Onslaught

[Bob Hope]

On the Iberian Peninsula the Reconquista is still on-going, the great victory at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa gave Castile the central area but recently they have concentrated on taking Badajoz to deny Portugal access to Extramadura. The Iberian Almohad Emirates were under pressure from all fronts. Aragon had not taken part in this recently due to their involvement in the Albigensian Crusade; supporting their vassals in Southern France. Their defeat by the Crusaders had left no reserves to pursue theReconquista until recently but they were now making gains from the Emirate of Valencia.

In Southern France the Crusade was over bar the shouting, the conclusion had taken so long because King Philip II had withdrawn troops to provide aid to Prince Louis, later King Louis VIII, who had been invited to invade England [before the Barons rescinded that offer after the death of King John]. Now Louis IX [in his minority] was still consolidating his gains of Normandy, Maine & Anjou.

Henry III of England, meanwhile, was just out of his majority and was casting eyes on France to re-claim his ancestral possessions. His campaign in Brittany petered out in the English possessions in Gascony and a truce with France.


Whilst the Holy Roman Empire was [relatively] quiet a power struggle with the Pope continued and resulted in Fredrick's excommunication by Pope Gregory IX for failing to honour his crusading pledge. Frederick eventually sailed from Brindisi. The Pope regarded that action as a provocation, since, as an excommunicate, Frederick was technically not capable of conducting a Crusade, and he excommunicated the Emperor a second time. Frederick reached Acre in September. Local authorities and most military orders refused him help. The Crusading army was therefore a meagre force so Frederick negotiated a treaty resulting in the restitution of Jerusalem [along with other towns plus a small coastal strip] as the Kingdom of Jerusalem. The crusade ended in a truce and in Frederick's coronation as King of Jerusalem.

Frederick was not only the Holy Roman Emperor but also King, in his own right, of Sicily [kept separate from the Empire at the Pope’s insistence]. During Frederick's stay in the Holy Land, his regent, Rainald of Spoleto, had attacked the Marche. Gregory IX recruited an army under John of Brienne and invaded Southern Italy.

Frederick arrived at Brindisi and quickly recovered the lost territories but avoided crossing the boundaries with the Papal States. The war came to an end with the Treaty of Ceprano.


In the Baltic both Danish [failed] and Swedish Crusades had taken place in Finland. On the southern coast the Brotherhood of the Sword [aka the Livonian Order] had established at Riga early in the century and was making great progress, although an arrangement for re-enforcements had resulted in the Danish conquest of Estonia. Further west the Duke of Masovia had gifted Culmerland to the Teutonic Knights in return for their assistance. The Masovian attempt to conquer the pagan Prussians was not going well but in the few years they had been there progress had been made.

Masovia was part of Poland. In the previous century Bolesław III divided Poland among his sons. The lands of Krakow, the capital, became the Seniorate in a system similar to that which had been used by the Rus for centuries. Each member of the Piast ruling family could progress up the “ladder” of seniority. A vacancy would be filled by the rung below. Naturally this system caused in-fighting and a general fragmentation but all still considered themselves a part of the Kingdom.

Hungary held Bosnia as virtual vassals, the Bogomil Heresy giving them a lever. The heresy was condemned by both Catholic and Orthodox Churches.

Serbia, meanwhile, was seen as a client of the Despotate of Epirus because of the marriage of Stefan I to Eudokia, the daughter of Theodore of Epirus.

Mindaugas of Lithuania, although still Pagan, was well along the path of unifying the country.

The Rus were Orthodox in Religion and, as such, fair game for the crusaders in the Baltic. Polotsk and Novgorod had already fought against the Brotherhood and Denmark, supporting their onetime enemies, the pagan tribes of Latvia.

In the south Kiev, Galich-Volyn and the Cuman Tribes had recently been devastated by the scouting Tuman of the Mongol forces which were now en-route back to Samarkand via the Volga Bulgars.


The recent past had been eventful in the Balkans and Greece. The Fourth Crusade, suborned by Venice, attacked the Byzantine Empire, capturing Constantinople and using this base creating the Latin Empire and its vassals, the Duchies of Athens, Morea and the Kingdom of Thessalonika. Three claimants to the legacy of Byzantium, the Empires of Trebizond, Epirus and Nicaea fought against them, each other and the Sultanate of Rum. One or the other were often alied with the Bulgarian Empire of Ivan Assen II.

Epirus was making the most progress and, having captured Larissa and Thessalonika, were approaching Constantinople when the decision was made to attack Bulgaria first as they were threatening to take the city first. This was a mistake and, by the end of the year Bulgaria had decicively defeated the Epirotes and were setting up vassal states such as Thessalonika to control their new territory. Hungary is very concerned about the new powerhouse to their south.


This map is my starting point, it shows Europe in 1230; My question is- What happens if Ögedei dies in 1247 instead of 1241?
I'm open to ideas.

 

[Bob Hope]

Onslaught 1247;


In 1241, having conquered the Rus states, the Mongol Hordes descended upon eastern Europe.

One Army looped north through Poland, defeating a combined Army of Poles, Teutonic Knights & Empire troops at Legnica. A second Army crossed the Carpathian Mountains whilst a third followed the Danube.
The now combined Mogol force feigned a retreat from the Army of King Bela IV of Hungary.
Bela's Army included Cuman troops but the Hungarians turned on them & they fled, devastating the land as they went. Bickering also saw the departure of Duke Frederick of Austria.

The battle at the Sajo River saw the Hungarian Army outmanouvered, out-fought & almost destroyed. Bela escaped but was pursued south, by 1242, into Croatia then into Dalmatia.

The Mongols experienced the same difficulty they had during the first invasion of China, namely, they were unable to take fortified towns. Croatian troops had defeated the pursuing Mongol force outside the fortress of Klis & it was here, whilst Bela continued to retreat from the re-inforced Mongols, that Stephen, Bela's son, was born.
Employing skilled citizens from the captured cities of Hungary plus imported engineers fro their new rus vassals the fortified places of Hungary fell during the seasons of 1242-1244. Bela was finally captured & killed in Bosnia, the Arpad line extinguished except for Stephen whose mother fled with him to the presumed safety of the Empire.

The main Mongol force had sent out strong scouting forces to investigate neighbouring states &, after the near destruction of Weiner Neustadt, south of Vienna, Duke Frederick followed the example of previous Rus princes, putting himself under the protection of the Khan.

Other forces raided deep into the Empire, both north & south of the Alps reaching the River Rhine in the north whilst the southern force sacked Pisa & Rome, among many other rich Italian Cities. Emperor Frederick II was killed in battle near Ancona in 1244 plunging the Empire into Civil War over the succession as well.

In the early 1230's Genoa had reached an agreement with the Mongols that saw only the trading posts of their rivals attacked. This agreement now stood them in good stead, they were successful against depleted Pisan forces on Sardinia & also made gains in Liguria. Similarly Nicaea made alliance with this Northern branch of the Mongols which gained them protection from the southern forces of Hugalu who was entering Anatolia after capturing Mesopotamia.

The new Mongol lands were organised into two new states or Ulus, Ulus Jurchj & Ulus Orda.
The death of Khan Ogedei, in 1247, was not unexpected. He had suffered a long illness. For this reason, raids in 1246-47 were severely curtailed.

All claimants to the Great Khanate headed towards Karakorum to decide on the new ruler. Civil War seemed certain. The death of Guyuk, in 1248, left Batu & Mongke as front runners. As Jochi, Batu's father, had not been of pure Mongol parentage, support swung towards Mongke who was proclaimed Great Khan in 1251.

 

[Bob Hope]

1270


Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia, had encouraged German immigration, partly through his marriage to Kunigunde of Hohenstaufen, daughter of Philip of Swabia.

This influence strengthened not only the skills and industrial base of his Kingdom but also placed strong ties with the family of the Emperor.

Wenceslaus used these ties to neutralise the threat of Duke Frederick of Austria who was forced to flee after Imperial troops were despatched to oust him from the Duchy in 1236. Austria was governed by Ekbert of the Andrechs family forming an even stronger threat to Bohemia, forcing Wenceslaus into an alliance with Duke Frederick and Otto II, Duke of Bavaria which saw Frederick regain Austria.

It was this alliance, originally formed against the Emperor Frederick, that formed the basis of resistance to the Mongols in central Europe.

Wenceslaus was able to use the loss of local nobility in the battle at Liegnitz to press his claims on Oppeln and Lausitz

Although Duke Frederick was overwhelmed by the initial invasion and made vassal, he maintained his ties to the others, including the marriage of his heir, Gertrude, to Vladislaus, heir to Bohemia in 1246. Vladislaus died only a year later but in 1252, her second husband having also died, Gertrude married Ottokar II, second son of Wenceslaus.

The extinction of the Andrechs family in 1248 saw their lands absorbed into Bavaria.


In 1242, in France, Henry III of England invaded through Brittany attempting to re-conquer Normandy and Anjou but ended up losing most of Aquitaine to Louis IX.

