O Renascimento de um Império - A verdadeira historia de Portugal

[Lusitania]

Book III 1800-1825
O Renascimento de um Império - Guerra e Política (Part XVII)​

América do Norte – Politics and Economics

América

In 1816 the United States had just emerged from its most devastating war, leaving it in disarray. The Democratic-Republicans had been the main advocates for America to defy Europa and refuse to turn over Napoleão. The defiant stand along with the near American victory in the first year had brought the Democratic-Republicans much acclamation. But the American good fortunes soon turned into complete disaster as the country’s coast was ravaged and its victories reversed. This was followed by an invasion on several fronts and the subsequent occupation of several states and territories by the European Allied nations. The country had been cut into two; tens of thousands of Americans had died to war, famine and disease. The peace terms had been harsh forcing the country to lose large portions of its territory while leaving it to pay for all the war damages and debt incurred fighting.

On the other side stood the Federalists who had been against the war and wanted to negotiate with the Europeans. Their opposition to the first year had resulted in many of them being shunned and unpopular; in some circles they were considered treasonous for their willingness to appease the autocratic and despotic European monarchies. But as the war wore on and the American losses mounted public opinion swung in their favour. At war’s end when America was cut in half and whole sections of the country in the north, south and northwest were occupied their popularity surpassed that of the Democratic-Republicans for the first time.

It was the peace treaty that spelled disaster for the Democratic-Republicans; they had to bear the responsibility war end and its consequences. During the summer and autumn in the shadow of the recently imposed peace treaty they met to attempt to nominate a presidential candidate who was not stained by the war. Daniel Tompkins, the governor of New York State alongside James Munroe, the governor of Virginia were the top contenders. During the caucus meetings in March 1816 while the peace negotiations were taking place in Ghent, Netherlands James Munroe won out due to the resentment of some delegates regarding Daniel Tompkins signing the surrender of New York State to the British. As an act of solidarity Daniel Tomkins was chosen as the Vice-President running mate though.

For the Federalists there were three nominees John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts; who was still in Europe although news of his withdrawal from the treaty negotiations had instilled in most the dread that the deal was harsh and unfair to the US. The second candidate was Rufus King of New York who had twice lost as a Vice-President candidate. The last candidate was John E. Howard of Maryland. John Quincy Adams absenteeism during the nominations and caucus meetings worked to his advantage. He wrote a letter imploring the leaders and delegates to choose wisely; for the United States sat on a crux with every nation in Europe arrayed against it hoping that it would fail. He wished he could be there but felt it his duty to provide his guidance and expertise to minimize the impact on the nation and people. On April 20 two weeks before his arrival back in Boston he won the nomination with a two to one lead over the other nominees. To provide the party with as broad a reach as possible, delegates voted for John E. Howard of Maryland as the Vice-President running mate.

That autumn the American elections were fought under the acrimony of the peace treaty and its implications. When candidates spoke many times they had to duck from rotten food being thrown as well as hecklers. The worse was for James Munroe and the Democratic-Republicans who along with most of the Democratic-Republicans candidates for the house and senate were blamed for the war. When the campaign was over and the votes were counted John Quincy Adams had won by a large margin taking all the states except Ohio, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.

President Adams administration began a series of measures to move the nation in direction needed to address the shortcomings revealed during the war. The “American System” as it became known provided for high tariff on foreign manufactured products which was used to finance the construction of infrastructure and defense throughout the country. It also advocated the establishment National Bank to provide the capital needed. The greatest opposition to the high tariffs came from the southern states which did not rely on the American factories to buy their produce. It was no surprise that during his tenure only one southern state was admitted to the union: Mississippi. While five northern states joined: the District of Maine became a separate state in 1818, followed by Indiana and Illinois in 1819 and Missouri and Iowa in 1821 and 1822 respectively.

The admonition of so many non slave states greatly upset the southern states and their representatives. The District of Maine had been allowed to become a state without any concern because it replaced the former state of Vermont. The admission of Indiana and Illinois was approved by congress as a result of the movement west of thousands of Americans from areas lost to the British namely in New York, Michigan and Ohio. In turn Mississippi was allowed to join in the same year. When Missouri and Iowa wanted to be admitted the one condition was that Missouri be a slave state. But following the admission of Iowa the state of Missouri voted to ban slavery. In the twilight of President Adams second term Arkansas was admitted as a slave state.

In 1820 President Adams once again repeated his win although this time it was against Andrew Jackson who added the states of Mississippi, Tennessee and Kentucky to the states the Democrats-Republicans carried the last election but these were offset by Maine, Illinois, and Indiana for Adams. The American system seemed to run out of steam with the panic of 1822 to 1823. One important factor was the death of Vice President John E. Howard one month after the election. On March 10 1821 President Adams chose Henry Clay as the new Vice President who had become a supporter of the American System in the preceding term.

In 1824 Henry Clay under the Federalist banner ran against Andrew Jackson. This time the election was much closer by when the votes were counted Henry Clay had won by a margin of 10% and 35 votes.

Of the many important accomplishments during President Adams presidency was the enactment of the American Doctrine which stipulated the Americas were free from foreign incursion and European colonialism. This was in response to the declaration of independence by Grand Columbia in the Southern Hemisphere from Espanha.

The Panic of 1822 was a result of the speculation by people on land due to the high demand for American agricultural products both in the eastern manufacturing states as well as Europe in the later parts of 1818 to 1821. When European agricultural production recovered from the effects of the Napoleonic Wars the demand for American agricultural products decreased causing prices to fall and forcing thousands of heavily indebted farmers to declare bankruptcy because they could not afford their debt payments. Congress under the leadership of the Vice President Henry Clay passed several measures to help the farmers and persecute speculators.

North America at the end of the 1820’s​

América do Norte Britânica (British North America)

The British North American colonies stood at a crossroads at the end of 1816. They had just been witness to the largest war in their existence and probably on the continent. War had raged from one end of the Rio St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes and beyond. Huge armies that were bigger than most cities in the colonies faced off against each other. With the Americans marching all the way from Niágara Falls to Quebec City in 1815 then the British pushing them back all the way south and over the Rio Niágara into the United States the following year the country side was devastated. Peace had finally come to North America but for the majority of the people living in the colonies the final peace was hard to imagine. Their larger and stronger neighbor to the south had been brought to its knees. The border with the Americans had been pushed back giving the British control of the Great Lakes and its river system. The border had also been extended west into the Great Plains establishing British control right into areas that few of them knew about. The ever present Indians had gone from savages to respected allies from one moment to the other. The Mohawk nation south of the Saint Lawrence River and the Indian Confederation to the west became these mysterious places full of magic and mystery.

The lives for the colonists was just slowly beginning to return to normal when word came of thousands of American settlers moving north, this was followed by what has been dubbed “Second Loyalist Movement”. Thousands of British born Americans moved north into British colonies. This was followed by the news that many of the British soldiers would be staying in the colonies and they would be joined by thousands of their comrades still in the British Isles. From 1818 to the end of the 1820s tens of thousands of British (English, Welch, Scottish and Irish) as well as the first tentative settlers from other European countries namely France and the Germanies came to the new colonies. Whereas Upper Canada used to be the limit of British settlement many pushed further west in Michigan and even British Louisiana. In 1822 at the occasion of Duke of Wellington’s return to the British Isles and the ending of his tenure as Governor General of British North America Colonies British Louisiana was renamed Wellington in honour of the man who had liberated them from American tyranny.

In 1822 Lord Gordon Drummond became the new Governor General turning over the British North American General Command to Isaac Brock. It was under Lord Drummond that work began on the first phase of what in time would become the massive “Saint Lawrence lock system and canals”. By 1828 when his six year term expired the first two phases were well underway. The Rio Saint Lawrence locks between Kingston and Montreal which would allow ships to sail from the Atlántico all the way to York and rest of the British ports on Lago Ontario. They were a total of seven locks along the river. The second waterway and canal system being constructed was the Trent-Severn Waterway connecting Lago Huron to Lago Ontario. It would be another seven years when both of them would be open and the Great Lakes became accessible to ocean going ships opening up the interior even more to development and settlement.

