believe it or not, there were no wars during this decade worth mentioning, perhaps showing that the domination of one particularly strong nation was the way to go. This theory was shattered with the Uprising of 1833. British patriots who resented a French presence their country revolted against the 20,000 Frenchmen there and against the pro-Bonaparte British. They initially met some success mainly because they were centered in rural areas and most troops stationed in the cities. The rebels - numbering only a few thousand - were hoping to gain popular support but really did not gain widespread sympathy from many people. The joint British-French forces sent to quell the rebellion worked in unison but most reluctantly and with a lot of rivalry between the two forces. Towards the winter of 1833 the insurrection was brutally crushed, the leaders rounded up and hanged in front of large, silent crowds. The brutality of its downfall caused a bit of sympathy to come from the common person and in the next election the Britain United and First Party - the main party that supported an ejection of the French and everything French, even more francophobic than George Canning - gained a few seats.
Across the channel, Napoleon II celebrated the birth of his son on April 17th 1833 who was appropriately named Napoleon and declared heir to the Imperial throne. Later the Empress Luise would bear another three children, Louis, Henry and Marie. The news of an heir was greeted with great enthusiasm across the empire and for a week church bells rang and cannons fired the good news. Still, Napoleon II was just 22 and had a full life ahead of him. Vowing to overshadow his father in greatness, Napoleon II drew up plans to spread French hegemony into the Middle East and threaten British India, which had expanded greatly with the help of Indian allies who technically were not part of the British Army. His plans first included Egypt and then the tottering Ottoman Empire and ultimately India. Napoleon was a meticulous man who made sure plans were all in place before acting. He expanded the French army to 320,000 and started to encourage French naval scientists to utilize the new steam engine for military purposes. By the summer of 1840 Napoleon had everything in place for his great campaign which began later that year, despite growing problems from the left at home.
The Egyptian Campaign
Egypt had been free of the French since 1801 but Emperor Napoleon II was intent on finishing up the job his father started forty years before. In 1840 he bid the Mediterranean Fleet with the new Armee du Africa on it with the intention of taking Egypt in the name of France. The command fell to the venerable Marshal Soult who was 71 by this time. He would be in command of a relatively small task force compared to the great wars that had raged the Continent in Napoleon I’s time, numbering nearly 40,000 men. Initial French actions included naval victories against the modernized yet incapable Egyptian navy. Their ships were subject to cannons of a much longer range as well as a handful of new ships equipped with steam engines. The coastal towns of Rosetta and Damietta were quickly taken with a docile enough reaction: the towns had gained much prosperity from France and her European satellites. Mehmet Ali, who had modernized Egypt from a backwards agrarian backwater into a semi-industrial area, was quick to respond with an equally modernized army, ironically trained by some French officers. Alexandria was hotly contested and on December 17th, 1840 the Battle of Alexandria took place resulting in a sound defeat of the Egyptian forces. Undeterred, the Egyptians attacked the advancing French forces at Zagazig. At the First Battle of Zagazig, the Egyptian forces smashed through the French forward guard but were unable to follow through their victory. Soult, smarted from the sting but now doubly determined to crush his foe, boldly moved his army on a roundabout route through the lush Delta to attack the Egyptian army at the Second Battle of Zagazig, fought a week later. The result was amazing: the Egyptian force became completely confused and the French attacked from the flank and the front, soundly defeating the army. If this was not enough, Soult unleashed a storm of cavalry including pro-French Mamelukes, who scattered the Egyptian army and in a miraculous turn of events, captured Mehmet Ali two days after the wild pursuit began.
With their leader in enemy captivity and a thorough defeat in their pocket, Egyptian morale plummeted to new depths. While Soult waited on a response from his Emperor, French forces easily reached the gates of Cairo where they met an extremely determined Egyptian army that was nearly three times the size of the French task force. Daunted yet still elated over his previous victory, Soult made the first moved and attacked the Egyptians on the plains outside of Cairo with the Pyramids of Giza in the distance. The Egyptians were surprised at first but were able to regain a steady control despite the absence of their leader. A series of futile raids of the bravest men were sent out to rescue Ali, but all met their doom in the face of French grenadiers. Marshal Soult pressed onwards and the Egyptians, against the disciplined volleys of fire and the overwhelming sight of the column that snaked its way forward, gave ground easily until eventually a panic ensued. The Battle of Cairo ended with another defeat for the Egyptians in the face of the best armies Europe had to offer. By July of 1841, Egypt was completely in French hands. Mehmet Ali, in captivity, was offered a chance to rule the ancient land as an Imperial Viceroy but he proudly refused, saying “independence or not, there is no middle ground!” Instead, one of his sons, weaker men than himself, was chosen to rule Egypt in the name of the Tricolor and in August of that year was installed as Khedive of Cairo, the position synonymous with ruler of Egypt.
The conquest of Egypt gave Napoleon II his first military and he was about to score his first diplomatic. The Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Abd-ul-Mejid I, looked at the conquest of Egypt with some sort of fear. For too long his empire had been in decline and with a potentially explosive Russia to his north, Mejid was a cautious man. But now with the French to his south and technically in his own sovereign area, Mejid was doubly threatened. Thus he requested a meeting with Napoleon II as soon as possible for some sort of friendly agreement. The Sultan saw France as the lesser of two evils encroaching upon its borders, as well as the stronger and the most glory-covered. The Cyprus Conference took place in September of 1841 and was the first time Napoleon II had stepped off the Continent. The Conference, in effect, comprised of the Sultan, the Emperor, two translators and a great deal of negotiating. By the end of the Conference the following had been settled:
- Egypt, as well as the rest of Ottoman North Africa was to be given to the French Empire in exchange for
- A defensive alliance, as well as a French-sponsored modernization of the armed forces of the Turkish Empire. Specifically, the “defensive” part of the alliance would be directed toward Russia; France would not get involved if the Ottomans were attacked by an Asian or Arab power.
- France would help maintain the Ottoman Empire in Europe.
- Passage through the Ottoman Empire would be granted favorably toward the French.
- Exclusive trading rights with France and her puppet states (to all intents and purposes most of Europe except Britain and Russia).
At the end of the Cyprus Conference, the situation for France was looking extremely favorable. It had gained not only Egypt, but most of North Africa as well as an important ally in the Middle East. Originally, Napoleon II had planned to conquer the Ottoman Empire and divide it into a series of puppet states but when confronted with the economic cost and list of drawbacks, he found this to be a much better policy. Indeed, the Sultan found it excellent as well. It would allow the Ottomans to retain their lands in Europe, it gave them a powerful ally against their traditional enemy and there was a large possibility of renewed economic prosperity for the Empire.
Industrialization
The defeat of Britain in 1813 led to the immediate introduction of France as an industrial power, more or less at the expense of Britain. The war had drained the British economy in both men and materials and the restrictions of the peace made it appear as if the Continent was the new up and coming power. Many British entrepreneur shoved nationalistic pride aside and traveled to France and its puppet states in order to make a potentially huge profit in the immediate postwar boom that followed the French victory. The Continental System, which had worked to some degree during the wars, continued to play a large role in the economy of the continent.