The Ulus Jurchi was Islamic, following the lead of Bereke, their ruler. The destruction of Baghdad in 1258, by Hugalu of the IlKhan Horde-Bereke's cousin, led, after a period of peace following the death of Mongke and the election of Kublai as Great Khan, to war between the Ulus Jurchi, in alliance with the Mameluks of Egypt, and the IlKhans. The IlKhan Horde, in turn, formed an alliance with the Ulus Orda to outflank the Jurchians. The war lasted only 4 years, the Ulus Jurchi was unable to make any headway in the Caucasus but their forces overwhelmed the Ordans and their vassals with the help of Byzantium. By the time Kublai suppressed the conflict Ulus Orda ceased to exist and the Mongol hold on Eastern Europe was weaker.


The Mongol hold over the east allowed the Orthodox church to strengthen its hold on the Rus and push into Poland & the old Hungarian lands but more aggressive was the adoption of Islam in south east Europe.

The Pope proclaimed the Eighth Crusade in 1265, this time against the Islamic Ulus Jurchi to try to reclaim Eastern Europe for Roman Christianity.

The Teutonic Knights were already entrenched along the Baltic coast but the Mongol threat had caused them to rely upon missionaries in Lithuania and Prussia, this was surprisingly effective, the Lithuanians converted and formed the Grand Duchy, the title bestowed by the Pope in 1263. The Prussians took longer but in 1266 they formed a Christian Federation and allied with the Knights.

The Mongol vassal, Poland, now found itself not only at odds internally but threatened by strong forces externally.


The death of Emperor Frederick II in 1244 saw the election not only of Conrad, his son, as Emperor but of successive anti-Emperors. The Crusade of 1265 allowed Ottokar II to push his own claim. Civil War broke out in the Empire during the period known as the Interregnum.

The Thuringian War erupted, Ottokar backing the Wettins, giving him a free hand to pursue his claims in Silesia.

The Crusade reached Vienna without a fight, Duke Frederick reverted back to his roots but refused to re-enter the Empire. Negotiations with the Crusaders saw him use them to conquer Styria and Carinthia in return for free passage and supply in the south. Further negotiations saw Bavaria provide troops in return for a free hand annexing lands congruent with their own along with renewing the alliance between Bavaria, Bohemia and Austria.

Negotiations were opened with Polish leaders of all factions and with Galich, long a thorn in the Mongol side.

At the battle of Koszeg in 1267 [where Duke Frederick of Austria died] Alliance forces defeated the Mongol tumans sent against them but as these were their subject peoples rather than the "true" Mongolians the Crusaders advanced slowly and fortified the towns they captured.

The Crusaders in the south received aid from Venice which re-claimed her Istrian possessions [and re-conquered Zara]. Small principalities were set up around the main Crusader state Zagreb. There was even talk of setting the last Arpad, Stephen, on the throne of Croatia but as they could threaten supply lines this came to nothing.

The Crusade did a lot to quieten things down in Germany as men flooded to Prague and Vienna in search of land and absolution. Italy, on the other hand was in turmoil as Manfred of Sicily, Conrad's brother, ravaged the land. The Pope took the opportunity to finally free himself of the Hohenstaufen threat by gifting the Kingdom of Sicily to the Angevins of Provence- all they had to do was take it. This was too late for the Papal Lands where noble families were trying to establish their independence.

Manfred was killed at Benevento in 1266 but Conradin; Conrad's son tried to return the favour by invading from the north in 1268 but was captured at Tagliacozzo and executed.

As we enter 1270 Louis IX of France and Prince Edward of England are just arriving in Zagreb.

Where are the Mongols?

 

[Bob Hope]

1278


The 1272-1277 Civil War in the Mongol domains between Kublai Khan and Kaidu split the Mongol world into factions. Ulus Jurchi, under Khan Mengu-Timur, supported Kublai. The IlKhanate, under Khan Abaqa, and the Chagatai Khanate supported Kaidu.
With the Civil War preventing support from the other Mongol Domains the forces resisting the Crusaders were limited. Tumans raiding Lithuania were diverted via Mazovia to strike through Silesia, scene of success in 1240.

Learning from the original invasion castles and fortifications had been built. Ottokar had also increased the armoured element of his forces, created a standing army and raised a force of light cavalry imitating his rebel Cuman allies. In 1272, this army boosted by Teutonic Knights and the English Crusader force under Prince Edward [soon to be King Edward I], met and decisively defeated the Mongols at Oels.

Poland threw off Mongol vassalage in 1273, contributing more men to the Crusader army, including their famous "Winged Hussars"

- the wings were thought to create a sound that un-nerved the enemy- and the combined army defeated the Mongols twice more in 1274, at Sandomeirz and Kolomija, the latter causing the Galich lands to rebel against Mongol overlordship.

In the south the Crusader army under King Louis IX of France met the mongols on the Verence River, by mid-day it seemed to be a Mongol victory but the arrival of Charles I of Naples [brother of Louis IX] with his Serbian allies, unfortunately too late for Louis who died of his injuries.


Edward returned to England to be crowned King in 1275 whilst Charles became distracted by his plans to invade the Byzantine Empire.

Defeats by the IlKhanate left Ulus Jurchi in a perilous state so they agreed a 5 year truce with the Crusaders to enable them to concentrate on the IlKhanate.
The Pope was not happy and absolved the Crusaders of their agreement but momentum had been lost.

 

[Bob Hope]

In 1280 the Electors of the Empire met, deciding to allow the emerging entities entry to the Holy Roman Empire, more as way to control them and prevent an over-powerful state forming on their borders.
The Duchy of Austria worried them enough in this respect.

 

[Bob Hope]

1282

By 1282 the impetus had run out of the Eighth Crusade.

Lithuania and Prussia had become Catholic so the Teutonic knights were no longer the front line against paganism and were starting to act more secular, less attractive to the devout Crusader.

The Prince of Galich had made a political conversion from Orthodox to Catholic Christianity in return for the title of King from the Pope. Ottokar II of Bohemia died, succeeded by Wenceslaus II and in December 1282 was elected Holy Roman Emperor.

In Wales, Edward I of England finally subjugated all of Wales to his rule. In Italy Pope Martin IV, whilst ostensibly supporting the attack of Charles I on Byzantium, was worried that he had replaced a strong Hohenstauffen King with a strong Angevin one, one that had support from his nephew, Philip III of France, plus strong family ties to Serbia, Epirus and Achaea [in the process of being integrated into the Angevin realm after the death of Duke William]. Papal pressure in response the the promised unification of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches had restrained charles since 1279 but the Byzantine capture of the Venetian city of Dyrrachium spurred Charles to recapture this useful naval base in 1281 and he was making good headway in Albania with Serbian assistance, Serbia annexed Srednogorie in 1282.

Emperor Andronicus II of Byzantium conspired with the Pope and Peter III of Aragon, heir through his wife, to the Hohenstaffen lands. Taking advantage of an uprising in Sicily Peter invaded and quickly took possession of all but Messina in the East.

Unfortunately Pope Martin IV died, replaced by a French favoured candidate, Pope Honorius IV, who promply excommunicated Peter II, offering his lands to a French Prince. French troops invaded Rousillon and Girona whilst the Aragonese army conquered Navarre south of the Pyrennees. Navarre was ruled by yet another French Prince.

The original Crusader States, in the Levant, now restricted to the port of Acre, were starved of re-inforcements and soon to fail. Even the Knights Hospitaller had moved their operations to the Hungarian theatre.

The Mongol Civil War had petered out leaving both sides weaker. The Ulus Jurchi were mostly able to hold their ground against the Crusaders on the Steppes, the open landscape working in their favour, but their hold on the Rus vassal states was weaker, the further or larger throwing off Mongol overlordship whilst the others were, to a lesser or greater degree still under the Mongol thumb.

Charles II was forced to a compromise peace with Byzantium which lost the conquered lands. Byzantium was forced to it to give them the opportunity to bolster resistance to the Turkish encroachments in Anatolia where tribal states were starting to form. Some territory was also "leased" to Genoa who were better able to defend it.

The islands of the Dodecanese were sold to the Castillian order of The Knights of Santiago, as a bulwark against encroaching Islamic pressure.

Both Peter III and Charles II died in 1285 and the war, later, ended with the treaty of Tarascon in 1291. This confirmed Sicily, now the Kingdom of Trinacria but also committed Aragon to support the Angevins in any future war.

 

[Bob Hope]

1287-1303

Edward I was asked to arbritrate the disputed Scottish succession in 1290 as 12 different nobles had claims to the throne. Edward used the opportunity to gain recognition of English overlordship then chose John Baliol as King.

France annexed Gascony in 1293 leading to war and English invasions to regain the Duchy, although the English actions were inconclusive, their allies, Flanders, handily defeated the French at Coutrai by taking advantage of the natural lie of the land to negate the Frenchheavy Cavalry. Gascony was returned to England in 1303. This war did, however, allow John Baliol of Scotland to ally with the French [The start of the "Auld Alliance"] and saw Edward invade Scotland in 1295, defeat Baliol and declare himself King of Scotland. An uprising under Sir William Wallace was decisively defeated in 1298 but Scottish unrest continued.

In the HRE; Hainaut inherited Zeeland and a brief war between Brabant and Guelders saw Limburg fall to Brabant.
Habsburg marriage politics brought Burgundy, both inside the HRE and France, under their control but the Swiss cantons, supported by the Emperor Wenceslas, asserted their independence.