Another major development was the creation of the new colony of Acadia. The new colony was created when the colonies of New Brunswick and Lower Canada could not agree on the new border after the lands east and north of Rio Penobscot became part of BNA. In 1821 all land north of the Rio Miramichi from New Brunswick and all land north of the Rio Aroostook from Maine and the land east of Saint Denis on the Gaspe Peninsula became the newest Colony; Acadia. Its population like Lower Canada was predominantly French and had the same structure and laws. New Brunswick now predominantly English in turn received all land south of the Rio Aroostook from Maine.

Following the war, the continued American hostility towards Great Britain alarmed many officials in London as well as in British North America. British possessions and colonies completely surrounded the United States making them feel entrapped. In addition to the nine British Colonies to the north of America there was also Bermuda off the American New England coast as well as the extensive British colonies and islands in the Caribbean Sea. To better defend British interests and coordinate defenses all British colonies and dependencies in North America were placed under the command of the British North American Governor General and military units reported to British North American General Command. For the most part southern governors had an exceptional amount of autonomy except they had to report to Quebec City and Halifax instead of London.

As the British colonies continued to grow the amount of agricultural produce significantly increased. The long process of shipping those products to British markets especially from the more remote western colonies was the primary motivation for the building of locks and canal system. The population boom of the British colonies created huge opportunities and progress for all those involved. While it still paled in comparison to the United States the difference had greatly been reduced and its growth started surpassing America for the first time. By the end of the 1820s the population of BNA was 1,345,000 while the United States population was 8,624,000.

Mid Western British North America at end of 1820’s​

Eastern British North America at end of 1820’s​

América do Norte Portuguesa

Following the peace treaty, the two Portuguese protectorates settled into an uneasy truce both internally as well as with its larger neigbour, the United States. The three main people in the two territories: black, Indians and Hispanics attempted to live side by side in peace although not always with success. Some of the Indian tribes now forced to live together were not always best of friends and had at times fought each other. Secondly some of the tribes and Hispanics had in turn practiced slavery themselves.

In 1818 when the Portuguese Military turned over the two protectorates to the Portuguese civil government no specific department rightly existed while two or three demanded that they should be in charge. The major problem for the Portuguese government namely its Prime Minister Duque d’ Orense was that he did not want it to become a Portuguese province but instead only a protectorate which was what the Portuguese government had agreed. So that year a new department was created “Departamento Protetorado dos Povos Lusofonia[1]” to administer these lands in conjunction with the Portuguese Empire. The objective of the department became the “administration of lands and people alongside the Portuguese Empire”. The first governor was Lourenço Rosário Medeiros; who alongside his wife provided the protectorate with a very clear image on tolerance and opportunity. Governor Medeiros was of Portuguese-Indian descendant from the province of Angola; his wife was a daughter of an Mbundu tribal chief who had accepted Portuguese language and religion. The sight of an Indian and Black as the governor and his wife provided a clear picture to the people living there what was acceptable and expected of them. In the first two years they travelled extensively through the protectorates often in the company of one or more of their children.

In 1825 two events that would go on to define the protectorate and its people as different from their northern neighbor. The first was the enactment of the educational program similar to the one recently enacted in Portugal. All children were obliged to attend elementary school between the ages of seven and twelve. Languages taught in the schools were English and Portuguese, with those schools attended by Indian children would also have classes in one of the six Indians languages in the Protectorate. Secondly was the freedom to worship; traditional beliefs as well as both Roman Catholicism and Portuguese Catholicism existed side by side. In many parishes both catholic parishes shared the same church, one celebrated mass in Latin the other in the local language. As the number of Orthodox Christians increased so too did the number of Orthodox Churches. Government services also became available in both English and Portuguese as the number of people able to speak the language increased.

From then on the responsibility of working the land and protecting the people belonged to all people. With black, whites and Indians providing together the necessary volunteers to fulfill the protectorate’s quota on enlisting in the Portuguese armed forces. In 1825 the first returnees arrived back after serving their ten year commitment. These men slowly integrated back into society, many went on to work in government or in business, while some returned to their families farms but in all cases they returned as heroes. For they now possessed something very few of them had before they left the ability to read and write. Some of them even had received some formal education.[2] In 1828 the first reserve territory regiments were formed from returnees.

The largest issue for the people living in the Protectorates was the constant American “slave hunters” encroachments. The majority of the time these people would sneak into the Protectorate in hopes of capturing blacks who they claimed had escaped from America. In 1820 the first of many border posts and forts were built along the border. In that year it also became illegal to cross the border at any other point. Anyone caught would be subjected to one year in prison. Both escaped blacks and those chasing them were caught, at times together. Both parties were given the mandatory one year sentence, many times over the screaming objectives of their American compatriots and family. After serving 30 days any individual could be set free after they paid a fine equal to the price of ten adult male slaves. Escaped slaves served their time in one of many jails/camps where on their day of release they would be allowed to apply to be legal residents.

Economically agricultural production became the primary means of revenue with cotton being the leading cash crop. Unlike Portuguese provinces they were free to sell to whoever they wished. But due to the high demand in the Portuguese mills the majority went to Portugal. In the 1820s winter agricultural produce and citrus sales to the northern United States started growing by huge leaps and bounds.

At the end of the 1820s the protectorates population had surpassed 550,000. The largest segment was blacks at 205,000 followed by Indians at 160,000 while the Hispanic had been displaced to fourth place by the thousands of refugees mostly from eastern and southern Europe accepted into the protectorate. The remaining 185,000 were a mixture of the new immigrants and Hispanic whom still numbered close to 85,000.

Southern Unites States and Portuguese Protectorates at end of 1820’s​

[1] Department for the Protection of Portuguese Speaking People

[2] The Portuguese armed forces had started providing its soldiers with classes in reading and writing when it was found that soldiers who could read and write performed better and more efficiently than those that did not. Some soldiers would be allowed to take additional classes to further their education and those of exceptional skill were chosen for formal education within the military system. Protectorate soldiers were expected to learn the language as well as reading and writing.

 

[Lusitania]

Book III 1800-1825
O Renascimento de um Império - Guerra e Política (Part XVIII)​

Economics & Growth​

The population growth experienced in Portugal Metropolitan as a result of the agricultural changes first in Portugal Metropolitano then in other provinces initiated at the end of the 18th century along with the massive immigration of people both from parts of Europa as well as Portuguese overseas provinces provided much of the manpower that was needed to continue the industrial and commercial growth in the 19th century that had been started in the previous century.​

For over half a century Portugal had been “blessed” by strong and enlightened governmental policies and leaders. The Portuguese industrial model which integrated the entire empire and people into one economic system meant that the home country-colony model favored by other countries had been ditched and substituted with the Portuguese model.​

The Portuguese government had realized early on that the Portuguese territory and population in Europa lacked the necessary dimensions to compete with other European countries such as Great Britain, Espanha and França therefore the government had allowed for the creation and growth of industries in its overseas provinces. Industrial growth resulted in massive industrialization of not only in Portugal Metropolitano but also Portuguese América, the Province of Angola and Portuguese Índia by the 1820s. Even other Portuguese provinces saw a huge increase in industry. ​

In most provinces the raw materials were processed and manufactured goods made from them, so much so that by 1820 the value of the manufactured goods from Portuguese América provinces was overtaking the value of all agricultural and other raw materials from those provinces. The same thing happened in Portuguese Índia as well as Angola. By the 1820s the industrial and commercial activity in either Portuguese América or Portuguese Índia was more than four times the size of the entire Portuguese Empire in 1750. ​

The growth in industry in the Portuguese overseas provinces was so extensive primarily due to several factors:

• The investment by Portuguese companies in the creation of factories in these provinces out of fear that the Portugal Metropolitano would fall to the advancing French forces in the early part of the Península Ibérica War.
• The continued investment in these factories due to their profitability and lack of labour in Portugal Metropolitano.
• The inclusion of Non-Europeans as citizens and their development and creation of factories either independently or in partnership with Capitalists from other parts of Portugal and a few perceptive other Europeans.
• The lack of raw materials in Portugal Metropolitano

The growth of Portugal’s industrial capacity and the expansion of its industrial base had been made possible by the continued scientific and industrial discoveries and advancements made in Portugal and elsewhere especially in Great Britain. Portuguese industrialists and inventors continued to develop new ways and means to expand their business as well as create new opportunities.​

The continued creation and development of steel factories and foundries along the Rio Mondego Basin had resulted in it becoming one of Portugal’ major industrial centers with the largest concentration of steel factories and foundries as well as related industries in the country. The Portuguese stock markets in Lisboa and Porto continued to provide the means for these enterprises to expand and grow. ​

New entrepreneurs both from within Portugal as well as foreigners were attracted to this area. In 1800 William Murdoch, a Scottish engineer and inventor who had been working for the steam engine firm Boulton and Watt in Cornwall for over 10 years left Great Britain and immigrated to Portugal settling in the small town Ereira on the banks of the Rio Mondego. His decision to immigrate to Portugal was in part due to his desire to be the master of his own shop and the restrictive manner of firm Boulton and Watt and its principal partners. After his tenure of resignation, one of the principal partners, James Watt decided to retire and he was offered a partnership in the firm. But he stuck to his earlier decision and left Great Britain to setup his own shop with the help of the Portuguese. He saw greater opportunities in Portugal than in Great Britain due in large part to the expiration of Watt’s fundamental patent and access to both Portuguese capital and government assistance. ​

William Murdoch founded the Murdoch Foundry to make steam engines with assistance from Portuguese investors and government. The Murdoch Foundry went on to become one of the country’s most important industrial foundation as well as William Murdoch one of Portugal’s leading inventors. He allowed Portugal to become the first country other than Great Britain with the ability to manufacture steam engines. He also brought to Portugal gas lighting which became widely used throughout the empire. He also made great advancements in the development of both paddle Steamship and locomotive.​

William Murdoch​

Starting in 1815 with the end of Península Ibérica War Portuguese entrepreneurs started investing in the former Spanish provinces that had become incorporated into Portugal Metropolitano. The province of Astúrias with its rich coal and Iron Ore deposits was one of the provinces that saw a huge rush of investors including William Murdoch who started a new foundry in the city of Oviedo. He was one of the principal investors and backer of the first Portuguese railroad, the Astúrias Railway which was built in 1817 connecting the extensive coal mines south of the city of Oviedo using his steam locomotive design. His steam locomotive went on to became the standard on which the Portuguese rail industry would grow. In 1820 he again spearheaded the creation of the Figueira da Foz-Coimbra rail line which was over 30 miles.​

Picture of Murdoch Steam locomotive operating on the Astúrias Railway in 1820​

He also made several important discoveries in the field of Chemistry and by the 1820 his improved steam engine had become a major player in the steam engine development surpassing several steam engines made in Great Britain.​

By 1825 there were over six railroads operating or being constructed on the peninsula and the same amount overseas.​

The opening of the Lisboa-Leiria railroad, which would in time link up to Coimbra then on to Porto​

In 1815 the paddle steamship Lusitania began trials along the Rio Douro and after retrofitting in 1816 was able to make the Douro-Lisboa at a rate of 10 miles per hour (mph). In 1818 the Lusitania made the Lisboa-London trip with an average speed of 12 (mph). It then visited the cities of rest of Europe going to Rotterdam and up the Rhine to Koblenz before returning to Portugal.​

The Murdoch foundry firm became one of the principal suppliers of marine engines along with his old firm Boulton and Watt although both commercial firms in both Portugal and Great Britain along with the Portuguese Navy became Murdoch’s firm main customer while The English Royal Navy was Boulton and Watt main customer.​

The success of these steamships would soon revolutionized sea travel throughout the empire, although at the beginning paddle steamships were limited to River transport and coastal areas.
​

Lusitania Steam ship maiden voyage on the Mondego River traveling between Figueira da Foz and Coimbra
​

In 1821 one of the other principal economic advancements in Portuguese Economic history also happened with the arrival of Carl Mayer Rothschild, the fourth son of Mayer Amschel Rothschild, in the city of Lisboa. The Rothschild family banking empire with its headquarters in Frankfurt and branch offices in London, Paris and Vienna had grown enormously during the Napoleonic Wars and the firm was one of the principal banking empires in Europa with extensive ties with both the Áustrian and British governments. ​

The growth and maturity of the Portuguese economy in becoming the second most industrialized and modern in the world by the 1820s proved to be a great attractive point for the Rothschild family. Lisboa became the fifth and last branch office of the family. In 1821 following the adoption of the Portuguese Constitution which guaranteed the right of new Christians as well as Jews, the founder of the Rothschild Banking Empire, Mayer Amschel Rothschild saw Portugal as one of the major areas of opportunity.​

Carl Mayer Rothschild
Head of the Lisboa branch of the Rothschild Bank​

The opening of the Rothschild branch office in Lisboa also led to revitalization in both of Portugal’s stock exchanges the “Junta do Comèrcio de Lisboa” and “Junta do Comèrcio de Porto”. The attention of the Rothschild on the relatively unknown Portuguese stock exchanges provided them with additional exposure.​

The Portuguese banking system also continued to increase during the beginning of the 19th century, the Bank of Portugal continued to expand with branches in most large cities not only in Portugal Metropolitano but also in the principal cities of the Portuguese overseas provinces. In 1810 the Portuguese banking act allowed for the founding of other banks in the country, starting in 1811 to 1820s over ten banks were founded most importantly “Banco de Lisboa”, “Banco de Porto”, “Banco de Lusitania”, “Banco de Rio de Janeiro”, “Banco de Goa” and “Banco de Macao”.​

The expansion of the “Estradas do Rei” in the new Portuguese provinces on the Península Ibérica had begun as soon as these particular areas were brought into the country. Initially they were done to provide the Portuguese armies with the mobility needed to respond to the different threats and to bring the supplies to the campaigning armies. ​

The largest of these roads extended from the Porto along the Rio Douro to Valladolid then on to the Castilian cities’ of Burgos, Victoria and finally reaching São Sebastião. The withdrawal of the Portuguese from Castela did not eliminate the use of this road as it soon became the primary land route of Portuguese trade through Castela. Unlike Portuguese roads which continued to be free in 1821 the Castilian government began charging a toll to travelers using the road.​

The continued industrial development also continued in the textile sector with both Guimarães and Castelo Branco continuing to be the principal areas of production in Portugal Metropolitano but the growth of the industry in Portuguese Américan cities especially in São Paulo and in Portuguese Índia specifically centered in both Diu and Damão would in time come to surpass the production in Portugal Metropolitano. ​

War and Politics (Act III)​

Portuguese Foreign Politics – Emergence of an Empire​

During the first part of the 19th century Portugal faced its greatest challenge, one which its very existence and independence was at stake. For close to 15 years it fought a vicious war first against a joint Spanish-French invasion and later when França had deposed of its ally against França, in the Península Ibérica, on the high seas and in every continent.​

Portugal unlike its main ally, Great Britain did not have a ocean protection from the French enemies, it concentrated it entire war and foreign policy during the war years twofold: 1) Fight the enemy on foreign soil sparing the country, economy and people from the ravages of the war 2) To actively attempt to enlarge the conflict to other parts of Europa in order to alleviate pressure on Portugal.​