The industrialization of France was certainly quickened by the government of Napoleon I. For one, he was impressed in the methods the British had used and prophetically stated that “soon the world will follow these footsteps”. He provided vast funds for public works including a series of roads and canals which would link the budding industries of France. These funds also contributed to a favorable business environment in France because it provided Continental entrepreneurs with funds to pursue their businesses as well as bolster any promising businesses financial needs. The defeat of Britain put it in a second position in European trade as Napoleon instituted high taxes to keep out the flood of cheap British goods, that, despite having lost the war, continued to be made. Instead the British were forced to trade overseas and did so excellently in many parts of the world, especially Brazil. However because of this, the woolen industries of France and Belgium as well as the textile industries of Silesia and along the Rhine were greatly bolstered and soon changes began to take place in these industries as modernization became more eminent. Many Continental industries were focused on heavy industry although textiles were still quite an important asset to traditionally textile-centered Flanders.
The introduction of the steam engine into France following Britain’s defeat greatly altered the means of production. Suddenly, a never tiring machine could do much of the work and by 1830 many Continental industries depended on steam for power. The British and French were soon working on steam engines and ultimately the railroad. By 1840, about 2,000 miles of track crisscrossed Britain and about 1,800 miles in France, although the latter was significantly expanding. The majority of these were located in Belgium who, with its scarce water and large amounts of coal, was able to exploit the steam engine to a large degree. This area of the French Empire soon became a leading center of railroad building and engineering.
The introduction of steel into the market in the mid-nineteenth century only helped the further progress of the industries across Europe. Britain was still very much stuck in the early nineteenth century and adaptation to the new steel-based system was difficult. Indeed the same could be said about France but the size of the Empire allowed for more changes to take place. Nevertheless, Britain was sadly not the leader in industrialization by 1850 as the Continent combined soon took over Britain in terms of industry.
The rapid growth of industries that characterized the postwar era had even bigger consequences on the social scene as compared to the economic scene. Previously, the vast majority of the population of Europe was agrarian, as it had been for all of time. The sudden appearance of factories across the land suddenly paved the way for new job opportunities for small farmers barely pulling through as well as various levels of urban poor. Soon this new industrial working class was being crowded into cities that housed many factories. In Napoleonic Europe, however, the government structure and roots of the system were fairly quick to note the problems associated with the living conditions of the relatively few crowded industrial cities and in the 1840s, in the wake of the Egyptian campaign, Napoleon II passed a series of sweeping urban and working reforms that instituted regular working hours, child labor laws and a basic welfare system. These were steps unheard of before and for once, in the world of industry, it was France who took the lead and before long the British Parliament was passing their own labor laws. Previously they had been so preoccupied with retaining their position as the preeminent industrial power that they had neglected the cries for urban and labor reform. Now, seeing the success of the French programs, Britain passed their own laws. A bitter working class was avoided and the meritocracy that characterized Napoleonic Europe kept the social classes in motion. Class struggle was thus thwarted in the Western Continental Europe.
The rapid industrialization following the wars eventually led to a demand by France for access to raw materials and thus colonies. French business leaders had seen how successful British industry was thanks in part to the vast market it commanded. Although allied with Spain, a premier colonial power, the archaic methods the Spanish used were not cutting it for many Continental moneymakers. Obviously France would need some of her own colonies.
Imperialism: Rise and Fall
The rise and fall of various empires throughout the nineteenth century can be seen most definitely in the overseas imperialism that took hold among European countries following the wars in the early part of the century. The Industrial Revolution on the continent produced a demand for overseas possessions, while the British continued to vie for supremacy.
In 1813, the British were still the premier colonial power in the world despite losing all influence on the continent and losing their precious American colonies thirty years prior. Even the loss of many Caribbean islands to France did not deter Great Britain from becoming a great colonial power. The constraints put on Britain in the Treaty of Paris did not stop them from expanding in India. Although the official number of the international British Army was limited to 65,000, there was little enforcing of this rule. In fact, there was probably more than 65,000 on the British Isles alone. Nevertheless, the British were quick to use non-governmental forces, such as those of the British East India Company in helping to conquer India and by the mid 1840s, India was in firm British control. The mentioned company blossomed after the postwar slump. More companies were formed including the British East Indies Company and the British Southeastern Asia Company. The former of these had taken effective control over the former Dutch East Indies that had been seized by the British in the aftermath of the annexation of the Netherlands by Napoleon in 1810. The British were allowed to keep them after 1813 in exchange for numerous islands in the Caribbean. New interest was taken in Australia and imperialist eyes looked hungrily toward Burma and Afghanistan as further extensions of the already large British presence in Asia.
This presence was extended even further east into China and ultimately Japan. By no means were the British desiring to conquer or subdue the vast Chinese Empire, but through a series of unfair treaties coupled with a potent military presence in South Asia, they gained a powerful economic foothold in China. They established themselves on Hong Kong but actual British nationals were limited to a few areas because of the Chinese fear of considerable foreign influence upon the people. Japan too came under a limited degree of British influence. In 1849 a group of ships under the command of Baron Edmund Lyons sailed into Tokyo Bay, some of which had their hulls painted black. At Tokyo, then called Edo, the representatives of the shogunate told Lyons to head toward Nagasaki, but he refused, demanding trade rights with the isolationist Japan. Since the Japanese had long since shunned modern technology, the ships under the command of Lyons could have caused great damage and the Japanese could only accept. The Convention of Kanegawa was signed in 1850 after a second visit to Japan by Lyons accompanied by a larger ship and it granted the British exclusive trade rights in a number of Japanese ports. In a couple more years the Anglo-Japanese Friendship Treaty was signed by Admiral Sir James Stirling and soon after France, Russia and the United States would follow Britain suit in establishing trade with Japan.
By the 1840s, the French had made their arrival on the colonial scene. At first their colonial exploits were limited to North Africa. In actuality, the Mediterranean Sea was a Bonaparte lake, or at least large portions of it dominated by members of the Bonaparte family. Only the Ottoman Empire and Spain were non-French vassals, though they were allied to France. Following the Cyprus Conference, the French gained control of most of North Africa, except for Morocco. Overseas, they expanded as well. Seeing the large British expansion in Asia, Napoleon II called for a piece of the East as well. In 1842, the first expedition in Indochina was launched and established various trading and military posts. Obviously, the French planned to take the area and the Confucian isolationists that ruled the area were firmly against this. It didn't take long for a series of cajoles, manipulations, assassinations and offensives to take care of this and by the 1860s, much of Indochina was under French control. At about the same time the British had advanced from India. In order to secure a buffer between the two colonial powers, Siam was effectively created to balance the forces in southeastern Asia.
In 1861, Napoleon II convinced the Spanish king to sell the Philippines to France for the exorbitant price of some one hundred twenty million francs. But the Spanish at the time were going through a rough era and desperately needed the money to retain control over the troublesome American colonies which were slowly deteriorating as nationalist movements sprang up in all of the colonies. In part, this was due to the independent Brazil, though really a "Portugal-in-exile" that sent out eager young men to stir up trouble among the Spanish colonies. This was not hard to do as the vast majority of people living in the Spanish colonies continued to live in abhorrent conditions that benefited the minority rich, mainly peninsulares. Although the Spanish would retain control of the vast areas for another decade, it became increasingly harder to control and improvement was far from reach. In fact, in Spain itself, there grew an increasing group of progressive-minded politicians who pressured for Spain to rid those colonies or else go bankrupt.