Wenceslas was also elected King of Poland, in 1291, by the Sejm or Parliament, of Poland. [The Kingship of Poland was elective not hereditary] He was also Regent of Austria during the minority of his Nephew, Frederick IV. For a time, Wenceslas was the most powerful ruler in Eastern Europe.
As Regent he brought Austria back into the Empire, in 1302, to increase his power but failed in his attempt to make Poland an hereditary Monarchy.

The Knights Hospitaler carved a state for themselves, taking advantage of the civil war in Ungar in the early 1300's, an attempt to restore the Arpad Dynasty, long in exile in Germany. This failed with the death of Andrew III and its extinction, members of the Hunyadi family partitioning the land. The Hospitalers sold their lands in Hunyad and Saxe-Sylvania to finance their new state.

The Ulus Jochi lost more of the Rus states as their hold decreased, retaining those that their prime vassal Moscow could control and tax. Their internal disruptions seemed to be solved with the treaty forming the Ulus Nogai, Nogai was one of the foremost leaders of the Tumans but he was unable to fully hold Moldavia [or Molavia] or Romania and the area split into semi independent Banates a few of which were absorbed by Galich.

In Anatolia the Turkish tribes are coalescing into states. Byzantium is in alliance with Germiyan and Bulgaria to try to bolster its position.

 

[Bob Hope]

1303-1315

Byzantine Empire & the Catalan Company.
Osman I, Ottoman ruler [1290-1326], tried to launch a Jihad against the Byzantine holdings in Anatolia but, in 1303, the Byzantine Empire hired a Catalan Company of Mercenaries, paying them with land rather than specie.The company grandly named their lands the Duchy of Mysia. First used to defeat the Ottomans, they were then used to decicively finish the war against Venice that had been going on for four years. Byzantium restored the Black Sea trade to Genoa, their allies and entered into a marriage with the Ulus Juchi to protect their new Cheronese possessions.
The Company was next employed against the Karasai but their success caused reaction in the neighbouring tribal states. Germiyan allied with Karasai but Teke could sense the strength of the Mercenary Company and allied with Byzantium, by 1309 Karasai was no more and Germyan no longer had a coastline.
A kind of conscription was introduced to form a standing army, small but well trained [by the Catalan Company] and well equipped. Backed by light cavalry from Teke this army was able to again defeat Osman I of the Ottomans at the second Battle of Bapheus in 1310.
Politically the Catalan Company also reinforced the link between Byzantium and aragon created during the Sicilian Vespers giving the agressive Angevins pause for thought.

Bohemia
In 1305 Bohemia-Poland went to war with the Teutonic Order. The climactic battle south of Marienburg saw the deaths of both the Grand Master of the Order and King Wenceslaus. With the death of Wenceslaus in 1305 Poland again became independent, it also had a big impact upon Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire. Whereas Poland was easily able to elect a King from within their own nobility, abandoning the idea of foreign Kings for the time being, the Holy Roman Empire was torn by strife between 1305-1314 in the interregnum before Louis IV Wittlesbach was selected as Emperor against stiff opposition.
The death of the Grand Master saw the break-up of the Teutonic Knights into secular provinces, still reliant on Marienburg. The Order of the Botherhood of the Sword based in Riga continued their traditions.

France
Philip Le Bon , Philip IV of France, had been in conflict with the Popes, refusing their authority and styling himself "Anointed by God". This was a rejection of the claims by the papacy of universal hegemony over Christendom and the start of Nationalism.
The struggle between the Philip IV and Boniface VIII started when Philip tried to tax the clergy in France. Philip even went so far as to attempt to arrest the Pope. Boniface died soon after that attempt and was replaced by a French Pope, Clement V. Unpopular in Rome and to escape from the infighting of the powerful Roman families that had produced earlier Popes the new Pope set up the Holy See in Avignon, close enough to France to feel Philip's influence, the proximity of French troops was a constant reminder of where secular power lay, with the memory of Pope Boniface VIII still fresh.
Even the downfall of the Templars was part of this political war, after all they were responsible only to the Pope.

Holy Roman Empire
The death of Weceslaus led to an interregnum as the Electors could not agree on one candidate. Wettin, Wittlesbach, Habsburg and Luxembourg candidates vied for the position.

Despite expanding their interests to include the Duchy of Burgundy in France, the Habsburgs were still very active inside the Empire. They came out on top in the struggle over succession in Lorraine but the attempt to take over the Forest Cantons of the Swiss Federation failed as the Swiss Pikes proved very effective, especially with the backing of Milanese Knights.

Milan and Luxembourg both expanded their lands, Luxembourg especially so with the inheritance of most of Brandenburg.

Lands of the Rus
In the East the rivalry between the Ulus of Juchi and Nogai intensified, Rus states took sides, enlarging their domains at the expense of their weaker neighbours where the Mongols could no longer provide protection. Galich became more Westernised and re-combined with Volyn. Lithuania started to expand, taking advantage of the weakness shown, even Novgorod, least affected by the Mongols, was affected, losing control of Pskov.

 

[Bob Hope]

The Ulus Juchi 1260-1312
Nogai, grandson of Berke's younger brother Bo'al, emerged as an increasingly powerful general during the reign of Berke and Möngke Temür. He had led an unsuccessful raid on Hungary in 1261, and commanded two failed campaigns against Hulägu in 1262 and 1267. In the latter he not only lost an eye but witnessed the death of his sovereign. However he was successful against the Byzantine Empire in 1265, in alliance with Bulgaria, the Emperor Michael Palaeologos offering the hand of one of his illegitimate daughters to Nogai. In 1271 he invaded Bulgaria at the request of his father-in-law who was seeking revenge against the King of Bulgaria for a raid against Thrace. Like Berke, Nogai was a Muslim, having been converted at some time prior to 1262. Nogai had three legitimate sons: Cheke, Teke and Buri.

Nogai did not inherit his own Ulus, but carved out his own fiefdom in the Western part of the Ulus Juchi. From the 1260s he controlled the westernmost region, effectively establishing an independent province on the northern shores of the Black Sea, ranging from the lower Danube to the lower Don and north to the foothills of the Carpathian Mountains. His influence extended into the Balkans and northern Bulgaria. His main encampment was on the River Bug, which enters the Black Sea just west of the Crimea.

After Möngke Temür's death the Ulus entered a difficult period. A succession of leaders from various tribal factions vied for power and control of the valuable trade route. Nogai exploited these weaknesses, building up his following and extending his control over the running of the Ulus. This internal division also provided opportunities for the Ulus's rivals and vassal states.

The throne passed to Möngke Temür's younger brother, Töda-Möngke. In 1281 the new Khan summoned the Rus princes to Sarai to renew their patents.
Dmitry Aleksandrovitch of Vladimir refused to pay homage. Töda-Möngke transferred the Princedom to Dmitry's younger brother Andrei who, with the Ulus support, invaded Vladimir forcing Dmitry to flee. Dmitry sought assistance from Nogai who issued his own patent in return for Dmitry's submission and promise of future tribute. Nogai then sent troops to Vladimir to oust Andrei from power.

In 1283 the ineffectual Töda-Möngke was declared insane and deposed by his nephews Töle-Buqa and Könchek. The two brothers ruled the Ulus jointly. In the same year Nogai briefly supported his father-in-law in Thessaly and in 1284 staged a raid on Bulgaria, Serbia, Macedonia and Thrace, forcing the submission of the Bulgarian ruler George Terter but being defeated by the Serbian king Stefan Uros II Milutin. When Terter fled to Byzantium, Nogai placed his own vassal Smiltzos on the throne. In the winter of 1285-86 Nogai waged a joint campaign with Töle-Buqa against Hungary and the Crusader States. The venture was a disaster with atrocious weather causing the Army to suffer heavy losses during their advance on the Danube and also during their retreat. A quarrel between Nogai and Töle-Buqa saw many discontented warriors, including Toqta and several of Möngke Temür's other sons, finding refuge in Nogai's encampment. In 1287 Nogai and Töle-Buqa set out on another unsuccessful raid, this time on Poland.

It was Töle-Buqa's insistence on trying to recover the pasture-lands of Azerbaijan from the Ilkhans that led to his downfall. His first attempt in 1288 was a failure, as was the second attempt in 1290. His reputation shattered, he was challenged by Toqta, Möngke Temür's capable son. Töle-Buqa attempted to have Toqta arrested but he escaped, finding sanctuary at Nogai's encampment and in 1291 Nogai plotted and captured Töle-Buqa, handing him over to Toqta to be assassinated, making way for Toqta to be installed on the throne as Nogai's puppet.

However Toqta, with a mind of his own, faced many obstacles. Toqta's first challenge came from three Russian princes – Dmitry Aleksandrovitch of Vladimir, Mikhail Yaroslavich of Tver and Daniel Aleksandrovich of Moscow – who refused to pay homage to him in Sarai, having allied themselves to Nogai. Exploiting the situation, Andrei of Vladimir and the Rostov princes submitted themselves to Toqta, raising their complaints about Dmitry's loyalty. Nogai refused to obey Toqta's summons to Sarai and, in 1293, Toqta staged his first campaign against Nogai, also sending forces to Vladimir to oust Dmitry and install Andrei. Dmitry fled and died the following year, permitting Andrei to rule as the legitimate prince.