The Portuguese government was very successful, it could be said that they themselves were actually surprised, amazed at the successes of the Portuguese Armed forces against the French. This was due to several factors, such as an experienced disciplined army, qualified officers, some of the best tactical military leaders and Portuguese arms technology. The entire Península Ibérica War was fought exclusively on Spanish soil later Castilian soil, unfortunately leaving that country fragmented, its people destitute and the countryside barren.​

The Portuguese government aided in both the evacuation of the Spanish government and monarchy to Nova Espanha and the subsequent creation of the Kingdoms of Castela and Aragão in the former Spanish provinces on the Península Ibérica. The Portuguese government also aided in the guaranteeing and aid to the Kingdom of Two Sicilies which with Portuguese and English assistance for an intensive purposes eliminated the Kingdom of Italy from aiding Napoleão and França when they most needed help.​

On the diplomatic level the Portuguese was able to maintain very good relationship with França continental enemies specifically Prússia, Áustria, Sweden and Rússia. This relationship along with these countries admiration of Portugal’s successes against the French was instrumental in convincing them to continue their struggle against França and especially crucial in convincing Rússia to withdraw from the Continental Blockade which ultimately resulted in Napoleão’s disastrous Rússian Campaign.​

It was Portugal’s relationship with these countries that allowed it to sway these countries to support Portugal’s position on Espanha and the Península Ibérica during the Congress of Vienna. Portugal was able to do so because of its military and political successes and the fact that Portuguese diplomacy still had not caught up to its status. Portugal as opposed to Great Britain did not have that presumptuous that marked its relative power in the world and treated other European powers with respect and as equals.​

Portugal’s most difficult diplomatic relationship was with Great Britain, at the beginning of the century Portugal continued to tolerate Great Britain’s big brother attitude because the Portuguese government viewed this to be in Portugal best interest and did not wish to risk antagonizing Great Britain with the French-Spanish threat at its border. During the early parts of the war the British government attitude as well as English newspapers admired and praised the heroics of the Portuguese battles against the mighty French army. As the war progressed and the full extent of the Portuguese success both diplomatically and militarily became apparent the admiration began to be replaced with weariness and disdain as both the British government and business community came to realize Portugal as a more of a competitor instead of a client state.​

Portugal’s diplomatic maneuvers in the Península Ibérica with the expulsion of Espanha to the Américas and the creation of the Kingdoms of Castela and Aragão shocked the British and several times the British only supported a Portuguese measure or diplomatic maneuver to weaken the main enemy “Napoleão”. The Portuguese support for the Kingdom of Two Sicilies was at first ignored by Great Britain until its success was almost assured and then Great Britain was forced rush both diplomatic as well as financial support in an effort to not loose influence and prestige.​

At the Congress of Vienna the British diplomatic effort was initially hampered by its refusal to treat Portugal as an equal and many of the other European powers purposely built-up Portugal’s prestige and position as a means of bringing down English superiority.​

After the Congress, Portugal’s relationship with Great Britain moved to an adversarial role both economically as well as imperial. The expansion of Portugal in Índia, África, América and Asia greatly alarmed the British government. Portugal had been able to carve out itself a large chunk of Índia and Asia and its Áfrican domains were the most successful and largest on the continent. Great Britain sought several ways to both limit Portugal’s expansion and expand its own empire. On the economic front, English businesses came under increasingly pressure from the growing Portuguese industrialization. The dominance of British industry came under growing competition from the new industries in Portugal. It was actually ironic that almost half of the new Portuguese capitalists were transplanted English who had settled in Portugal and either moved their enterprises or started their enterprises in Portugal due to the availability of capital and the Portuguese governments direct subsidies and support.​

To strengthen Portugal’s position in Europa and provide it with additional backing against the growing English hostilities, Portugal and Prússia signed several economic and financial agreements following the Congress of Vienna. The Prússian King, Frederico Guilherme III, also sought to tie the two countries together politically and the Prússians advanced the union of the two countries through the marriage of Prince Henrique to Princess Carlota, the eldest daughter of King Frederico Guilherme III.​

The Portuguese crown prince Henrique, the Prince of Brasil was still unmarried, several suitors from Europa had over the previous years sought to advance their positions but the Portuguese had kept them all awaiting during the war and thus providing it with additional diplomatic advantages during the congress. In October 1813 the Crown prince accompanied the Portuguese delegation visiting Berlin; there the two royal families made arrangements for the wedding of Prince Henrique and Princess Carlota. The two met during the visit and both seemed to like each other and the engagement was soon announced although the wedding did not take place till June 15 1816. ​

Princess Carlota arrived in Lisboa on May 22 1816 accompanied by her older brother Prince Guilherme and converted to Portuguese Catholicism on May 31. On June 15 1816 she married Prince Henrique.​

On June 10 1814 the second royal wedding was announced when Princess Margaret the only daughter of King José II was engaged to Prince Nicolau the younger brother of the Rússian Emperor Alexandre I. On June 20 1817 the princess accompanied by both Prince Henrique and Princess Carlota journeyed to St. Petersburg where she married Prince Nicolau on July 15 1817. ​

The two royal marriages to two of Europa’s leading countries Prússia and Rússia provided Portugal with some diplomatic and prestige but most importantly was the announcement to the rest of the world of Portugal rise to power and its new stature. ​

Princesa Carlota daughter of Prússian King, Frederico Guilherme III
Queen Carlota of Portugal​

Portuguese Domestic Politics – Rise of Democracy

The Portuguese government and the political environment it operated under also saw a great deal of modification and unrest during the first quarter of the 19th century. The authoritarian rule used by both the Marquês de Pombal and his immediate successor had been largely replaced by a consensus rule first under the prime ministers of the 19th century: Aires de Sá de Melo from 1795 to his retirement in 1805 and then by Conde de Feira, Miguel Pereira Forjaz till his retirement in 1820 both men had also relied on large extent on the king’s influence and backing. ​

In 1820 as part of the 1st Constitutional Monarchy D. José II appointed Manuel Inácio Martins Pamplona Corte Real the Duque de Oviedo as Prime Minister and Pedro Sousa Holstein the Duque de Leão as Minister of War and Foreign Affairs.​

The country’s internal politics had been dominated by the Conservative and the Imperial Movements since the late 1790’s. The Conservative Movement was a reactionary movement that arose among some of the monarchists and middle class in reaction to the mass migration and granting of rights to the non Europeans in Portugal. Some of their greatest support was actually in Portuguese América from the large estate owners who viewed the party as a means of stopping the Portuguese government’s policies on slavery reform. ​

The Imperial party was the leading political movement in Portugal till the mid 1810’s. Most of the government’s ministers were supporters of it and it enjoyed both Royal as well as mass support amongst the populace. The Imperialist advocated a continued social, economic and political development that would continue to allow Portugal to continue its economic, military and social progress. They viewed the granting of rights to non Europeans and the mass migrations as the only way that Portugal could compete with the other European countries that had huge European Populations.​

The Península Ibérica War along with the subsequent installation of Constitutional Monarchies governments in both Castela and Aragão led to an exposure to more democratic and liberal governments that appealed to many individuals in Portugal. Following the Congress of Vienna, Portugal was in constant political turmoil with the advent of two new political movements: the liberal conservatives (Cartistas) who advocated a joint monarchy / political power sharing arrangement and the liberal radicals (Liberals) which advocated a complete removal of the monarchy from government, although they still recognized the existence of the monarchy but only in a symbolic manner. ​

All of these competing political movements were for the most part limited to the major cities but resentment and hostilities started erupting continually culminating with the riots of Lisboa and Porto in July of 1818 between the rival parties but also against the government.​

The Portuguese government was forced to call out the military to restore order but not before unrest had spread to other Portuguese cities and towns. In August the government arrested the principal leaders of the main parties, but instead of imprisoning them, a meeting was arranged between the leaders of the different political movements and King D. José II. On august 20, 1818 the Portuguese government announced the creation of the “Congresso da Constituição da Nação Portuguesa” in city of Beja starting in October. The Constitutional Congress would meet to create the countries first Constitution.
​