Portugal too was overcome with the imperialist fervor that was set in motion by the British and French. In 1807, when the Portuguese royal family established themselves in Brazil, their colonies in Africa and Asia remained loyal to Joao VI, not the Bonaparte usurper. The Portugal in Europe under the rule of Joseph Bonaparte was intent on getting some colonies as well, more for national prestige than anything. So too were the Southern Lusitanians, a small and highly backwards nation under the rule of the corrupt and inefficient King Manuel I, ex-prime minister of Spain Manuel Godoy. In effect, it was really the Portuguese who did the first post-war imperializing in Africa. Joseph I of Portugal sent an expedition to Africa in 1820 and before long an outpost was established on the Volta River. The Kingdom of Southern Lusitania was less successful and all of their attempts at imperialism ended in failure because of a lack of funds, motivation or a plethora of bad luck.
Perhaps it was this interest in Africa that led Britain to start looking at the Dark Continent above the southern tip. Sensing a potential economic source for their burgeoning overseas empire, the British established a handful of scattered colonies in West Africa and on Zanzibar in the 1840s. The French were quick to follow. Such was the pattern for the imperialism of Africa which was equally divided among European powers between the 1840s and the 1880s. Many Continental powers too got a small piece of Africa, including untraditional colonial powers: Greece, Naples, even the German states of Prussia and Westphalia. Africa by the turn of century was effectively in the hand of Europeans, only Ethiopia remained independent of any European nation. Economic demands, including the increased demands for raw material and new markets, were a deciding factor in the "scramble for Africa". National prestige and racism played large roles in the imperialism of the nineteenth century as well. Small countries such as Greece and Naples wanted to be promoted to first rate powers and thought by gaining colonies they would be able to achieve this. Larger countries such as Britain and France participated in the imperialist tendencies for many reasons not least of all being national prestige, but also because the other was doing it and it became necessary to imitate in order to curb the growing power of each. Also, the view that the Europeans were civilizing the technologically deprived peoples of Asia and Africa - "barbarians and savages" - played a large moral role among imperialists. In short, by year 1900, the world was largely European dominated.
Europe: 1840-1860
The years from 1840-1860 were years of peace and prosperity for nearly all of Europe. Britain too was starting to recover greatly from its losses against the first Napoleon and thanks to its colonies the British economy was soaring to above pre-war levels. The war was already thirty years off and the bitter feelings were being shed by a younger generation that looked forward, not backwards. This too could be said about France; as the veterans of the great wars slowly passed, so did their ideals. The Revolution of 1789 was getting further and further away and a new generation of people began to see the world differently.
Technologically speaking the world was changing. In Europe and the northern United States, the steam engine was quickly becoming a useful tool, replacing the traditional energy power used by men and horses. Railroads were starting to crisscross France and Germany and a domestic infrastructure improvement plan implemented by Napoleon II was starting to take practical form. Roads, canals, shipyards, modern ports and other devices of the age popped up across the French Empire. Probably a more unusual invention being looked at during this age was the balloon, which had made a debut in France in 1783. For once it was being thought of as an actual means of transportation, not just an oddity or observation unit in the military. Another important advance was the invention of the telegraph, allowing messages to be sent across an entire continent in a few seconds. The Paris-New York line was laid in 1845, the New-York-London line a year later and by 1850 all the major cities of Europe, the United States and Brazil were connected.
Britain during this time underwent some major changes. Included among them was their rapid overseas expansion, motivated by their expulsion from the continent. For a time after their defeat, British politics turned staunchly conservative with a focus upon foreign policy and revenge. Prime Ministers such as George Canning and Lyndhurst took a very anti-French stance, making a motion to expel the French troops on English soil at every possible moment. The ascension of Queen Charlotte after the death of her decadent father ushered in a new age of British politics: one of compromise and cooperation rather than militaristic revenge. Obviously the latter was not working as shown by the second term of Lyndhurst, as the new French Emperor could not be persuaded to withdraw his troops. Hence, the British resorted to militaristic jingoistic policies overseas and one of cooperation in Europe. This was evident in Peel’s tenure as he laid the groundwork for Anglo-French rapprochements to come in later years. But despite all of this good feeling ushered in by Queen Charlotte and more liberal statesmen, there still remained a deep ill-feeling toward the French in the common British citizen. There were demonstrations at every French barrack in London on every possible anniversary: the signing of the Treaty of Paris, the Battle of Brest or Battle of Rochester, the birthday of George III, etc. Every year a petition with some million signatures was sent to Napoleon II but these were ignored until 1852. It was in this year that a demonstration turned violent. French troops foolishly fired upon peaceful British marchers in London, killing seven, and within a couple hours the city was seething with rage. With strict orders to not fire again, guards at the French barracks could only flee into the safety of the buildings. It appeared as if they would be overrun by the angry London mobs but only cooler heads in the form of the Earl of Derby and other parliamentary leaders stopped it. The St. Alban’s Street Massacre, as it was to be known, was to the final straw for many. The new king, George V, had grown up in a francophobic environment and thus hated the French deeply. He called for the immediate removal of all French soldiers from British soil. Napoleon II had long tried to stall this as it would be a shame to the name Napoleon and France in general. But seeing the writing the wall, he withdrew the French troops later that year, the first time Britain had been free of French occupation in forty years. Rather than be grateful, many Britons were unhappy with the soft way the Earl of Derby had dealt with the French and the next year ushered in Lord Palmerston for his second term of office. Great Britain had swung back and forth between reconciliation and francophobic tendencies since the end of hostilities over forty years prior and it would continue to do so in the future. Nevertheless, Britain prospered and by 1860 was again a potential threat to France.
France meanwhile had become a bastion of culture and civilization. Napoleon II, with all of his bombast and words, had indeed taken Egypt in a few short months and wrested away North Africa from the rule of Constantinople. His popularity was comparable to that of his father in 1813. Plans for a canal to link the Mediterranean to the Red Sea were put into action in 1850 and the Canal Majestueux à Est was completed in 1852, thereby extending French influence to new places. British India was potentially threatened and great faith had to be put into the Cape Town colonies. Napoleon’s plans to reach the riches of India included expansion into Arabia and Persia. The Ottomans were already allied to the French and in 1855, the French made a series of treaties with the tribes on the Arabian peninsula with the purpose of uniting them, and uniting them with a pro-French ruler in place.
Russia too expanded between these years and like the western powers, they expanded east. The death of Nicholas I brought Alexander II to the throne, who, as compared to his father was rather liberal-minded. Accordingly, he “liberated” the serfs of Russia in 1861 though in reality they were still tied to the land as ever. Russia remained large, backwards and autocratic. The Industrial Revolution had yet to kick in, though Alexander II encouraged industrial growth in order to match up to the rest of Europe. Under Nicholas, Russian foreign policies still looked greedily toward Constantinople and the Straits. Alexander II too looked wistfully toward the coveted land, but realized that if he were ever to take those lands from the sagging Ottomans, his country would have to be ready. Russia was in fact the only Continental power not under the close influence of Napoleon II. It was officially a French ally as said by the Treaty of Tilsit back in 1807, but they had drifted apart in recent years. Britain looked with interest at Russia as a possible ally if anything were to come up.
Austria was landlocked but still hanging on despite the homogenous population that threatened to tear it apart. Westphalia, under the guiding hand of the old Jerome I, the last surviving brother of Napoleon the Great, managed to absorb the nearby minor principalities thereby expanding the size and prestige of Westphalia. The Germanic Confederation was hardly a confederation and was merely a geographic landmark, nothing more. Its Congress possessed no power or esteem. In Spain, the monarchs insisted on hanging on to the American colonies but at increasing cost. Millions of pesos were poured into keeping the land but the price became too much. A change was needed in Spain but it was not to come until the 1880s. Italy remained a French puppet and Naples more or less the same. The Balkans remained under the autocratic rule of the Ottoman Empire which was now propped up by Napoleon II.