By 1296 Nogai had effectively established his own independent Ulus. That year his mint ceased issuing coins in the name of Toqta in favour of those bearing Nogai's own name. Nogai had also assisted the Venetians to break the Genoese monopoly on Black Sea trade, causing the Genoese to complain loudly to Toqta at his court in Sarai.

Toqta attempted to advance on Nogai but was frustrated by his inability to cross the Dnieper for lack of ice. One year later Nogai headed for the Don on the pretext of resolving his differences with Toqta, while actually hoping to catch the Khan before he could rally his forces. Toqta hastily gathered his army and engaged Nogai in battle at Bakhtiyar on the east bank of the Don, but was heavily defeated and forced to retreat to Sarai.

Nogai now sent his grandson to the wealthy Genoese ports in the Crimea to collect tribute. After the grandson was assassinated, Nogai led a punitive expedition against the Genoese, taking booty and many prisoners. This act caused a split in the leadership of the Ulus Nogai. Some proposing to side with Toqta in return for an amnesty, offered to raise Teke, Nogai's middle son, as their Khan if he would join them. When Teke went to negotiate with the dissidents he was captured, forcing Cheke, Nogai's eldest son, to purge the radicals and decapitate one of their leaders. The incident left a feeling of distrust between the two brothers and when Cheke made a failed attempt to have Teke killed it caused a revolt among some of his military leaders.

When news of these divisions reached Toqta he gathered his reinforcements and crossed the Dnieper with a huge army approaching Nogai's encampment on the River Bug. While Nogai attempted to parley, his son Cheke attempted to outflank the enemy. Informed of this, Toqta ordered his troops to engage with Nogai's supporters. The battle of Kügenlik resulted in many casualties and Nogai's forces were trounced.
The death of Nogai in battle saw Cheke lay claim to his fathers domains but he was forced to seek refuge with the Alans to avoid being captured. Cheke, earlier married to one of George Terter's daughters, decided to head for Bulgaria with his supporters, where he joined forces with his brother-in-law Svetoslav. Marching into Tarnovo in late 1299 Cheke ousted Ivan II and placed himself on the throne with Svetosalv as his deputy. Here he was approached by his mother and brother Teke proposing he make a peace deal with Toqta, the idea that so outraged him that he had them both murdered, creating a further schism in the ranks of the Nogai Ulus. Fearing reprisals from Toqta, Svetoslav finally deposed Cheke in 1300 and had him strangled in prison. After receiving Cheke's head, Toqta installed Svetoslav as the new King.

Ulus Nogia's lands had been divided among Toqta's family, the largest part going to his brother Serai Bugha. Although two of Nogai's sons were dead, Buri was still seeking revenge. In 1301 Buri persuaded Serai Bugha to rebel against Toqta, the plot was sucessful but Buri and Serai Bugha were both killed, Serai Bugha's territories now passing to one of Cheke's sons, Kara Kesek. .

The leadership of the Ulus Juchi had been shaken by internal conflict and its vassal states had gained confidence. Toqta now weakened the Ulus economy by picking a fight with the Venetians. Concerned by the continuing export of Qipchaq slaves for the Mamluk army, Toqta arrested the Venetian residents of Sarai in 1307 and then besieged the port of Caffa. The Venetians responded in May 1308 by departing by sea leaving their city in flames. They then established a naval blockade of the Black Sea ports, depriving the Horde of valuable revenues.

Before his death, Toqta turned his attention back to Russia and considered eliminating the special status of the Grand Duchy of Vladimir, placing all the Russian princes on the same level. In 1312 he set off by boat up the Volga to see these territories at first hand but in August he fell ill and died before leaving the boat.

 

[Bob Hope]

1315-1335

The Great Famine 1315-1320
During the winter and spring of 1314/5, Europe suffered a prolonged period of destructive winter storms, resulting in widespread flooding and damage. However this was not the first time that Europe had been devastated by heavy periods of rain and bad weather. It rained almost constantly throughout the summer and autumn of 1314 and then through most of 1315 and 1316. Crops rotted in the ground, harvests failed and livestock drowned or starved. Food stocks depleted and the price of food soared. The result was the Great Famine, which over the next few years is thought to have claimed over 5% of the population.

The shortage of crops pushed up prices of everyday necessities such as vegetables, wheat, barley and oats. Bread was therefore also expensive and, because the grain had to be dried before it could be used, of very poor quality. Salt, the only way to cure and preserve meat, was difficult to obtain as it was much harder to extract through evaporation in wet weather; its price rose dramatically.

Although not all areas of Europe suffered the full effects, during this time conflicts petered out. It was near impossible to keep an army supplied.

As the cold, wet weather continued, the famine reached its height in spring 1317. Finally in the summer of that year the weather patterns returned to normal, but it was 1322 before the food supply recovered completely.

Byzantine Empire & the Catalan Company.
Unlike their previous Latin "visitors" the Catalan Company intermarried, the enlarged lands split into East and west Mysia. They adopted eastern ways, so much so that, in the style of new converts, their eastern lands became "more Roman than the Romans". Intervening in the 1321 civil war in Byzantium gained a Royal Marriage which in 1345 allowed Byzantium to peacefully annexe East Mysia.

In 1332 Stephen Dushan of Serbia [1331-1345] re-united his country in a war against Byzantium and their allies Bulgaria. The Byzantine trained army only enabled them to limit their losses to border provinces although the Bulgarian statelet of Vidin fell under Serbian control.

Eastern Europe
In 1319 the thrones of Sweden and Norway were united under Magnus [II of Sweden, VII of Norway], a union which was to last until 1355. This enabled a concentrated colonisation of the North. The combined Kingdoms were successful in their War against Denmark, Skane becoming Swedish in 1332.

The constant wars between Juchi and Nogai Ulus drew in their respective vassals as participants or proxies. The conflicts both weakened the fabric of the Rus societies but, conversely, strengthened their forces which comprised mainly veteran troops and were virtually standing armies due to the almost constant conflicts.

When Lithuania tried to expand southward towards Kiev in 1321 Kiev joined with Smolensk to defeat the thrust. Turning its attention towards the Brotherhood of the Sword in Livonia, Lithuanian forces were able to quickly isolate the Brothers and fracture the state. The Brotherhood were unable to afford mercenaries having just purchased Estonia from Denmark and so was forced to submit.

Italy
During the fourteenth century the pope and emperor had little influence over Italian political affairs. Nobility did not ensure power. Italian city-states were left to choose their leader whose responsibility was to defend their city from external enemies and to wage war on rival cities in hopes of gaining more territory.

Northern Italy was divided into a number of warring city-states, the most powerful being Milan, Florence, Pisa, Siena, Genoa, Ferrara, Mantua, Verona and Venice. Italy was further divided by the long running battle for supremacy between the forces of the Papacy and of the Holy Roman Empire. Each city aligned itself with one faction or the other, yet was divided internally between the two warring parties, Guelfs and Ghibellines.
[At the beginning of the 13th century, Philip of Swabia, a Hohenstaufen, and his son-in-law Otto of Brunswick, a Welf. known in Italy as Guelphs, were rivals for the Imperial throne. Philip was supported by the Ghibellines as a relative of Frederick I, while Otto was supported by the Guelphs. Philip’s heir, Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, was an enemy of both Otto and the Papacy, and during Frederick’s reign the Guelphs became more strictly associated with the Papacy while the Ghibellines became supporters of the Empire]
Warfare between the states was common, invasion from outside Italy confined to intermittent sorties of Holy Roman Emperors. Politics developed from this background. Since the 13th century, as Italian armies were primarily composed of mercenaries, prosperous city-states could field considerable forces despite their low populations. The mercenaries, known as condottiere, were bands of soldiers drawn from around Europe especially Germany and Switzerland, led largely by Italian captains. Mercenaries were not willing to risk their lives unduly, so war became one largely of sieges and maneuvering, occasionally a few pitched battles.

It was also in the interest of mercenaries of whatever side to prolong any conflict and continue their employment. Mercenaries were a constant threat to their employers; if not paid, they often turned on their patron.

At sea, Italian city-states sent many fleets out to do battle. The contenders were Pisa, Genoa, and Venice, but after a long conflict the Genoese succeeded in reducing Pisa. Venice, however, proved to be a more powerful adversary and the conflict continued into the 15th century. Venice would eventually become pre-eminent on the seas.

On land, decades of fighting saw Florence and Milan emerge as the dominant players. In the course of the century, the most powerful city-states annexed their smaller neighbors.

Middle East
Hulagu's IlKhan descendants ruled Persia until about 1335, tolerating multiple religions, including Shamanism, Buddhism, and Christianity, and ultimately adopting Islam as a state religion in 1295. However, despite this conversion, the IlKhans remained opposed to the Mamluks. The IlKhans launched several invasions of Syria, but were never able to gain or keep significant ground against the Mamluks, eventually being forced to give up their plans to conquer Syria, along with their stranglehold over their vassals the Sultanate of Rum and the Armenian kingdom in Cilicia.

Other Areas
The Habsburgs lost control of Lorraine again through inheritance but retained the Duchy of Bar. The Luxembourg line in Brandenburg died out and fell to the Hohenzollern family. The Wittlesbach lands were forced into union by the Emperor Louis IV Wittlesbach.