Riot between Rival Portuguese Political movements in Lisboa and Porto in 1818​

The Portuguese Constitutional congress met over the winter and all through 1819 with the liberal who advocated a constitution similar to the one in both Castela and Aragão while the Cartistas took up the position of “English Constitution” there were also representatives from the Monarchists who advocated the status quo and were hoping for the complete failure of the congress. The Imperialists watched nervously these proceedings and tried to work with all groups to avoid a civil war and political instability which would put them and their commercial interests along with the empire at risk. The conservatives joined the monarchists in their attempt to both stop any further erosion of their rightful place and the limitation of the rights and privileges of the non Europeans in the empire.​

In October of 1819 King D. José II along with his chief political adviser Silvestre Pinheiro Ferreira, the most famed Portuguese Philosopher at the time traveled to Beja and actively participated in the congress. Under their directions and influence the members were able to create the “Constituição Portuguesa de 1820” by the end of March 1820.​

The constitution was a compromise and none of the parties were in absolute agreement with it, the Cartistas were the main supporters of King D. José II, followed by both the Monarchists who although they hated it were morally forced to support it due to its support by the King and the Imperialists who were happy the whole thing was over and they could go on and making money and the empire could go on expanding and growing.​

The constitution was divided into 145 articles, of which the basic principles were as follows:​

· The sovereignty would be reside in both the King and the Nation
· The King would be the supreme in all politics
· The individual rights and duties of each Portuguese Citizen, in regards to liberty, security and property were entrenched in the constitution and all citizens were granted equally in the eyes of the law.
· The right of existence of hereditary nobility with all exemptions and privileges as long as these did not supplant the rights of other citizens.
· The independence of the three political entities (legislative, executive and judicial)
· The continuation of a Hereditary Constitutional Monarchy
· The establishment of a permanent legislative assembly “Corte” elected by the people and the responsibility of the Corte to govern the nation with the executive branch.
· The definition of the Portuguese Sovereignty as the union of all Portuguese which would be represented by the Corte which by the virtue of being elected by the people legitimizes it.
· The definition of national territory which included Portugal Metropolitano, adjacent islands and North África, Portuguese América, Portuguese Índia, Portuguese África, Portuguese Indies , Portuguese East Asia and all colonies. The official name of Portugal would be that of “O Reino de Portugal, Algarve, Brasil e Índia”
· The Corte would be supreme in all internal matters including taxation.
· The continuation of Portuguese Catholic Church being the official church of Portugal, provisions were made for the new Christian and Jewish religions which would be allowed to exist and all Portuguese citizens of these religions did not have to pay any special tax.
The Legislative branch of government or “Corte” would be made of two chambers “câmaras”; the Câmara de Deputados would be composed of elected deputies who would be elected on a two year basis, and the Câmara de Pares which would be composed nobles and clerical who were appointed for life and led by the Prince of Brasil or heir to the throne. The size of the Câmara de Pares would be limited to no more than the size of the Câmara de Deputados.
The Executive branch of the government would be comprised of the King who would choose from members of both câmaras the ministers who would comprise the executive committee. The number from each câmaras must be the same.

The most contentious issue arose over the ability of the King to dissolve the Câmara de Deputados and the needs for it to approve all laws. The King could dissolve the Câmara de Deputados but a new election had to be called with six months. The compromise came with the agreement that all taxation laws and bills needed to be sent to the Câmara de Deputados for approval.

The Câmara de Pares “Peers” was meant to provide the necessary “second thought” but their powers were more limited and if any law passed the Câmara de Deputados by a margin of 80% then the Câmara de Pares was forced to pass it.

Finally the judicial branch was responsible for the courts and would be appointed by the King, from a list of candidates put forward by both Câmara de Deputados and Câmara de Pares. Candidates needed to be licensed by the Portuguese Law society.

The suffrage for the Câmara de Deputados was based on an indirect vote and only those who met a specific income could vote and be elected. Any man who was over the age of 25 and who could read and write and earned over 5 thousand reis was eligible to vote in parochial assemblies for the provincial voters who in turn elected the deputies to the Câmara de Deputados. To be elected as a provincial voter a person needed to earn at least 25 thousand reis and to be elected as a national deputy the person needed to earn at least 100 thousand reis. This would limit those who could vote due to both income and educational needs and excluded more than half of the population.

The first election was held in September of 1820 in all Portuguese provinces both in Europa and overseas. Over 40% of all deputies came from the Portuguese overseas provinces with about 15% of all deputies being of non-European background. In the first few elections the voters voted for the individuals as opposed to parties and only starting in the 30s did people really starting affiliating themselves with political parties and voters start voting for political parties as apposed for individuals.​

First Portuguese Elected Corte of 1820​

In September the King also appointed the members of the Câmara de Pares which provided him with some of the most influential men in the country. He appointed Manuel Inácio Martins Pamplona Corte Real, the Duque de Oviedo from the Câmara de Pares as Prime Minister and Pedro Sousa Holstein the Duque de Leão as Minister of War and Foreign Affairs. Both were adamant supporters of the monarchy but also liberal in thinking.​

Manuel Inácio Martins Pamplo
Duque de Oviedo
Prime Minister1820-1826 ​

​

Pedro Sousa Holstein
the Duque de Leão
Minister of War and Foreign Affairs 1820-1826​

Portuguese Domestic Politics – Democracy in Action​

The new Portuguese government was in most part helped by two factors: the guidance of King D. José II who at the age of 59 had been on the throne for 43 years. He was an avid student of both Portuguese and European History and been a keen observer of the workings and dealings of his previous prime ministers and been actively involved in a most of the government planning and discussions his whole reign; the experience and ability of the men he chose to form his executive cabinet.​

The new Portuguese government continued many if not all of the previous governments policies and objectives, it’s most influential and impacts were the creation of deputy committees that would over the next decades bring forward some of the most far reaching social, economic and political changes.​

The first major crisis faced by the country was the worsening situation in Marrocos with the succession of Moulay Abderrahmane to the Marrocan throne. Portuguese territory in North África came under increasingly border attacks and piracy which had greatly diminished under the previous king flared up again and threatened to strangle the Portuguese trade in the area.​

In 1821 the Portuguese government was able to get an agreement with both Great Britain and França on a joint declaration “The Barcelona Piracy Convention” on the piracy situation in North África which called on the North Áfrican governments to either control piracy in their countries and to stop pirates from using their countries as a base for attacks on shipping or be declared an outlaw countries.​

When diplomacy failed to stem the attacks Portugal stepped up its attacks of both Marrocos and pirates. From 1822 to 1825 over 100 ships from North África (pirates) were captured or sunk by the Portuguese, English and French navies but instead of piracy diminishing it seemed to aggravate the situation even more.​

In 1824 Portugal launched full scale attacks on the major Coastal cities in Marrocos in the hopes of this pressuring the Marrocan government to abide by the Barcelona agreement instead this in turn caused major war to break out between Marrocos and Portugal in the spring of 1825. ​

The Portuguese government ordered the Guadiana Army to Mazagão in April and Douro army started arriving in Tangiers in November but a full scale attack planed for December was put off as Portugal entered into three months of official mourning due to the death of D. José II in 1825.​

On November 15, 1825 Portugal lost one of its greatest Kings, D. José II died at the age of 64 after ruling for over 48 years the longest ruling king in Portugal’s history. The country took the death really hard, for the majority of the Portuguese he had been the only king they had known. On November 20 1825 D. Henrique II was proclaimed 27th King of the Kingdom of Portugal, Galiza, Leão, Algarve, Brasil, Índia and all Portuguese.​

Death of D. José II​

 

[Lusitania]

Book III 1800-1825
O Renascimento de um Império - Guerra e Política (Part XIX)​

Immigration and Emigration

The Portuguese government’s limited and controlled immigration policy for the previous 50 years came completely apart at the start of the 19th century. The Península Ibérica War and other subsequent wars of conquest in Índia and Ásia as well as the expansion into the interior of África left the country with a huge population problem which in many cases was both hostile to Portuguese rule and rejected Portuguese attempts to introduce their language, culture and religion.