First Prussian-Polish War
The rest of Europe experienced a rather bland time except for one instance. Prussia and Austria were merely second-rate powers, the former hardly being above a typical German princedom. Nevertheless in one of the few wars fought between 1813 to 1900, Prussia launched an attack on the Kingdom of Poland in 1848 with the intent of gobbling up some lost territory. The Polish king was a son of the first king, Joseph I, and was aptly named Joseph II. He was new to the throne but had been to the Military Academy in Paris. He was quick to personally lead his troops into battle and in fact did so in the first battle of the war, the Battle of Mlava, fought on the plains outside of the border town. The long-stagnant Prussian army managed to pull off a victory after a series of futile charges by the brave Polish hussars. It nearly took the entire royal staff from keeping King Joseph from leading the charges and as the Poles retreated, it is said that Joseph blamed the loss on the lack of his own personal participation.
Just two weeks later the Poles and the Prussians met again, this time at Modlin. Joseph insisted on personally leading the troops though when he did, he fell to an unlucky shot. The Polish forces disintegrated without the royal leadership necessary. At this point Napoleon II felt it was necessary to step in to keep the Polish state from total defeat. He threatened to war with Prussia if they did not stop hostilities immediately and Frederick William IV was forced to stop the war against Poland. This created such a resentment in Prussia against the Bonapartes and the Poles, that it actually took the returning Prussian army to keep the peace in Berlin due to so many anti-French demonstrations. The First Prussian-Polish War sowed the seeds for odium in eastern Europe.
The United States: 1840-1900
Road to Civil War
The massive new tracts of land gained by the victory in the Spanish-American War at first seemed to belittle the conflict of slavery. President Henry Clay left office with a crown of laurels, the “man who won the west”, the “father of half of the United States.” In his place came John C. Calhoun who, as vice president the Clay administration, was responsible for much of the improvement that followed the United States after its great victory. In the election of 1832, John Quincy Adams was again defeated and Calhoun took up the burdens of office in March of 1833. His victory was not based upon any new ideas and his stance on slavery was a distant second as compared to his recent actions in bringing glory to the new American state. However, as a Southerner and fierce advocate of slavery, many were soon alarmed as President Calhoun began pressing for slavery to be allowed in all of the new territories.
Currently, the vast tracts of land out west were home to very few settlers and the majority population was Native American. Before long, however, promises of the richness of the immeasurable new plots of virgin forests and lush soil attracted settlers from all over the world. In Europe, oppressed people such as the Irish and even a few disgruntled members of the ancien regime made the journey to the American west where they were met with an incomparable spectacle. People from Western Europe made the trip across the Atlantic starting in the late 1820s and by the 1830s, it was a full stream of people. Meanwhile, statesmen grew concerned over the rapid influx of people. It would not be incorrect to say that the 1830s saw a rampant rise of racism in the United States. The new lands were divided into territories and once each territory had a large enough population and had drawn their own constitution, they could apply for statehood.
One of these particular territories was the Indian Territory, as designated by an 1835 act of Congress that set aside large amounts of land in the south-central part of the country, between the Red, Arkansas, and Rio Grande Rivers, to all Indians east of the Mississippi that were to be moved there by 1837. The policy was met with a more or less a universal applause as most Americans saw it as their destiny to rule all the way to the Pacific; the natives were just getting in the way.
But with all this new territory came the argument over slavery. Should the new states be admitted as free or slave states? Should they choose for themselves? For pro-slavery politicians, it seemed necessary to have an equal number of slave and free states or else the Senate (with two senators from each state) with a free majority will overturn slavery. All Northern states had abolished slavery by 1804 and even the Northwest Ordinances of 1787 stated slavery was illegal above the Ohio River. A compromise was made in 1820: a slave state would only be admitted if a free state was to be admitted as well. This became known as the Missouri Compromise after Missouri and Maine came in as slave and free respectively. After 1827, the Missouri Compromise was put onto a much larger scale.
UNFINISHED
Europe: 1860-1900
The forty years until the turn of the century was characterized by the passing of the old generation and the arrival of a new. The veterans and statesmen that had fought the great wars under Napoleon the Great had passed and their children were getting old. A new generation brought up in the postwar world had grown up and now took the reigns of control from the forefathers. This new generation was less suspicious toward change and looked forward, toward a new era. That was where they split in outlook. Some looked forward to a period of peace and cooperation. Others looked toward a world in which their own nation would dominate all others. Writers such as Joseph d’Laginy who wrote The French Nation and Henri Chambord and his Paris is the Center of the World helped inspire young Frenchmen toward a nationalist viewpoint. Probably one of the most notorious was Georges Boulounger who wrote Importance de Offence, a book that advocated such extreme nationalism that it bordered on the racist. Nevertheless the Empire supported such works because it enthused the populace toward a pro-French upbringing. Britain and Russia too had their own nationalist works published, probably in response to the French books. Howard Langston’s Britannia was not only a defense of imperialism but also a call to arms for a return to British influence on the continent. It was an instant bestseller and the conservative George V was quick to give Langston top honors. Alexander Kelevosky also riled many literate Russian people, mainly of the upper and middle class, with his novels about war and the glories of it. Accordingly, most of them took place before the Napoleonic Wars, as Russia was not exactly a big winner in them. A series of events also led to the rise of nationalism in the European nations. For Britain, it was the expulsion of the French from the Isles as well as the rapid expansion of their empire that led to patriotism. In France, the victories abroad as well as the continued domination of the Continent helped inspire a flag-waving fervor.
The Spanish Revolution
Amidst all this nationalism, Spain experienced a serious decline as a world power. Ever since the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it had never recovered from the expenditures accumulated from retaining a tight grip over their vast colonies in the Americas. Although they did succeed in retaining those vast amounts of lands, they did so at a tremendous cost. Thousands of Spaniards were recruited everywhere to serve on colonial duty. They would, as soon as they turned 18, be sent to a few weeks of training, armed with an old style rifle, board an old style schooner and make the long trip to the Western Hemisphere where they would serve with some garrison at a desolate colonial outpost amidst an increasingly hostile populace. Although the Spanish had become experts of sorts on guerrilla warfare because of their exploits in the late 1810s in the Americas, they had neither the manpower nor the funds to battle the escalating number of anti-Spanish rebels. In Central America an ex-priest by the name of Pablo Aranjuez fought against Spanish authorities there. Motivated by the burning of his church by the Spanish, he formed a guerrilla army in the 1860s of a few dozen misfits. By 1875 it had grown to over 3,000. In the Viceroyalty of New Grenada, two brothers, Francisco and Juan Solano, battled with a larger army against a larger Spanish force. And in the far south, Bartolome Mitre, fought against the Viceroyalty of Rio de la Plata in order to free the people down there from Spanish rule.