 

[Bob Hope]

1346-1352

Black Death
The Plague was reportedly first introduced to Europe via Genoese traders at the port city of Kaffa in the Crimea in 1347. After a protracted siege, during which the Mongol army was suffering from the disease, the army catapulted the infected corpses over the city walls of Kaffa to infect the inhabitants. The Genoese traders fled, taking the plague by ship to Sicily, Genoa, Pisa and Marsailles via Constantinople. It spread North from southern of Europe. It is clear that existing conditions such as war, famine, and weather contributed to the severity of the Black Death.

From Italy, the disease spread northwest across Europe, striking France, Spain, Portugal and England by 1348, then turned and spread east through Germany and Scandinavia from 1348 to 1350. It was introduced in Norway in 1349, then Iceland. Finally it spread to northwestern Russia in 1351. The plague was somewhat less common in parts of Europe that had smaller trade relations with their neighbours, including the Poland, the majority of the Basque Country, isolated parts of Belgium and the Netherlands, and isolated alpine villages throughout the continent.

 

[Bob Hope]

1335-1367

Byzantine Empire & Serbia.
The relationship with Teke was so successful that again Byzantium used marriage and culture to bind them, In 1342, the city of Smyrna was given as dowry and the Duchy of Smyrna formed from the joined lands. An Ottoman-Kastamon alliance tried to negate Byzantine plans by force but again it was defeated in battle allowing Byzantium to regain more of its old territories.

Byzantine diplomacy was turned on Serbia in the late 1330's and it now felt more threatened by than supported by the Angevins and their vassals. Although this never degenerated to war it limited Dushan's options and when he died in 1345 both Byzantium and the Angevins took advantage to destabilise the country which degenerated into warring statelets.

The Hundred Years War [1337-1367] - Sluys, Crecy & Poitiers
I'm sure I don’t have to describe the War for you so, the Highlights;
1326 - Charles IV renewed the alliance with Scotland
1328 - Philip VI, the first King of the Valois House, ascends the throne
1337 - Duchy of Aquitaine was taken back into Philip's hands on the grounds that Edward III was in breach of his obligations as vassal
1340 - Edward III formally received homage from Guy, half-brother of the Count of Flanders. Ghent, Ypres and Bruges proclaimed Edward King of France
1340 - Battle of Sluys
1341 - Start of the War of the Breton Succession
1346 - Edward invaded Normandy
1346 - Battle of Crecy
1346 - The Battle of Neville's Cross and capture of David II of Scotland
1347 - Capture of Calais
1348 - Black Death strikes Europe causing a pause in the war until 1356
1350 - Castilian fleet defeated in the Channel
1350 - John II ascends the French throne
1355 - English defeated by the Scots at Nesbit Moor
1356 - The Prince of Wales [the Black Prince] invaded France from Gascony
1356 - Battle of Poitiers and capture of John II of France
1356 - Edward III burned down every town and village in Lothian, Scotland.
1358 - The Jacquerie peasant rebellion and seizure of Paris is defeated within 3 months.
1360 - Treaty of Bretigny
1362 - Battle of Brignais. Free Companies [ex-Mercenary brigands] defeated a French army.
1362 - Alliance between England and Castile
1364 -1367 - War of Succession in Castile
1364 - English war with Navarre

Elsewhere in Europe & The Middle East
East
Lithuania, allied with Kiev and bolstered by its vassals from the Brotherhood, gained the part of Minsk Smolensk had taken and divided Turov with Kiev. The Brotherhood was later riven by internal conflict and devolved into secular states.
Further east Tver inherited Vladimir, removing it rom the Juchi sphere of influence and bringing it into conflict with Moscow which was starting to flex its muscles, annexing parts of Novosil. Galich continued its expansion taking parts of Molavia and absorbing Loutsk. Molavia itself and the Vlach Banates started to combine into larger states.

Ghazan II was deposed as the ruler of the IlKhanate in 1357 and replaced by a governor from the Ulus Juchi. In 1358 the Muzaffrid tribe expelled him and the Ulus Juchi but was, in turn, overthrown by the Jaylarid Mongol tribe. The Ulus Juchi descended into anarchy. Between 1361 and 1378, over 20 khans succeed each other in different parts of the Ulus Juchi's territory.

West
The Emperor tried to form a constitution for the Holy Roman Empire with his "Golden Bull".
Habsburg wishes were again foiled by the Swiss as their federation increased, admitting Bern. Their marriage policies saw the inheritance of the Tyrol. After the loss of Lorraine, the Habsburgs swore fealty to King John II of France for the Duchy of Bar.
France also gained by the treaty with the Dauphin of Vennois by which the heir to the French throne would become known as Dauphin. By the way, it means Dolphin ...... don't ask.

In 1356 the Hanseatic League, a trading alliance between many cities in northern Europe, was officially founded, by 1362 it was allied with Sweden and at war with Denmark. Civil War in Sweden enabled Denmark to regain Scania. Marriage between Haakon VI of Norway [also of Sweden until he was deposed in 1364] and Margaret of Denmark brought those states closer. Haakon's policies saw the formal recognition of Thurso and Lairg as Scottish, in return, Scotland recognised the Kingdom of Man and Earldom of Orkney as Norwegian, later Iceland was also formally included under the Crown of Norway.

Milan conquered Pavia in 1359 and spread its influence over Piacenza. Galeazzo II Visconti was drawn into warfare with Pope Gregory XI, the Papacy became his biggest political opponent.

Florence and Pisa were at war, as Florence was also antagonistic to the proposed return of the French Pope to Rome they found common ground with their Milanese rivals.

 

[Bob Hope]

1368-1380

The Hundred Years War [1367-1380]
1368-1369 - revolt of Gascon nobles against the Black Prince.
1369 - Pedro of Castile lost the Battle of Montiel to an alliance of the French with his half-brother Henry II.
1369 - King Charles V of France renounced the treaty of Bretigny. War declared between France and England.
1369 - The French, under Du Guesclin, recaptured most of Aquitaine.
1370 - English Siege of Limoges.
1371 - Edward, the Black Prince, gave up the administration of Aquitaine, returning to England due to his poor health and heavy debts.
1372 - Naval battle of La Rochelle; French and Castilian fleet defeat the English. The French Gained control of the Channel for the first time since 1340.
1373 - An Anglo-Portuguese alliance signed.
1375 - The English, weakened by the plague, lost so much ground to the French that they agreed to sign the Treaty of Bruges, leaving them only the coastal towns of Calais, Bordeaux and Bayonne. The peace treaty between England and France is later extended until April of 1377.
1376 - Death of the Black Prince.
1377 - Coronation of 10-year-old Richard II, grandson of Edward III. A minority government was established and a series of continual councils ruled on his behalf until 1381.

Western Europe
The "Grote Mandrenke" storm of 1368; The Netherlands, England, Germany and Denmark were affected by North Sea floods.
In 1369 a Peace treaty was signed between Norway and the Hanseatic League, Denmark follows suit at The Treaty of Stralsund in the following year.
In 1375 Olaf II, son of Haakon II of Norway and Margaret of Denmark followed his grandfather as King of Denmark, in 1380 he also became King of Norway after the death of Haakon.

Eastern Europe-The Rus and the Mongols
Mikhail Aleksandrovich became sole ruler of Tver in 1368, after the death of rival Vasiliy Mikhailovich of Kashin. Moscow, sensing weakness, attacked Tver, which countered with the aid of Lithuania and parts of the Ulus Juchi. Again in 1370 the Grand Duchy of Moscow, this time allied with Smolensk, attacked Tver and her allies. The war lasted 5 years with no gains for Smolensk who signed a peace treaty in 1373 surrendering Vitebsk to Lithuania and eastern lands Tver. Moscow & Tver signed a truce 2 years later, Tver ceding lands taken from Smolensk. Tver also agreed to help Moscow fight the Ulus Juchi who had re-united under Urus Khan in 1375.

In 1377, however, the Rus were defeated at the Pyana River. Their commander drowned in the river. In 1378 Moscow resisted a small invasion by the Ulus Juchi, their main forces busy elsewhere. Moscow, later, raided the Mongol-ruled lamds of the Volga Bulgars

Lithuania gained Vitebsk from its support of Tver but saw that it stood to gain more from allowing the Rus to fight amongst themselves and the Mongols than from active participation. It started to cultivate relationships with Smolensk and Masovia. Interference in the internal politics of Novgorod also enabled it to have occasional control over the Republic.

Middle East and Central Asia
In 1368 Tamerlane, or Timur, had deposed the ruler of the Chagatai Khanate and ascended the throne. By 1370 Tamerlane had completed the conquest of the Central Asian Khanates and parts of Persia, to establish the Timurid Empire.
Tokhtamish, with the help of Tamerlane, dethroned Timur Malik as Khan of the White Horde or Ulus Ejen, the Eastern wing of the Ulus Juchi, in 1379, then refused to acknowledge Tamerlane as his overlord.

In the west, Mamai, Khan of the Ulus Juchi, attempted to reassert Tatar authority over Russia. At the 1380 Battle of Kulikovo, Muscovite-Tverian forces under Grand Prince Dmitri Donskoy of Moscow defeated the invasion by the Ulus Juchi and Ryazan, stopping their advance at the Battle of Kulikovo.
After this defeat Tokhtamish of the Ulus Ejen dethroned Khan Mamai. The two hordes united to form the Ulus Sarai or Golden Horde.