On the Península Ibérica the Portuguese government’s policy towards the remaining Spanish speaking population was as follows: any citizen who refused to swear allegiance to both the Portuguese Church and Crown was expelled to Spanish colonies in the Américas, these individuals were deported with only what they could carry and had to leave all their other belongings behind. Spanish aggression or revolt in the Portuguese occupied provinces would result in thousands of individuals being rounded up and either being deported or swearing their allegiance in public. From 1801 to 1820 when all hostilities ended approximately half of the Spanish speaking population in the new Portuguese provinces of Galiza, Astúrias, Leão, Estremadura and Western Andaluzia (Huelva) were either forcibly moved to Espanha in the Américas without regard to the Spanish colonies ability to care for them, these voyages became known in Espanha as the “Voyages of Tears” or migrated to the new country of Castela east of Portugal.

The Portuguese were also obligated to care for tens of thousands of Spanish refugees who had fled French aggression in French occupied Península Ibérica. Following the end of the war most of those still remaining in Portugal along with tens of thousands of Spanish speaking citizens moved to the new country of Castela which had emerged east of Portugal on the Península Ibérica.

A large portion of the Spanish speaking citizens in the new Portuguese provinces in the Península Ibérica who did swear allegiance to the Portuguese Crown and converted to Portuguese Catholicism were in turn moved to other Portuguese provinces in África, Índia and Ásia. These migrants received financial compensation for their remaining property as well as given economic incentives in their new provinces.

The migration from the Italian Península, Germanies and Polish lands greatly increased as turmoil and war along with both starvation and persecution drove thousands of new migrants to Portugal. The continued Ibérica War made many of these people weary of settling in the Península Ibérica and some migrants chose instead to migrate directly to Portuguese América which alarmed many leading government officials in Lisboa. In 1808 the Portuguese government formally allowed for the first time direct migration of Europeans to its overseas provinces.

In Ireland the continued New Christian and Catholic people animosity along with the general poverty and desperation of many people continued to provide new migrants. In the beginning of the century América had started to provide the Irish people with an alternative but following the war of 1814 they became hostile to continued immigrants from the British Isles and also catholic ones. The British colonies became a substitute for America which along with Portugal continued to be the leading destinations of the Irish emigrants.

The War of 1812 between Portugal-Great Britain and América resulted in a very traumatic episode for the large Portuguese-Américan community in North East United States. They like other English citizens were singled out as collaborators and spies but being from a foreign country and being catholic meant their treatment was undoable harsher. The Portuguese government had to intercede in their behalf and threaten América with new hostilities to protect their lives and property. Between the 1816 and 1830, Portugal assisted tens of thousands of Portuguese and Portuguese-Américans moving to Portuguese provinces in África and Índia.

The migration of Europeans to the overseas provinces during the first part of the 19th century was enormous and extremely expensive but the arrival of so many skilled trades’ people provided a huge boost to these provinces.

The movement of people as always was two ways, as tens of thousands of Áfricans, Índians and Ásians were also moved to other provinces. The number of Portuguese Índians, Timorenses and Macaenses in África, the Américas and Península Ibérica reached all time highs. In the Península Ibérica the number of non-Europeans citizens reached over two million by the 1820s. This did not include the over one million non-Iberian European residents living in the Península.



In the mid 1820s the Portuguese-Marrocos War started providing a new source of migrants as Portugal quickly forced the former residents of many towns, villages and cities to other provinces as a means of controlling hostile territory and depriving local resistance of supporters and information.

• Península Ibérica 8 million​
• Mazagão / Ceuta 60,000​
• Province of Cabo Verde / Guinea 450,000​
• Province of Angola 2.5 million​
• Province of Moçambique 3.5 million​
• Portuguese Índia 8 million​
• Portuguese East Indies 9 million* (only about 3 million lived under Portuguese rule)​
• Portuguese East Asia 250,000​
• Portuguese América 7 million​

• Total 39 million​

Portuguese Population in 1825 (aporx)​

The Portuguese population demographics and statistics which started to become more available in the 19th century provided a clearer picture of the population of Portugal and all its provinces. The bulk or three quarters of all residents in the Portuguese Empire now resided outside of the Metropolitan (Península Ibérica).

The economic and political implications was not lost on the government, the number of Portuguese citizens in the overseas provinces would continue to grow at a greater rate than the Metropolitan in large part due to the size of the area. The government also became more alarmed by the political situation of its overseas provinces and at home.

The Portuguese government reluctantly under the direction and guidance of King D. José II began a both a Political and Metropolitan enlargement project. While many in the government initially opposed the Political enlargement (constitutional reforms) but due in part to both the respect for the King and his forcefulness it was finally pushed through in 1820, the second project the enlargement of Portugal Metropolitano was adopted whole heartedly by all.

D. José II feared that political instability and possibly political unrest could destabilize the country and lead to a reversal of many economic and social policies that had advanced the country but continued unpopular amongst some quarters especially the nobles. These people who formed the bulk of the Conservative force in the country were for the most part kept at bay due to Portugal’s continued imperial and economic growth. This could lead to an emergence of an independence movement in the Portuguese Américan provinces and the loss of territory in África, Índia and Asia to other European powers.

The Political Enlargement was achieved by the implementation of the 1st Portuguese Constitution in 1820 that for the first time allowed the citizens the right to have a say in their government. It was for all intensive purposes a comprise constitution providing some democracy while maintaining Monarchy oversight.

The enlargement of the Metropolitan was a huge undertaking that was approached with caution and incognito. The Portuguese government planned on increasing the Portuguese Metropolitan area to include all of Marrocos. The inclusion of this territory would more than double the size of Portugal Metropolitano and provide the country the ability to grow the Portuguese Metropolitan population at the same rate or faster than the overseas provinces. In 1824 the Portuguese government put forward several plans that would in turn force the radical government in Marrocos to attack Portuguese territory and provide Portugal with "casus belli" to invade and annex Marrocos.



Church and State Part III

The Portuguese Catholic Church which had since its separation from the Holy See become a dominant player in the internal struggles of the country started to expand its influence outside of the country into neighboring countries as Portuguese power and influence also expanded.

On the domestic side the church continued it new philosophy of openness and inclusion. By 1820s over 70% of all people living throughout the Portuguese empire were not of European descent but over 95% of people in the country belonged to the Portuguese Catholic Church. (This figure only included the areas actually controlled by Portugal and not all the territory claimed by it, as the case in África and East Asia. The church hierarchy had also come to reflect that of its congregation. The number of priests, nuns and brothers and sisters was close to 60% of non-European origin with the number of Áfrican priests being the largest growing segment. Of the 50 Dioceses in the country only 18 were in Europa and 22 of the Bishops were of Non-European descent with the bulk of those being from Índia which itself had nine dioceses.

During the Península Ibérica War all areas under Portuguese control became battle grounds between the Spanish Roman Catholic Church and the Portuguese Catholic Church. From 1801 when the first Spanish territory was occupied by Portugal to the end of the war in 1812 saw 90% of all Spanish Roman Catholic officials being expelled to the Américas from Portuguese occupied territory and their property divided between the Portuguese Catholic Church and the Portuguese government.

The creation of the Kingdoms of Castela and Aragão in the remaining areas of the Península as well as the handing over the Rio de la Plata area in the Américas to the Castilians with their liberal constitution did not bode well for the Roman Catholic Church. Many more priests, nuns and religious leaders left these countries for Espanha in the Américas or the Italian Península. In the 1820s independent Catholic churches based on the Portuguese model were operating and thriving in these two countries. The new churches provided the people with a similar experience and tradition without having the authoritarian and negative experience many felt towards the old church which included the imposing of the inquisition that had been used throughout the centuries to repress and punish those that disagreed with the church.