The 1870s, for Spain, was a time of troubles. The amount of money spent upon retaining the colonies drained the Spanish treasury which was already almost always empty because of the profitless economy of Spain. The pride of the royal family and the aristocracy allowed for nothing to be done. Only a few saw what was to come. The disparity between the rich and poor, already very pronounced, grew even larger during this time. Aristocratic boys would not have to serve in the army, or if they did, would get easy jobs as officers in relatively safe cities like Mexico City and Buenos Aires. The deteriorating condition was not seen by Alfonso XIII who lived in somewhat of a dream world of Spanish glory. He was convinced that if Spain was to remain prestigious in international eyes, the colonies must be retained. In 1878 the first of many protests occurred in Madrid. Eventually it would sputter out because of the very unresponsive nature of the government, but precedence had been set. The following year, in September, a much larger protest marched down the streets of Madrid. In response, Alfonso XIII ordered that “no demonstrations of more than four people may be permitted within the city limits of the capital.” The people were highly angry but cooler heads prevailed and they moved to the outskirts of the city where they set up themselves in much the same a siege would be set up. Later in the month, the king agreed to their demands as long as they went home. The demonstrators did but less than a week later but Alfonso reneged on his word. The people were utterly livid and all over Spain there were riots. Obviously the situation in Spain was spiraling downhill quickly.
On March 6th 1880, Napoleon II passed away in Paris after an illustrious reign that spanned over half a century of rule. He had expanded France all over the world and had created a great empire. At the same time he instituted reforms when they were needed and helped usher in the Industrial Revolution into France. His passing was met with sorrowful mourning throughout France and his son, the forty-seven year old Prince Imperial, was crowned Emperor Napoleon III in a glorious ceremony on March 14th . However the first months of his reign would immediately test him on both foreign and domestic policy.
In Spain, the situation had gotten worse. The annihilation of an entire garrison in Peru had been the last straw for many. Although the government had tried to censor the news, it had gotten out anyway through underground newspapers and on April 17th 1880, the people of Spain revolted against King Alfonso XIII. The revolts were not just limited to Madrid, this time they spread all across the nation in a surprisingly organized effort. Traditionally conservative elements of society such as the clergy and even a few aristocrats urged the rebels on, tired too of the corrupt government. Alfonso XIII was reported to have been exceedingly surprised and that he dismissed the revolts initially as another “silly little parade of radicals.” When he ordered the military and police to put down the restive crowds, many soldiers and policemen in fact joined the protesters. On April 20th the royal palace in Madrid itself was attacked and Alfonso barely got out with his life. The demonstrators in Madrid declared a Republic of Spain.
At this point, Napoleon III, barely on the throne, could not hope to see his close ally to the south become turn to a radical form of government. Realizing that sending French troops would actually hurt his monarchist cause, he instead urged Alfonso XIII to abdicate at once in favor of a distant nephew, a much more liberal man. On April 24th, Alfonso abdicated the Spanish throne in favor of his nephew who became Charles V. Immediately Charles set out from his country home toward Madrid but en route was set upon by rebels. He wittily tricked his way out of near death but the experience sent a shock of reality into him. April 26th saw the issuing of Declaration of the Rights of Spain by Charles V. This declaration called for an immediate stop to insurrections against Spain, the formation of a legitimate constitutional monarchy, ministerial responsibility to go to the Spanish representative body, the Cortes, the creation of universal male suffrage, the right to tax all classes of society, and a plan to withdraw from the colonies as soon as possible. The Declaration of the Rights of Spain appealed to many groups except those Madrid demonstrators that had set up a Republic. Throughout the rest of April and May, supported of Charles V battled against the Republicans in Madrid. It was largely contained to Madrid because as many elsewhere heard about the Declaration, they declared victory and went home.
The first elections were held in July and showed a split between conservative, moderate and liberal elements. However all elements could agree on a withdrawal from their colonies but the debate was on when. Some argued that in order to do so, a definite plan and dates must be set so that the suddenly independent colonies would not be left without a “parent”. Finally, in December it was agreed that withdrawal would begin the next month and official independence would be granted in January of 1882. The vast colonial holdings in the New World would be split up as follows: from the Isthmus of Panama to the Usumacinta River in Central America would become the Republic of Central America. From there on up to the United States would become the Republic of Mexico. In South America, the southern portion of the empire would become the Republic of Argentina. The Empire of Brazil also offered to pay millions of dollars for former Spanish land, an offer Spain could not refuse. The ex-Viceroyalty of New Grenada became the Republic of Grán Colombia while the rest would become the Republic of Peru. The last Spanish Viceroys saluted the Spanish flag in January of 1882 and by the end of the month, the remaining Spanish colonies in the Western Hemisphere were merely the islands of Cuba and Puerto Rico. Latin America was free.
Consequences of the Spanish Revolution
Meanwhile, the idea of freedom and the liberal government that had been desperately put into play in Spain had appealed to many. In many countries, there were numerous demonstrations and even a few bouts of violence. The short-lived Republic of Spain had inspired many that perhaps that was an ideal form of government. Some radicals harkened back to the short-lived French Republic but dreams of utopia were almost always shattered with the chaotic days of the Reign of Terror. Indeed, their lives were not particularly hard under the Bonaparte emperors. The economic and social reforms under Napoleon II had created a society in which class struggle was not a very realistic war cry. The meritocracy first inaugurated by Napoleon I continued to inspire new generations to work hard because the way to the top of society was not limited. If there were any problems in Europe, they would not occur in France. There were few demonstrations in France based on corruption and a discontent of the government following the Spanish Revolution. But there were a few in other countries.
In Naples, for example, the secure conservative monarchy there was threatened in 1882 when inspired marchers to the Neapolitan streets to demand civil liberties and the creation of a representative body with power. The old king Charles I gave into the demands of the marchers, wisely seeing into the future and his descendents upheld the reforms. More demonstrations occurred throughout Eastern Europe as well, except in autocratic Russia where things of that nature were strictly prohibited. Liberals everywhere managed to eek out some reforms from the governments on the Continent.
But the Spanish Revolution also had consequences that would bring about nastier results. One of these was nationalism. As mentioned, nationalism among the larger powers was very strong during this period. But for displaced peoples such as the Germans who were split amongst many smaller states and among three larger ones – Prussia, Austria and Westphalia (a growing German power that outclassed other petty kingdoms like Bavaria and Württemberg) – and minorities in the Austrian Empire, the nationalism displayed by the Great Powers was merely a taunt to them. In the 1860s and 1870s, there was a distinct rise in nationalism in Germany and among the Slavs in southeastern Europe. This was not so in Italy, a sectionalist peninsula who had been so divided for so long that thoughts of nationalism were dismissed by the majority of the populace who were content under French autonomy in the Kingdom of Italy or the Kingdom of Naples. Nevertheless, German and Slavic nationalism would play a large role in years to come.
German Nationalism
In 1882, Germany was split among many states loosely bound into the Germanic Confederation, a confederation that actually carried little to no power. After the Spanish gave independence to their colonies in the Americas, many Germans wondered why they could not get a unified homeland of their own. In Erich Brautisch’s Germany Awake! he poses the question “if a group of ragtag rebels and savage natives can achieve freedom for themselves, I am not alone in asking why cannot the mightiest of all peoples, the Germanics, do the same for themselves?” His question was answered by many and with the publication of his book, a fire had been lit under the weak fire of German nationalism.
In 1885 a delegation of voluntary representatives from all over Germany met in Frankfurt to form a national German government. It was a disaster. The Frankfurt Convention (or as cartoonists liked to say, the Frankfurt Cantvention) was plagued by disagreement and petty squabbles from the hundreds of delegates present. There was no proportion of delegates according to the size and status of a state; there were more delegates from Hesse than from Prussia. Westphalia dominated the Convention, saying that unification was out of the question because the great powers would never allow. They were right to some degree. In France, Napoleon III frowned upon the Frankfurt Convention, realizing that the sudden appearance of a German nation would disrupt the French dominated balance of power on the continent. In a telegram, he warned Joseph I of Westphalia, a relative of his, which “any more charades like this may lead to terrible trouble.” Joseph was somewhat angered by this and he was openly annoyed at the interference of Napoleon. It did not take long for Napoleon to remind Joseph that if it were not for the French, and specifically his own great-uncle, he would not be in the position he was. Peeved, Joseph relented to Napoleon.