The Ulus Nogai declined after 1368 losing control over its Rus and Molavian vassals allowing larger states to emerge around Kiev and Bryansk. This was largely due to the raid, counter-raid and sometimes outright war between Nogai and Juchi Ulus. Any border was a fluid thing as thay fought over an increasingly devastated area.

The Mamluks took advantage of the dissolution of the IlKhanate very late due to troubles of their own, in 1375 they completed their conquest of the Kingdom of Little Armenia or Cilicia, destroying the Danishmend en-route.
This allowed the establishment of the White Sheep dynasty or Ay Koyonlu in 1378 and the dynasty of Kara Koyonlu or Black Sheep a year later.

 

[Bob Hope]

The Great Schism

Following the death of Pope Gregory XI and riots in Rome calling for a Roman pope, the cardinals, who were mostly French, in 1378 elected Pope Urban VI as Pope. Unhappy with Pope Urban's critical attitude towards them, the majority of the cardinals met at Fondi and elected Clement VII as Antipope. Establishing a rival Papal court at Avignon. This split within the Catholic Church becomes known as the Western Schism.

France, Aragon, Castile and León, Cyprus, Burgundy, Savoy, Naples and Scotland chose to recognise the Antipope Clement VII.

Denmark, England, Flanders, the Holy Roman Empire, Hungary along with northern Italy, Ireland, Norway, Poland and Sweden continued to recognise Pope Urban VI.

Politics meant that neither Pope got unqualified support and there was a spate of excommunications from each Pope, all of which tended to de-value the Church's authority.

The Coup in Naples in 1381 caused a switch in allegiance which reverted back to Avignon with the restoration. French support for Avignon changed to Rome in 1398 and resulted in a 5 year siege of Avignon and conflict with Aragon.

 

[Bob Hope]

1381-1400 Eastern & Central Europe

Scandinavia
The unexpected death of Olaf II, in 1387, saw his mother Margaret become Queen of Denmark and Norway in her own right. Also inheriting his claim to the throne of Sweden, in 1389, Margaret's forces defeated and captured Albert, King of Sweden. With his deposition, Margaret now ruled Denmark, Norway and Sweden.

In 1397 Margaret officially joined the three states together in the Union of Kalmar and adopted Eric of Pomerainia as her successor.

The Rus and the Mongols
Tokhtamish restored the dominance of the Golden Horde over Russia by attacking Rus lands in 1382. He besieged Moscow but his attack was beaten back, using firearms for the first time in Rus history. Tokhtamish persuaded the Muscovites to open the city gates, promising that their forces would not harm the city. Tokhtamish's troops burst in and devastated Moscow, killing 24,000 people. Tokhtamish also crushed a Lithuanian-Smolensk army at Poltava in the next year.

The Grand Duke of Lithuania accepted his supremacy and agreed to pay tribute in turn for a grant of Rus territory, gaining control of Smolensk

Encouraged by his success, Tokhtamish invaded Azerbaijan, Khwarezm, and Transoxiana, parts of Tamerlane's Empire. Tamerlane declared war on him. In 1395-1396, Tamerlane annihilated Tokhtamish's army and destroyed his capital. Invading the Ulus Nogai, Tamerlane looted Sarai's trade centers, and deported the most skillful craftsmen to his own capital in Samarkand.

When Tokhtamish fled, Urus Khan's grandson, Temür Qutlugh, was chosen Khan in Sarai, and Koirijak was appointed sovereign of the Ulus Ejen by Tamerlane. Temür Qutlugh's chief emir Edigu was the real ruler of the Golden Horde.
Tokhtamish escaped to the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and asked Vytautas for assistance in regaining his power over the Horde. In exchange for such assistance, he offered his suzerainty over the Rus' lands. Edigu defeated Tokhtamish and Vytautas at the Battle of the Vorskla River in 1399. The trade routes never recovered from Tamerlane's destruction, and Tokhtamish died in obscurity in 1405.

Lithuania
Grand Duke Jogaila of Lithuania signed a treaty with the Teutonic Knights [or as we should now call them; the Duchy of Prussia] in 1380, which gained the province of Duvzare on the Baltic coast, sparked a civil war with his uncle, Kestutis, who overthrew his nephew but allowed him to remain as governor of eastern Lithuania. The conflict lasted for 5 years. In 1382, Jogalia took Kestutis prisoner whilst meeting him to hold negotiations. Kęstutis was subsequently murdered and Jogaila regained Lithuania.

To strengthen his position, Jogaila married Princess Ludwila of Smolensk, becoming the heir and, in the 1386 Treaty of Pinsk, achieving the union of the two states.
The union of Catholic Lithuania, with many Orthodox subjects, and the Orthodox Principality of Smolensk alarmed both popes enough for the Pope in Rome to confer the title of "Most Catholic King" on Jogaila.

On March 17th 1387 Jogaila [having been baptised again in Vilnus Cathederal] was crowned Vladislav II Jagiello, King of Lithuania-Smolensk.

Vladislaw's cousin, Vytautas allied with Prussia in 1390 starting another Civil War, Samogita was suborned by the alliance and they began a seige of Vilnus. The Duke of Hereford, later King Henry V of England, was among the European knights serving with the coalition. Vytautas extended the alliance by a treaty with Moscow in 1391.

Jogaila's response in 1392 was a compromise with Vytautas, his cousin, appointing him as regent of Lithuania in return for Vytautas giving up his claim to the Lithuanian throne. Vytautas replaced Jogaila's unpopular brother as regent.

Holy Roman Empire- A general view

The election of Charles of Luxembourg's son Sigismund as King of the Romans in 1376 (two years before Charles’s death) was a striking example of the Emperor’s skill in securing the cooperation of the Electors for his dynastic purposes. The election of an Emperor’s son as King during the father’s lifetime had not occurred since 1237; the Prince-Electors, in their anxiety to prevent any single dynasty from strengthening its grip on the succession, had checked all subsequent attempts. But unprecedented gifts, concessions, and a renewed prohibition of city leagues by Charles overcame the opposition of the Electors. Pope Gregory XI had previously announced that the election would be invalid without papal confirmation. Charles, in concert with the electors, sped the election and subsequent coronation of his son and then submitted an antedated request for confirmation to the pope, who countered these tactics by delaying confirmation; it was still under consideration at Gregory’s death in 1378. The decline of the Papacy during the Great Schism precluded the vigorous assertion of its right of confirmation, which became a mere formality and was subsequently tacitly abandoned.

Charles' power was based primarily upon the territorial possessions of the house of Luxembourg, which he greatly extended by the purchase of the Electorate of Brandenburg in 1373. The German monarchy was a source of dignity and influence, but in terms of land and revenue it was outweighed by Charles’s hereditary domains.

The Golden Bull, replete with privileges to the electors, attacked none of the fundamental problems of the monarchy: dwindling crown lands, slender revenues, and the lack of an army and of an expert bureaucracy.

The dissolution of the Duchy of Swabia gave territorial predominance to the Habsburgs, whose possessions were scattered across Alsace, Breisgau, the Vorarlberg, and Tyrol. The Habsburg’s rivals and neighbours to the north, the counts of Württemberg, had combined with the Swabian nobles to foil the attempt to revive the defunct Duchy of Swabia.

The Margraves of Baden were chiefly preoccupied with the expansion of their territory on the upper Rhine at the expense of the independent small nobles and cities of Swabia.
The Landgraves of Hesse, though surrounded by powerful neighbours, contrived to make modest territorial gains at the expense of the Wettin dynasty and the Archbishops of Mainz. East and south of Hesse, the Rhine-Main region was a land of great Ecclesiastical Princes: the Archbishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne; the bishops of Speyer, Worms, Würzburg, and Bamberg; and the wealthy abbots of Fulda and Lorsch. It abounded in Counts of the second rank, dominated by the Count Palatine of the Rhine. The area contained four Electorates and therefore was of crucial political importance.

Brunswick dissipated its strength by frequent divisions of its territory among heirs. Saxony was also split by partition between the Wittenberg and Lauenburg branches; the Wittenberg line was formally granted an electoral vote by the Golden Bull of 1356. The strength of the duchy lay in the military and commercial qualities of its predominantly free population. But its eastern expansion into the Sylvanian lands tended to diminish its involvement in the internal politics of the Empire.

Large areas of northern Germany were held by Ecclesiastical Princes, including the Archbishops of Bremen and Magdeburg and the Bishops of Utrecht, Münster, and Osnabrück. During the 13th and 14th centuries the major trading cities of the north, including Münster, Bremen, Hamburg, and Lübeck, joined together to form the Hanseatic League, which was a powerful economic and political force not only in northern Germany but in most of the lands surrounding the North and Baltic seas.

The Duchy of Mecklenburg was drawn deeply into Scandinavian affairs and provided Sweden with a new royal dynasty.

The Electorate of Brandenburg, purchased by Charles and bequeathed to his son, Sigismund, was dominated by a disorderly and rapacious nobility. Sigismund granted this dubious asset in 1406 to his faithful ally Frederick, Burgrave of Nürnberg in exchange for his domains.

Bohemia remained the commercial and industrial centre of eastern Europe, and its silver mines at Kuttenberg vastly increased crown revenues. The Czech population increasingly resented the economic and cultural influence of the German minority, and this created antagonisms profoundly disturbing to the monarchy.