The Portuguese Catholic Church’s relationship with other Christian dominations also improved, as the Portuguese New Christians were not only tolerated but their rights and that of the Jewish faith entrenched in the Portuguese Constitution. Dialog between the Portuguese Catholic Church and the other Christian faiths in other parts of Europa also expanded and that in turn helped Portugal’s image.

This dialogue and expanded relationship also provided its own challenges and problems. A movement within the church to completely separate the Portuguese Catholic Church from the Holy See started gaining much following. Since the separation, the Pope continued to be the spiritual leader but all doctrine, administration and political matters of the Portuguese Catholic Church were handled by the Portuguese Religious Council. Under the leadership of José Francisco Miguel António de Mendonça, the Archbishop of Lisboa the Council spearheaded a campaign against the separation. It was the council’s view that when the Holy See reformed the church in line with the Portuguese model then it would be possible for both churches to be part of the same communion. The Archbishop of Lisboa was also worried that such a move would deeply divide the country and cause a split within the Portuguese Catholic Church.

The Portuguese Catholic had its first leadership meeting in 1818 where all 50 dioceses bishops and cardinals met together for the first time to discuss religious doctrine and to set the path for the church and its congregation. It was at these meetings to be held every five years that the diversity of even the churches hierarchy could be seen. Of the 39 Bishops and Cardinal present (9 Bishops and 2 Cardinals were too sick to make the first meeting and instead sent representatives) there were two African Bishops, three from the East Indies, four of Chinese descent and eight of Indian descent. In 1823 the first non-European Cardinal was approved by the Portuguese Religious council and confirmed at the second Portuguese Catholic Church meeting. Cardinal João Gilberto Remedios of the province of Mazagão was confirmed as the Portuguese Cardinal for all Portuguese North Africa.

One of the biggest shifts in the workings of the church both on the parish level as well as the Portuguese religious orders in the Portuguese Empire was the emphases on working with the poor and sick. This was backed both politically and from the churches own hierarchy. Coinciding with these movements the expansion of the Portuguese Catholic Church into Roman Catholic areas of the Península Ibérica and further expansion of the empire strained the churches ability to carry out its mandates.

In 1802 father João Murphy, an Irish-Portuguese who had immigrated to Portugal with his parents in the 1760s and who was stationed in the city of Badajoz at Church of Immaculate Conception organized local Portuguese Catholic men in the parish into religious group called “Cavaleiros de Santo Condestavel”. This religious group’s purpose was to promote and defend Portuguese Catholicism in newly conquered Spanish territory. It appealed to many of the Portuguese men who had moved to the new territories and soon began spreading first in the city to other parishes then slowly throughout all the new territory. As new territories were added during the war it spearheaded the Portuguese Catholicism movement in the Península Ibérica. In 1810 the group officially became “Order of Saint Condestavel” by both Royal ascent as well as Religious Council support. Over the next decades its roots spread to all of the Portuguese provinces both in Europa as well as overseas provinces. Its membership included many of the most prestigious men in Portugal including many nobles. It promoted “Portugalization” or the integration of new areas into the Portuguese Empire through the integration of the people in these areas into Portugal. During the Portuguese-Marrocan War it organized and ran the distribution of tens of thousands Islamic Marrocans to other Portuguese provinces while at the same time bringing to North África tens of thousands of “knights” and their families into newly pacified areas.

What was actually very interesting was that for the first years the majority of the men who joined the Order of Saint Condestavel were non-European Portuguese and even when the organization spread throughout all the provinces the non-European component was always very strong and for the most part they were the most passionate and vocal supporters of the Order’s actions and works.

​

The second evangelical movement in Portuguese Catholicism at the beginning of the 19th century was the re-introduction of the “Order of the Widow” in 1812 by the Portuguese Religious Council. Bishop Antonio II de Castro, the Bishop of Porto had been instrumental in organizing and forming this important order. It became one of the most important lay organizations within the church as it administered to the poor and desolate which in many cases were women and their children.

Both the Casa de Pia and the Casa de Misericórdia had also continued their expansion through the work of regular people as well as the religious orders. By the early 1820s they had established themselves in every province and were helping over one million people.

The scope of the church and its everyday working with people not only helping them with their spiritual needs but in many cases their physical and maternal needs made the church a truly “Church of the people”. Its influence also began spreading into other parts including the Italian Península, Ireland and Poland where many of the immigrants to Portugal had originated. Portuguese Catholicism philosophy started influencing some of the Roman Catholic Church’s officials and leaders in those countries which over time would gain momentum and ultimately result in the reformation of the Roman Catholic Church in the twilight years of the 19th century.

In the Indian Subcontinent the Portuguese provinces became a magnet for some of the oldest Christian and Jewish groups in the subcontinent. In the southern part of the Subcontinent, Kerala, Syrian Christians and Indian Jews there became the target of Hindu religious attacks in the early 1820s. Reaction to the continued British and Portuguese conquest of India and the arrival of Christian Missionaries gave rise to several Hindu uprisings targeting any person not Hindu. Both Hindu local leaders and British East India Company were unable to provide protection to the Christian and Jewish people as well as the remaining Buddhists people in Kerala and many sought refuge outside the province. Many Buddhists left Kerala for either neighboring provinces to the east or the Island of Ceylon. As for the Christians and Jews their options were limited most chose to migrate north to Bangalore from there they received an unexpected offer. The Portuguese Vice-Rei in Goa sent a delegation comprising of representatives from the small but growing Syrian Christians and Jewish communities in the Portuguese India.

Portuguese evangelization which in centuries past had been harsher towards these two groups than the Hindus had changed. The Inquisition had disappeared; taxation laws and government policies did not discriminate against fellow Christians and Jews like they did towards Muslims and Hindus. After visits by representatives of both groups including the Bishop of Syrian Christians, the majority of those who had fled as well as many who had stayed behind slowly began making their way north.

The Jewish Indians settled in Goa where they integrated into the growing Jewish population of the cities. Many were amazed at the openness of the Jews there but nothing prepared them for the Jewish Synagogues that existed in plain view without fear and concern. They were also surprised at the ability of their children to attend school and the University Preparatory Colleges and actual University when it was opened.

For the Syrian Christians their journey was longer but they too settled in Portuguese India. Their destination became Ahmadabad which became the new center for their faith and community. Originally weary of subvert attempts to convert them they too came to accept the fact that they now could live their lives without fear of attacks.


Enlightenment & Health

At the turn of century Portugal’s education system which less than 40 years before had been stuck in medieval times had been complete and radically modernized. A new primary and secondary school system was in place as well as a new university preparatory college system setup along with a modern and expanded new University System.

During the first part of the 19th century both the primary as well as the secondary school systems was extended throughout the empire. Basic education to laborers and farmers remained the responsibility of parish priest but many parishes had started providing basic writing and math education as part of this education. The primary school system was for the majority of the cases for children who would be filling higher positions in life. But two separate factors began to change this; the massive industrialization continually created more and more demand for skilled laborers and people who could read and write, many business owners took it amongst themselves to sponsor and pay for the most promising of their laborer’s children primary and in some cases even secondary education. The second factor was a direct result of the work started at the Casa de Pia as it expanded through the empire. Rich benefactors helped children of servants or workers to gain an education that their station in life would not normally entitle them.

University Preparatory Schools, “Colégio dos Nobres” were opened in the cities of Rio Grande, Calecute, Goa, Damão, Diu, Dili, Macau and Luanda providing students wishing to study in Universities an ability to prepare closer to their homes.

The most drastic change came in the early 1820s when the Portuguese government authorized the creation of the second Portuguese Catholic University in Calecute and more importantly the creation of the fourth and fifth universities in Portugal. The University of Rio de Janeiro and the University of Goa provided the empire with an unprecedented educational and research ability. They joined the three established Universities in Coimbra, Lisboa and Porto.