Nevertheless, in 1886 a Second Frankfurt Convention was called on without the consent of Joseph. It was declared illegal by the Westphalian king under pressure from his French cousin and the Convention moved promptly to Saxony where it enjoyed a successful meeting. They argued over a number of topics. Firstly, they argued that if Germany were to be a united state, who would be the dominant power, if any? Prussia, Austria and Westphalia were all strong powers in Germany that seemed likely candidates. The conclusion they came to was that no power would dominate. The Convention also argued over the issue of unification itself. Military or diplomatic? They came to the conclusion that diplomatic was the best because they had no army. When one delegate asked “how?” there was no reply. Apparently their ideas still needed to be ironed out.
The Spanish Revolution of 1880 did not have a major effect on the German states as the majority of them enjoyed reformed systems of government, a degree of civil liberties and a minimal extent of class struggle. The industrial reforms of Napoleon II had spread to French dominated parts of Germany while Austria hardly needed them because of the lack of industry. Meanwhile Prussia under the old William I was the center of a battle between liberal and conservative forces. The former pressed for changes quickly, the latter did not want changes at all. Prussia was not much of an industrialized nation but the Junker class still enjoyed a large control over the peasant class. In Prussia and Russia of all places in Europe, a class difference was large pronounced. This boiled over in 1882 when a wave of revolutionary fervor swept over Prussia but the innate Prussian conservatism and militarism led to that wave being short-lived and relatively limited. However, William was not willing to risk another uprising on a larger scale and granted larger measures of reforms and liberties to Prussians. Still, it ranked as a conservative state and the rise in German nationalism later in the decade prompted an escalation of Prussian leaders looking toward Prussia as a natural German leader.
But these Prussian leaders would be in conflict with others who looked toward a unification of Germany as well. The Third Frankfurt Convention met in 1892 to try and set up a national German government again. Also, in 1891 Joseph I of Westphalia died and was succeeded by his son Jerome, who became Jerome II. Jerome II was an ambitious and young man, one who looked at Westphalia as a place where much improvement and glory could stem from. He immediately set out to expand the power of Westphalia, actually incorporating smaller principalities into Westphalia through agreement, never through military ventures. He contributed to the making of an actual Westphalian identity. Indeed the dying out of the generation of people who were around when Westphalia was not the independent nation it currently was contributed to the gain of actual Westphalian nationalism. By 1900, Westphalia was probably the premier German power, out shadowing Prussia, Austria and other German states due to its successful industrialization and independent leaders who were not tied down by tradition. Jerome II himself said, “we are not following tradition, we are making it” after a controversial decision, a statement that summed up what many Westphalians felt about their growing state.
Balkan Nationalism
As Germany experienced an expansion of nationalism, the Balkan Peninsula did as well. A number of factors contributed to this. Firstly, the area has been dominated by the Ottoman Empire for many hundreds of years. Their constant occupation of the area included no shortage of brutalities and insulting acts were the cause of some extent of misery in the Balkans. The subject Slavs were by no means treated on first class terms by the Ottomans. It was still large a medieval world, with little to no industrialization, few railroads, a large influence by various churches and mosques, a majority of people still tied to the land and an oppression of certain minorities. After the Napoleonic Wars, the ideas of the revolution were slow to reach the Balkans. The ruling Ottomans had done their best to contain any sort of nationalism in the Balkans, a task they got more difficult by the year. Leaders of a Montenegrin independence group, for example, had been publicly beheaded in 1847; an event the Ottomans hoped would quell any ideas of rebellion. On the contrary, it inspired many Balkan citizens to act and the latter half of the nineteenth century saw hundreds of acts against the Ottomans from sabotage to assassination. Many Balkan citizens traveled abroad, journeying to Britain and France and getting a taste of what freedom should be like for the first time in their lives.
Russia, a Slavic nation, was sympathetic toward the subjugated peoples in the Balkans and sent them aide in the form of money, small weapons and hope every year. Possibly without Russian aide, the Balkan nationalist movement would have sputtered out but the French-backed Ottomans were not a weak force and managed to quell many small insurrections. Nevertheless, when Alexander II found out about the Franco-Ottoman alliance, he was shocked and angered at, what he perceived as, a geographic “disappointment to Russia”. The coveted straits now lay farther away, as Russia would have to fight both the Ottoman Empire and France to gain the land, something Alexander II was not willing to do. Without many (or any allies) he would not risk war. His successor Alexander III was of the same impression although Alexander III was more open in his support of the nationalism in the Balkans.
The Slavs in the Balkans were greatly inspired to act in 1888 when the Ottoman rulers ordered the properties of certain “enemies” to be confiscated. Coincidentally, these enemies were among the richest non-Ottomans in the area, not to mention Christians. It was another foolish move on the Ottoman part. For one, a Croat living in London, Draja Rijeka, published a book on the horrors of life under Ottoman rule. Later in the year, a series of photographs showing Ottoman soldiers taking reprisals against a village in retaliation for the assassination of a low level official horrified many in Europe. Even Napoleon III was disgusted at his Ottoman allies. But most disgusted was Alexander II who was in the last years of his life. These events plus what appeared to be unanimous foreign support led many Slavs in the Balkans to act and possibly declare independence. Seeing this move, the Ottomans granted a “complete overturn of any discriminatory acts” and that temporarily sated the Slavs thirst for independence. These so-called Appeasement Acts were unpopular in Constantinople.
Austria, contrary to many European nations, was in horror not of books, actions or photographs, but from the obvious progression of nationalism in the Balkans. Its own existence depended on the suppression of these particular minorities, otherwise the ancient Hapsburg empire would cease to exist. It was the only country to secretly support the Ottomans but in public pretended to be horrified. However, the rampant nationalism in the Balkans lead the leading minority in Austria, the Magyars, to demand a share of power. Although reluctant, the Emperor Franz Joseph I created a Dual Monarchy in 1890. He shared the crown of both an autonomous Hungary and imperial Austria. In doing this, he hoped to show Slavs everywhere that the Austrians were not greedy oppressors but instead this only prompted other minorities their own power. They were denied for the time.
The Appeasement Acts of the Turks were, unfortunately for the people of the Balkans, overturned in 1891 with the ascension of a new sultan that year. A conservative, the new sultan, Abd-ul-Mejid III, took an immediate strong hand against the Slavs. He ordered that anyone resisting the rule of the Ottomans would be thrown into jail or put to death. Of course, the stubborn subjugated minorities were quite angered by this and appealed to Alexander III for help. He was unwilling to do so publicly, but they got a stroke of luck when he died and his brother Michael II became Czar of Russia. Michael was the same sort of character as Abd-ul-Mejid III, conservative and strong in foreign policy. Michael announced his full support of the “brave fighters against the barbarians in the Balkans”, the first time a European leader had done so. Even Napoleon III was keen on agreeing as the new sultan’s policies were quite unpopular in Paris. This only created further tension and the continuous violence in the area did not help abate the Balkan situation.
Causes of the Great War
The outbreak of the Great War was caused by a number of factors. They were vastly different but they would all eventually combine into a single war of hate and destruction.
1.