Inside the various territories the consolidation of princely authority was far from complete. The principalities were often ragged in outline and territorially dispersed because of the accidents of inheritance, grant, partition, and conquest. Everywhere lesser nobles disputed the power of the Prince and formed associations in defense of their rights and fiefs. In the Ecclesiastical Princedoms the ascendancy of an Archbishop or Bishop was contested by the cathedral chapter, which had become a preserve of the nobility. The self-governing cities fought to protect their chartered liberties and drew together in formidable leagues to resist Princely encroachment. Thus the Princes, in trying to enforce their authority, tended to consolidate the opposition and to excite potential or open hostility.

The Electors had voted for Sigismund reluctantly during Charles' reign, fearful that the monarchy might become a perquisite of the house of Luxembourg. Most of the other Princes shared their concern over the continued ascendancy of the dynasty.

In 1400 Frederick, Duke of Brunswick- Luneburg was declared as a rival Emperor. However, Frederick was murdered shortly after.
The princes of the German states voted to depose Sigismund as Emperor due to his weak leadership and elected Rupert, Count Palatine of the Rhine, as rival Emperor

 

[Bob Hope]

1381-1400 Southern Europe

Italy
Venice and Genoa had been in conflict for some time without war having been declared but in 1380 Genoa expressed support for Chiogga, also allied with some rebellious Venetian Dalmatian cities. Outright war ensued, Venice defeating Chiogga and establishing dominance in the Adriatic after 1383.

Due to Naples' support for the Antipope, Pope Urban VI bestowed Naples upon Charles of Durazzo, from an alternate branch of the Angevins. In 1381 Charles advanced on Naples and captured Joan who was imprisoned and executed the next year, Charles becoming Charles III of Naples.

Charles' ambition led to the overthrow of Mary of Belgrade in 1385 and the inheritance, the following year, of the throne of Croatia, surviving an assassination attempt orchestrated by Mary.
The southern portion of the Angevin realm was ruled by Henry of Achaea, cousin of Joan, ruling from Arta, whilst the French possessions and Provence were ruled by Louis I, Count of Provence.

Milan had been increasing its sway over Northern Italy, led by the Viconti, in Tuscany the Republic of Florence opposed them as did the Pope but neither could prevent Siena coming under Visconti rule. Verona similarly resisted them in the north, taking their ally, Padua. Florence gained access to the sea at Pisa's expense but in 1395 the Visconti became Dukes of Milan, purchasing the title from the Emperor. After a few minor conflicts Savoy was able to prevent Milanese spread westward and co-operated with the temporary French conquest of Genoa. Towards the end of the century, the Medici, a family of bankers, became powerful in Florence.

Byzantium flexed its muscles in alliance with Bulgaria in 1385 with an attack on the Serbian states and, later Vlachia. Dan I defeated the Bulgarians but was killed in battle, succeeded by Mircea the Elder. Mircea of Vlachia took control of Dobruja, thus preventing its occupation by Byzantines. Byzantine advances were halted by the need to defend against Timur's incursions in Anatolia, especially after inheriting Trebizond due to his actions.

Henry of Achaea spent his entire reign consolidating his hold on the region. Subduing Athens and absorbing Larissa before re-conquering rebellious Thessalonica.

King James of Cyprus inherited the title of King of Armenia after the death of his distant Leo VI, in 1393, although the Mamluks remained the true rulers.

 

[Bob Hope]

1381-1400 Western Europe

British Isles
In England, unrest amongst the peasants led to the Peasants Revolt of 1381. Rebels from Kent and Essex, led by Wat Tyler and Jack Straw, met at Blackheath. The rebels, encouraged by a sermon from renegade priest John Ball, destroyed John of Gaunt's Palace and stormed the Tower of London, killing the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Lord Chancellor.

King Richard II met the leaders of the revolt and agrees to reforms such as fair rents and the abolition of serfdom but, during further negotiations, Wat Tyler was murdered by the King's entourage. Noble forces subsequently overpowered the rebel army. The rebel leaders were eventually captured and executed and Richard revoked his concessions.

King Richard began an invasion of Scotland in 1385, burning Holyrood and Edinburgh but returned home without a decisive battle.
A Scottish army defeated the English at the 1387 Battle of Otterburn, capturing their leader, Harry Hotspur.

Richard and his court were unpopular and in1387 forces loyal to Richard were defeated by a group of rebellious barons known as the Lords Appellant. Richard II was imprisoned until he agreed to replace all the councillors in his court. The entire court were convicted of treason by Parliament, under the influence of the Lords Appellant, and were all either executed or exiled. Richard II effectively became a puppet of the Lords Appellant.

English lands in Ireland continued to decline as tribal kingdoms became more stable, extending their influence. Even an effort to invade Leinster, led by Richard in 1394, was defeated. Richard was more successful with international diplomacy than internal. His marriage to the daughter of Charles VI of France in 1396 leading to the truce of Leulinghem and peace between England and France.

With the support of John of Gaunt, returned from Castile, Richard attempted to reassert his authority over England with the arrest of members of the Lords Appellant but alienated John with the exile of his son Henry of Bolingbroke. After John's death in 1399 Richard confiscated John's lands, refusing to allow Henry to inherit.

Richard again led an army to Ireland so when Henry returned to England and began a military campaign to reclaim his confiscated land there was little opposition. Richard was captured upon his hasty return from Ireland and forced to abdicate, dying in captivity under mysterious circumstances the next year.

Henry of Bolingbroke was crowned Henry IV. His first test was to quell the Epiphany Rising, executing the Earls of Huntingdon and Salisbury who are implicated.

Harry Hotspur led incursions into Scotland, occupying Edinburgh but are not strong enough to hold it.

Owain Glendower, trying to take advantage of the general unrest, proclaimed himself Prince of Wales and attacked English strongholds in North Wales.

Iberia
In 1383 King John I of Castile married Beatrice of Portugal, the death, later that year, of King Fernando I of Portugal and the succession of Beatrice as Queen triggered a period of civil war and anarchy in Portugal where the Castillian army intervened on behalf of Beatrice, attempting to take Lisbon.

John of Aviz led forces opposing Beatrice and, in 1385, defeated John I of Castile in the decisive battle of Aljubarrota. John of Aviz was crowned King John I of Portugal. Portugal's independence from Castile is secured by the signing of the Treaty of Windsor, an alliance between Portugal and England. English forces under the Earl of Cambridge arrived to drive the Castillians from Lisbon.

Castillian forces were again defeated at Valverde later in the year but numbers forced the Portuguese on the defensive.

John of Gaunt, uncle of King Richard II, left England, in 1386, to establish his claim to the throne of Castile by right of his second marriage to Constanza of Castile 15 years previously. He made peace with Castile on behalf of Portugal and England, in 1390, giving up his claim to the Castilian throne by allowing his daughter to marry Prince Henry, eldest son of John of Castile.

France
England's traditional allies in Flanders revolted in 1382, led by Philip van Artevelde, but, at the battle of Roosebeke, a French army under Louis II, Count of Flanders defeated the Flemings. Unrest continued for a few more years but was supressed by Philip the Bold, regent for Charles VI of France during his minority.

In 1388 Charles took full control of the government, ending the regency but Charles suffered a from psychosis which continued throughout his life. In 1399 John VI became Duke of Brittany and Charles' psychosis allowed him to pursue a more independent course.

Similarly Habsburg lands on the borders of France and the Empire increase by inheritance but most notably by the puchase of the County of Flanders both within France and the Holy Roman empire. This declined woolen manufacturing area would add considerably to Habsburg coffers as it recovered.

Genoa's weakness after the defeat by Venice allowed the temporary conquest of its mainland possessions in 1396 and triggered rebellion in its western mediterranean possessions. Always difficult to control, Genoa accepted the independence of Corsica and Aragon's take-over in Sardinia. The Republic re-gained its own independence in 1398.

In 1398 Charles, by now known as Charles the Mad, withdrew his support for the Antipope, an army led by Geoffrey Boucicaut occupied Avignon and started a 5-year siege of the Papal palace.

 

[Bob Hope]

1381-1402 Anatolia & the Middle East

Timur
Timur or Tamerlane, Tamburlane or Timur the Lenk, emerged from obscurity to overthrow the Chagatai Khanate. from this, in 1381 he conquered east Persia, ending the rule of the Sarbadar dynasty. In 1384 Timur conquered the northern territories of the Jaylarid Empire, successors of The IlKhanate in western Persia.

Turning his attentions north in 1386, Timur invaded Georgia and sacked the capital, Tblisi. To complete his domination of Persia, Timur invaded the Muzaffarid Empire in Central Persia, appointing puppet rulers to is constituent parts. This did not stop them combining under Shah Mansur to rebel six years later in 1393. The rebellion was squashed and the Muzaffarid nobility executed, ending the Muzaffarid dynasty in Persia.

After the War against Tokhtamish Timur appointed his son Miran Shah as viceroy of Shirvan. Miran ensures his control by murdering the remaining rulers at a banquet.

In 1398, Timur turned his attention to India, invading and defeating the Delhi Sultanate, which had been weakened after 4 years of civil war. Following his victory, Timur's troops sacked the city of Delhi and massacred hundreds of thousands of the state's Hindu inhabitants. The attack was not for conquest but purely for loot, including the priceless Peacock throne.

