The Caliphate held it for a very long time and its center of power was in Arabia, then Syria, then Mesopotamia. Meanwhile, most Persian empires have been centered in eastern or northeastern Mesopotamia.It's probably telling that Macedonia (ruled by a conquest-made maniac) and the nomads are the only examples of powers not in the neighborhood, however.
Meanwhile, the Ottomans were heavily Persian-influenced, and became a Caliphate. And were not averse to moving their capital, continuously moving it until 1453.
Decades to centuries.More to the point, how long did any of them hold it?
I wouldn't say very hard. But perhaps costly or risky.I'd say it was indeed "very hard" to invade - that doesn't mean "impossible', it just means "difficult". That success was achieved does not mean failure was not possible.
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