Colonial and economic rivalries: The growth of colonial empires paved the way toward bitter feelings between Britain and France as each tried to outmaneuvered each other to gain a larger colonial empire. French and British control of the globe greatly enhanced both powers but Britain in the long run won the position as a premier colonial power while France continued to dominate on the continent. To some French patriots, this position was not at all acceptable. As they saw it, France was destined to rule the world; Europe was merely a stepping stone for the big prize. To ultra-nationalist Britons, the empire was too small. France was getting in the way of the big prizes and must be quashed. Their decades spent in “splendid isolation” had enhanced the British economy to a new level of prosperity. The 1890s were a boom as raw materials poured into British factories from all over the globe. But the French too enjoyed economic prosperity in the 1890s with her own colonies providing riches, jobs and glory for France. But the very presence of colonies and the profits from them created a fierce rivalry between Britain and France, the two major colonizers. There was no shortage of border skirmishers between garrison soldiers in Africa and Asia who occasionally took potshots at nearby French of British soldiers across the colonial border. In some cases, a few daring and bored cavalrymen might make a raid into British or French territory, burning crops or torching small villages. They were ignored by their governments. These actions created much tension in the colonies and to some extent between the powers.
The Far East was also a scene between rivals. The Japanese, allies of the British, had seized upon internal trouble in China to make some territorial gains. “Playing the white mans game” was how some Westerners saw it. They seized bits of northern China and Korea before being worn out, but the First Sino-Japanese War was a good practice run for the modernizing Japanese imperialists. The British had trained thousands of Japanese soldiers and the Japanese came very close from adopting British red as their uniform color. The Royal Navy encouraged the growth of the Imperial Japanese Navy, a “little brother to us” as one admiral put it, and helped share technological secrets with the Japanese. The French were quick to seize on the moment and signed a Treaty of Friendship with the Empire of China in 1880, seeing the Chinese as a bastion of the old order and useful ally in the face of anti-French camps in the East. They became official allies in the 1890s and the tension in the east was this expanded. Japanese militarists thirsted for conquests and looked toward China and French lands for it.
2.
British jingoism and naval buildup: Howard Langston’s Britannia had helped instill a national pride among the British people. The expulsion of French troops from their island also helped contribute to the British pride. Although the defeat of Britain in 1813 had led to an anti-French government, calling the governments of Canning and Lyndhurst pro-British would be exaggerating. It was not until the British Empire began to expand and gain profits did British patriotism soar. The term “jingoism” was not coined until the reign of George V who apparently exclaimed “by jingo!” whenever he heard of a colonial success, of which there were many. By the time 1900 came around, there was a renewed francophobic attitude that was ushered on by the first government of the Britain United and First Party, which had gained prominence of laid due to scandals in the Conservative and Liberal Parties.
Accordingly, the 1880s and 1890s were a time of large naval buildup for the British Empire. The terms of the archaic Treaty of Paris (1813) had demanded only ships over 80 guns to be handed over to France. As the American Civil War had shown, the old wooden ships were far outmatched by new ironclad ships. Consequently British and French naval engineers developed many ideas for new ironclad ships. No longer would the less than 80 gun rule be applicable because nearly none of the new iron ships were greater than 50 guns, let alone 80. In a semi-secret state the Royal Navy began to grow. When Napoleon II in his old age and Napoleon III began to demand a stop to this, George V and his conservative governments showed great backbone in declining the French demand. It infuriated the Bonaparte Emperors who could not risk going to war over a few ships. Thus they built up their own navy and the naval race was on.
3.
Arms race: As Britain and France launched more and more advanced ships, other nations looked on in consternation, jealousy or both. Russia was a power in Europe that saw this buildup as a threat to her own national security and began to build up as well. Not only did the Romanov rulers build a great new navy, they expanded the Russia army and by 1890 it was easily the largest force in Europe with a good 600,000 men in peacetime. France, held on the militarist tradition of Napoleon I but softened up by years of peaceful living, reintroduced a five year conscription term instead of two in the reign of Napoleon III. The French army swelled to 400,000 in 1890 and got bigger year by year. Britain had already thrown off the clause that limited its army size in 1888, once again to the unease of Napoleon III, who instead of demanding an immediate stop, just expanded his own army.
As the armies grew, the technology of the age advanced. The American Civil War was watched with interest by the European powers that saw it as a prelude to any future European war. After the war inventions such as the repeating rifle, machine gun and submarine caught some interested eyes in Europe, including those of Napoleon II. Before his death he had already commissioned the creation of a number of machine gun battalions, using the design created by one Richard J. Gatling of the United States. The invention of smokeless powder would make battlefields more clear and easy to see, although there were hardly any battlefields in Europe between 1813 and 1900. Also, the balloon, an important invention made by the French and used extensively during the Napoleonic Wars and the American Civil War was developed on. By 1900, French engineers had made some balloons reach new heights and attached propellers in order allow the balloons to move on their own power. Balloons became more powerful and larger, so large that some people called the largest versions “airships”. Soon the term airship began to be referred to only as those that could propel themselves and the non-propelled balloons became a dying breed. By 1900, airships had become an important player in both the military and in civilian life.
4.
German nationalism: Although not a major driving force for Europe as a whole, it impacted Germany itself to a large extent. Prussia, Austria and Westphalia were all overcome with a sense of nationalism in the years prior to 1900. Each viewed themselves as a leader of Germany and accordingly the three German powers grew more wary of each other with each passing year. By the time 1900 came along any of the powers was looking at a reason to limit the power of the others.
5.
Balkan nationalism: The upsurge of nationalism on the Balkan Peninsula in recent years threatened the status quo of the area. The Ottoman Empire, that occupied the area, was intent on keeping the lands in Ottoman hands while Russia saw this as an opportunity to topple the Ottoman Empire once and for all. Not to mention the fact that Russia was a Slavic country and was prone to support fellow Slavs in the Balkans, especially when occupied by overbearing Turks. The “Balkan Question” led to much rivalry and tension between the Ottoman Empire, allied to France, and the Russians, who were on friendly terms with the British. Although a relatively minor part of the world, it was a great thorn in the side of a European dove.
6.
Personalities such as Michael II and Abd-ul-Mejid III: By an unfortunate coincidence, Europe was blessed with a series of militant, nationalistic leaders. These were of a generation different from that of Napoleon III, although not anti-military, tended to use diplomacy over force of arms. They took their lead from George V of Britain, xenophobic and patriotic, rather than Napoleon III. These leaders had grown up in an increasingly anti-status quo environment that looked to the pre-Napoleon world was an ideal. These personalities would contribute and eventually cause the outbreak of the Great War.
Probably the most conservative and jingoistic was Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid III of the Ottoman Empire. He hated Slavs and passed laws to limit the growing nationalism in the Balkans, though most of the times to no avail. He saw the writing on the wall and realized that eventually he would have to fight with Michael II of Russia. Accordingly he pushed for military modernization and reforms within the empire, though these reforms mainly benefited the ruling Turks and often shorted the ruled Slavs, Arabs, Kurds, Armenians and other groups. Under his rule the Ottoman Empire grew stronger than before but internal dissent grew stronger.
Countering the Ottoman Sultan was Czar Michael II of Russia who was equally conservative, patriotic and vehemently religious. He viewed Russia as the rightful owner of the straits on which Constantinople lay and pursued a vigorous foreign policy. In the east he expanded Russian power at the expense of China, in the south he made threatening noises against the Ottomans and in the west he expanded Russian control in Finland and Poland. His conservative policies also were present in Russia itself, ruling ruthlessly and utilizing a secret police to smoke out anti-czarists. Michael II grew many secret enemies and a series of underground societies sprung up in Russia including extreme left wing groups such as the Communists.