Turning back to the west, Timur defeated the Mamluks, capturing Damascus but, rather than pursuing into Africa, turned his attention to the remnants of the Jaylarids, en-route defeating both Koyonlu states. Entering Anatolia, in 1400, Timur destroyed the Empire of Trebizond for its refusal to convert to Islam but allowed Byzantium to survive after its diplomats offered tribute. This did not stop him raiding Byzantine cities but gained their survival, unlike Mysia, descendants of the Catalan company, who thought they could defeat Timur. The Knights of Santiago evacuated to, well fortified, Rhodes, leaving the mainland to its fate.

The death of Timur, in 1405 whilst preparing to invade China, allowed many states to re-assert their independence. Miran Shah did not engender the same respect and his rule was restricted to Persia.

 

[Bob Hope]

1400-1413

English fortunes varied, on the same day, June 22nd 1402, an English force decisively defeated a Scottish raiding party, supported by French troops, at Nesbit Moor but in Wales, Owain Glendower's rebels defeated the English at Bryn Glas on the England/Wales border. Henry reacted by enacting Penal Laws against Wales stopping the Welsh from gathering together, obtaining office, carrying arms and living in English towns. Any Englishman who married a Welsh woman also came under the laws.

Northern English nobles, led by Sir Henry "Hotspur" Percy, deploying longbowmen defensively, decisively defeated another Scottish army at Homildon Hill, capturing the leader, the Earl of Douglas. This again, although not on the same day, was balanced by the ambush and rout of an English force by Glendower in a mountain defile.

In early 1403, King Henry IV married his second wife Joan of Navarre, daughter of King Charles of Navarre and widow of John, Duke of Brittany. With Henry apparently ignoring the north, Hotspur imagined himself capable of overthrowing the crown. Henry "Hotspur" Percy formed an alliance with Owain Glendower and advanced into southwest England to meet up with Glendower's forces.
However, King Henry IV met and defeated the rebel army at the Battle of Shrewsbury, Sir Henry "Hotspur" Percy was killed in the battle. Later, the Archbishop of York and Earl of Norfolk led another rebellion but were tricked into sending their army home, imprisoned and then executed on the King's orders. The final remnants of the Percy rebellion were not defeated until 1408.

Whilst Henry was occupied with internal troubles, the French conducted raids on the English coast, notably Plymouth and Jersey. These were not pushed home because of their own internal troubles, the Habsburgs, Dukes of Burgundy, and the Orléanists starting only with small scale fighting but enough to make the Queen, Isabeau, intervene in the political struggle between the Dukes.

Owain Glendower, having declared himself Prince of Wales, allied with the French against the English and began holding parliamentary assemblies.
A French force as sent to cooperate with Glendower but was later withdrawn due to Glendower's inactivity. Soon after Glendower lost both Aberystwyth and Harlech castle the rebellion petered out and Glendower disappeared.

Henry IV strengthened his foreign ties by the marriage of his daughter, Philippa to Eric of Pomerainia, soon to become ruler of the Kalmar Union.

A solemn truce was signed between Albert V, Duke of Burgundy and Louis, Duke of Orléans, under the auspices of John, Duke of Berry. Only three days later the Duke of Orleans was assassinated; war breaks out between the Habsburgs and his followers, drawing in other Dukes into the fray on both sides. The Duke of Champagne and later the Duke of Maine and Anjou sided with the Habsburgs whilst the Dukes of Brittany, Alencon, Touraine, Armagnac and Blois sided with Orléans.

With fighting spreading over northern and central France, both sides appealed to Henry IV for assistance.

Henry IV died in 1413 but the reigns were taken up by his son, Henry V, who agreed a pact of neutrality and alliance with Albert V of Burgundy, supporting Albert and his allies against the Orléanists, agreeing to later declare war on Charles VI of France.

Italy
In Italy Venice countered the recent Milanese gains with the conquest of Vincenza, Verona and Padua between 1404-1406. In 1411 Friuli, threatened by an invasion from Zagreb asked for Venetian assistance. The war lasted nine years and, when it ended, Friuli was firmly in Venetian hands. Venice's sudden expansion caused concern in Milan with many calling for war. Venice went looking for allies.

 

[Bob Hope]

1415-1420

The Hundred Years War

It took Henry 2 years to prepare before invading northern France in July 1415 and capturing Harfleur in September. Henry decided to March from Harfleur to his main base in Calais but found himself having to elude a numerically stronger French army before finding himself forced to select a defensive position or be destroyed in detain in the open.
The battle of Agincourt was fought on October 25th 1415, Henry's longbowmen ensured that very little hand to hand fighting took place. French Knights decimated their Genoese allies, armed with crossbows, in their eagerness to close with the English but were mown down in their droves by the English Longbow. The lessons of the Scottish wars had been successfully applied to European warfare.

Unable to take advantage of the battle because his communications with England were threatened by the Genoese fleet, Henry returned to England to build up his own fleet and gain control of the channel, driving off the Genoese in 1416.

Returning to France in 1417, with the channel now secure, Henry conquered Normandy, unlike Edward's use of the Chevauchee or raid in force, Henry occupied castles and strongpoints, creating a secure area of English control before pushing further south.
Also moving troops into Brittany, which had supported the Orléanists an English army under the Duke of Bedford defeated a combined Franco-Brittany army at Avranches forcing Duke John V, Henry's Uncle in law, to accept English Suzerainity and make common cause with Henry.

Later than expected, Albert V joined the war, capturing Paris in 1418 and massacring Orléanist leaders. He had been held up by a conflict with the Swiss Federation where, to free his hand in France, he had made concessions of territory.
English forces were besiegeing Rouen and its surrender was closely followed by the assassination of Albert by supporters of the Dauphin. In the confusion, Henry marched on and secured Paris for the alliance. Charles II, Duke of Lorraine and uncle of Albert, became regent for Albert's son, Frederick IV.

In 1420, with the Burgundian faction dominant in France, King Charles VI of France was forced to acknowledge Henry V as his heir, and as virtual ruler of most of France, signing the Treaty of Troyes and marrying Catherine of Valois to him to seal the deal.
The Dauphin, naturally did not accept the usurpation of his position and undertook negotiations with the Angevins of Maine and Provence to strengthen his cause. Unbeknownst to him, his plans had been revealed to Henry and his largest army was destroyed by a combined Anglo-Angevin force as it crossed the Loire.

Bohemia

England's ambitions lay further to the west but the influence of Theologian John Wycliffe, deemed a heretic and rejected in his own land, where the Lollard sect was suppressed, grew in Bohemia where the preaching of Jan Hus was widely heeded. Hus preached against the corruption of the Church and Papacy. The Church, in the midst of the Schism, both Popes selling indulgences to raise money to support their cause, did nothing to change the perceptions of a corrupt organisation in need of reform. Hus, denounced by the Church after explicitly quoting the heretic Wycliffe, won much support in Bohemia.

In 1414, Sigismund, King of the Romans, convened the Council of Constance to resolve the Schism and other religious controversies. Hus was offered safe-conduct to appear at the council but was imprisoned, tried and executed in 1415. A protest to the council from Bohemian nobles recieved only threats from Sigismund in return.

Disorder broke out in Bohemia, Catholic priests driven from their parishes, Bishops from their sees. From the start the movement had two factions, the Ultraquists [moderates] and the Taborites [extreme] but for the moment their aims were the same. Preparations were made to defend themselves against Sigismund. As if to ensure this need, Hussites attacked the town hall in Prague and threw town councilors, the burgomeister and representatives of the King from the windows into the street. The death of the King, soon after, may have been partly due to this, either way, Sigismund was heir apparent and intent on staking his claim.

Catholics were forced out over most of Bohemia, an attempt to re-instate Catholicism by force was defeated by a Taborite Hussite force under Zizka in early 1420, this act alone enabling the spread of Hussite influence to magnify even beyond the state borders.

Zizka instituted a strict military discipline and adopted a tactic not used before; the Wagenburg. In effect a mobile fortress defended with artillery and handguns.

The Wagenburg would be placed close to the enemy formation and artillery used to inflict great losses on enemy formation, provoking their attack. Defenders would then use firearms and crossbows against the [usually mounted] attackers who could not penetrate the "walls" of the wagenburg.

Sigismund was aided by the Pope in Rome who declared a crusade against the heretics. He arrived at Prague in June 1420 with an army from all over Europe, captured and garrisoned two castles but found it impossible to maintain a siege of Prague and so withdrew. The castles were promptly besieged by Hussite forces. When Sigismund tried to rekieve them he was decisively defeated, the castles capitulated and Bohemia fell firmly under Hussite control.

HRE

Part of Frisia was rent by a civil war [1413-1422] which invited outside interference, troops from the Habsburg lands arrived to make the peace and it was only the obvious aims of Albert V that enabled peace to be agreed.

Schleswig had been inherited by the Duke of Holstein in 1402 who proceeded to try to combine this Duchy with his own, alienating it from Denmark, part of the Kalmar Union. Denmark reacted in 1409 by seizing the Duchy, starting a prolonged war with Holstein. By 1417, Holstein, allied with the Victualling Brotherhood, a pirate society, had re-captured most of Schleswig and were pushing on.