Other personalities of the years prior to the Great War included Kings Charles III and Charles IV of Great Britain, son and grandson of George V respectively. Charles III was not nearly as anti-French as his father, being actually Napoleon III’s brother-in-law. Nevertheless popular opinion as well as the various conservative governments that dominated his thirteen-year reign contributed to a rather pro-Russian viewpoint for many Britons. His twenty-eight heir was quick to jump into an alliance with Michael II in 1899 and thus the Anglo-Russian Entente was formed.
Napoleon III was 67 in 1900 and was the oldest of the major monarchs. However he was also the most powerful, leader of the most dominant force in Europe and possibly the world. His reign has seen the use of diplomacy over arms but the growing in Europe had led to a vast overhaul and modernization of the French armed forces in the 1890s. Napoleon III was not blind to the growing tensions and as the nineteenth century closed, Napoleon III led France with a steady, wise and thorough hand.
However it was mainly the traits of Michael II and Abd-ul-Mejid III that led to the intensification of the European situation as their strong-arm foreign policies and authoritarian methods of ruling led to discontent and a more militaristic view on problem solving.
7.
The Spanish Revolution: Although class differences were not a pronounced problem and had caused little unrest over the years, at least outside of Spain and Eastern Europe, it was still a driving force in some countries, mainly in Russia. The Spanish Revolution had inspired small groups across the world that it was indeed possible to act and to accomplish goals that were not monarchist or imperialist in nature. In Russia, for example, the Spanish Revolution and the reign of Michael II had provided motivation for radical groups to form and start activities of their own despite being strictly against the law. If war were to come, the assumed pandemonium of a war would give these groups an opportunity to act. In short, the Spanish Revolution did not have a direct impact on the outbreak of the war itself, but rather on sideshows that would spring up from the war itself.
Thus the tension in Europe reached new heights by the beginning of the twentieth century. All these factors would boil over in 1900 and start a war of epic proportions, the likes of which had not been seen in Europe for almost a century, if ever.
The Great War: 1900-1904
Outbreak of the War
On March 10th, 1900 in Sarajevo, Ottoman Empire, an Ottoman general Mahmud Khit, was blown up along with most of his staff while on the way to review the local garrison. The remains of the twelve assassinated were splattered across a city block. Immediately the local garrison set out to find the perpetrators but to no avail. When word reached the Sultan’s ears in Constantinople he was enraged. “This will be the end of them” he was supposed to have said. In response, one hundred prisoners of Slavic origin were executed on the on March 12th and a day later a series of sweeping and containing laws were passed. Perhaps it was an exaggeration by American journalists in the area who made boastful claims that “thousands (were) killed in retribution” and “not a single woman in Sarajevo unspoiled”. Exaggeration or not, there is no denying the harshness implemented by the Ottoman Sultan and when the Czar got news of atrocities in the Balkans, he was equally enraged.
On March 20th he issued Special Imperial Order No. 1 to the Sultan directly demanding “an immediate cease to the wicked laws in place in the Balkans or else forced will be enacted.” It was in effect an ultimatum that Michael II had long since wanted to pass and now he had an excuse. The Sultan immediately rejected it.
On March 21st, Russia mobilized for war. The following day, the Ottoman Empire did so as well. March 23rd saw France issue a warning to Russia that if mobilization did not stop, France would unwaveringly support the Ottoman Empire. Michael II instead declared war on the Ottoman Empire on March 24th. France declared war on Russia on March 25th and European peace was shattered.
On March 28th, the Anglo-Russian Entente was put into place and Great Britain declared war upon France. Also on this date the Kingdom of Westphalia steadfastly supported France’s declaration of war and also initiated hostilities with Russia. This was the moment William II of Prussia had been waiting for and with great promises from Michael II and illusions of glory in his own head, declared war on Westphalia on March 29th. France declared war the next day and thus Germany was plunged into war.
That left Austria without a side. For the past decade it had been courted by both France and Russia. The former promised the return of the Illyrian Provinces if it sided, the latter promising less concrete places. But Austria still had a deep resentment for the series of defeats inflicted on it by Napoleon I many years before. However that was countered by the existence of its own empire: Russia supported free Slavic states which was completely unacceptable to the Austrians who themselves dominated many Slav nationalities. The tug of war between both sides left Austria in a very tough spot. “We will shock the world with our neutrality” said Franz Josef in a Declaration of Neutrality, a declaration that would not be very long lived.
By April 1st the minor countries had chosen sides. Greece, Naples, Spain, Portugal, Bavaria, Saxony and Southern Lusitania all declared war on the British, Russians. European peace was shattered and would not be realized for another four, long, bloody years.
APPENDIX A: List of Rulers from 1800-2000
Monarchs
Emperors of France
Napoleon I (1804-1829)
Napoleon II (1829-1880)
Napoleon III (1880-1911)
Napoleon IV (1911-1948)
Emperors of Austria
Francis II (1792-1835)
Franz Karl I (1835-1878)
Franz Joseph I (1878-1916)
Rudolf I (1916-1930)
Franz Karl II (1930-1950)
Monarchs of Britain
George III (1760-1820)
George IV (1820-1830)
Charlotte (1830-1850)
George V (1850-1886)
Charles III (1886-1899)
Charles IV (1899-1910)
George V (1910-1942)
Czars of Russia
Alexander I (1801-1825)
Nicholas I (1825-1855)
Alexander II (1855-1891)
Alexander III (1891-1895)
Michael II (1895-1910)
Alexis II (1910-1922)
Michael III (1922-1952)
Monarchs of Prussia
Frederick William III (1797-1840)
Frederick William IV (1840-1861)
William I (1861-1888)
Frederick III (1888-1903)
William II (1903-1941)
Monarchs of Spain
Monarchs of Southern Lusitania
Monarchs of Poland
Joseph I (1818-1845)
Joseph II (1848)
Caroline I (1848-1855)
Monarchs of Sweden
Monarchs of Portugal
Joseph I (1807-1844)
Charles I (1844-1867)
Charles II (1867-1910)
John I (1910-1921)
Alfonso I (1921-1961)
Monarchs of Westphalia
Jerome I (1807-1860)
Joseph I (1860-1891)
Jerome II (1891-1935)
Jerome III (1935-1956)
Monarchs of Greece
Louis I (1828-1873)
Louis II (1873-1909)
Louis III (1909-1965)
Monarchs of Naples
Joachim I (1808-1824)
Achille I (1824-1847)
Joachim II (1847-1861)
Charles I (1861-1884)
Charles II (1884-1914)
Joachim III (1914-1924)
Achille II (1924-1951)
Non-hereditary leaders
Presidents of the United States
George Washington (1789-1797)
John Adams (1797-1801)
Thomas Jefferson (1801-1809)
James Madison (1809-1817)
James Monroe (1817-1825)
Henry Clay (1825-1833)
Prime Ministers of Great Britain
Lord Liverpool (1812-1815)
George Canning (1815-1822)
John Copley, Baron Lyndhurst (1822-1829)
The Viscount Goderich (1829-1831)
Baron Lyndhurst (1831-1832)
Sir Robert Peel (1832-1837)
The Viscount Melbourne (1837-1842)
Sir Robert Peel (1837-40)
Lord Palmerston (1840-46)
Earl of Derby (1846-54)
Lord Palmerston (1854-58)