Over the next decades they along with the “Academia Real das Ciências de Lisboa” would be the catalysts for the advancements and discoveries that would not only distinguish the country but provide it with the economic and scientific advantage over its larger and stronger competitors.

One of the most interesting issues discovered in the many studies of hygiene and disease started the 1790s and into the beginning of the 19th century was the dramatic effect that clean water and sanitation began having on mortality rates and life expectancy especially in the major urban centers.

Portuguese villages, towns and cities in the Metropolitan as well all overseas provinces came under strict imperial orders to provide clean water, which in many cases meant creating aqueducts and other means of distribution of water. They were also ordered to provide proper human waste and garbage disposal. Through these actions Portuguese cities became some of the cleanest cities in Europa.

The personal hygiene policies greatly prevented the spread of disease throughout the empire. This was greatly challenged by the arrival of tens of thousands of Spanish refugees in Portuguese administered areas and the establishment of refugee centers in eastern Portugal. The Portuguese government used what many people considered draconian methods in forcing people to comply with its health edicts. Only those people who followed Portuguese health edicts were given food and unfortunately the army had to be called many times to re-establish order and arrest leaders of these revolts. Spanish clergy along with others who challenged Portuguese laws were arrested and deported.

As a result of the Portuguese health issues the Portuguese provinces in the Península Ibérica saw a huge population boom while the rest of the Península Ibérica suffered huge population declines due to war, famine and disease.

The study of disease and more specifically malaria provided Portuguese doctors and scientists with a greater understanding of its origins. The development of Quinine by Samuel Joaquim and Elisio Martin working along with French researcher Pierre Joseph Pelletier allowed the Portuguese empire to advance further inland in the Américas and as well as in África than any other European power.

 

[Lusitania]

Book III 1800-1825
O Renascimento de um Império - Guerra e Política (Part XX)​

Portuguese América

The Américas has been home to both the Portuguese and Spanish since 1500, when Portugal discovered Brasil. The Spanish and Portuguese had fought each other repeatedly for control of the continent since the founding of the first settlements; the last war in 1777 had gone in Portugal’s favour and had secured Brasil for Portugal as well as extended Portugal’s control south to the Rio Uruguai. In 1801, both the Portuguese and the Spanish in the Américas made preparation for war that was out of their control and influence.

In 1777, the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata had lost all territory east of the Uruguai River including the cities of Montevideo and Colonia. Since then in the intervening years both the Portuguese and the Spanish had built up their defenses along the Rio Uruguai with forts.

The Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata, Joaquín del Pino y Rozas, was adamant to not repeat the mistakes his predecessor, Pedro Antonio de Cevallos, had made. At the time of Cevallos’ defeat, the Vice-rei was in its infancy, now in 1801 its economy was booming and the population had also greatly increased.

All of this was accomplished under the shadow of its larger and more powerful neighbor to the north, Portuguese América (Brasil). The Portuguese territory in the Américas been transformed into a huge regional economic and military power. The Portuguese government had allowed industry and commerce to flourish and had also allowed thousands of people to settle in the new areas east of Rio Uruguai, this had included many of the soldiers who had defeated the Spanish in the war of 1777. The cities of Montevideo and Colonia had flourished and grown immensely. The Portuguese had also kept their southern Army in the province as a means of protecting their territory.


Portuguese-Spanish América War of 1801

During the first part of 1801 both the Portuguese and Spanish mobilized their forces in the area. At the time of the declaration of war by Espanha in March, the Portuguese main force of close to 10,000 was stationed in Colonia while a second force of close to 5,000 of which the majority was reservist was stationed in the fort town of Salto on the Rio Uruguai.

News of the war in the Iberian Peninsula arrived in the Americas during the month of May and on June 10 the Rio Grande military commander, General Dalrymple, ordered the invasion of the Vice-rei de la Plata, and the seizure of all land between the Rios Uruguai and Paraná. During the month of June and July the secondary force under Captain José António da Rosa captured the towns of Concordia on the Rios Uruguai, Paraná and finally Santa Fe. The main Portuguese force under captain Manuel Pinto Andrade marched from Salto and with the help of the Portuguese Navy which had sailed south from Rio de Janeiro crossed the Rio Prata and landed northeast of Buenos Aires. On June 16 the Portuguese and Spanish forces met close to the town of San Isidro. Portuguese forces outnumbered the Spanish two to one and commanded the sea.

Pino y Rozas led his Spanish forces against the Portuguese and was able to stop the Portuguese advance towards the capital Buenos Aires, but as the two land forces fought north of the city the Portuguese Navy launched an attack of its own and captured the city. Pino y Rozas and his forces were now cut off from his only supplies and between two enemy positions. During the night his forces abandoned their position and swung southwest of the Portuguese position and retreated north to the city of Rosario along the Rio Paraná.

On July 5 the Portuguese attacked the Spanish positions in the city of Rosario driving the Spanish out of the town and out of the Rio Paraná. Pino y Rozas and his remaining Spanish forces were forced to withdraw to the city of Cordoba to the Northeast where he hoped to regroup and strike against the Portuguese positions.

The Spanish continually attacked the Portuguese positions along the Rio Paraná and on August 28, the people of Buenos Aires revolted against the Portuguese liberating the town till September 2 when the Portuguese recaptured the city. On September 16, Pino y Rozas and his forces which now included reinforcements from the Vice-rei of Peru attacked the Portuguese position at the town of Sante Fe. The Spanish forces were initially repulsed but the Portuguese came very close to being defeated, before Pino y Rozas and his forces could commence a second attack word arrived of the Treaty of Badajoz.

The Treaty of Badajoz, was another let down for the Vice-Rei; it gave the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata lands’ east of the Rio Paraná to Portugal. The “Entre Rios” region as it is known was added to the Rio Grande do Sul province. The Portuguese withdrew from the western bank of the river and all remaining citizens on the eastern bank were given the option of remaining under Portuguese control or moving west, most chose to stay as the Portuguese government provided them with the same economic incentives to be able to expand their farms and ranches as it provided to new Portuguese settlers. The exception was the Spanish Roman Catholic Missionaries and clergy, which were expelled and their property seized. The arrival of the Portuguese Catholic Church did not upset most of the Spanish people who chose to stay.

The additional development of this area and the building of additional fortifications as well as build up the inland ports of Paraná and Corrientes on the Rio Paraná provided the Portuguese with an economic and fast means of transportation. The Rio Uruguai was also navigable and these two rivers contributed to an economic boom for Rio Grande do Sul province.

The Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata on the other hand became marred in political dispute with both the government in Madrid and also with the Vice-rei of Peru. The Vice-rei of Peru began to petition the Spanish government for the return of all Rio de la Plata land north of Salta. In February of 1802 Pino y Rozas was replaced by José Fernando Abascal y Sousa, but he also became embroiled in the dispute and in 1803 the economy of the Vice-rei started faltering and along with that the government’s revenue. In January 1804 he was replaced by Rafael de Sobremonte the last Spanish Vice-rei of the Rio de la Plata.


Portuguese-Spanish América War of 1807

The commencement of hostilities in the Península Ibérica in 1806 and war in 1807 left the Rio de la Plata completely cut-off from Espanha. The coast was under constant attack from Portuguese ships and the export and import of goods from the Vice-rei was completely disrupted. The inability of the Vice-rei to protect and defend the towns and cities along the Rio Paraná as well as coast finally culminated in the Buenos Aires Revolt during the month of March in 1807. The new Vice-rei Sobremonte and his remaining supporters escaped Buenos Aires and fled south to the fort of Carmen de Patagones where he stayed until the Portuguese captured it in July.

Following the overthrow of the Vice-rei, the Portuguese launched an invasion of Rio de la Plata along several fronts. Portuguese marine units along with navy landed and captured the city of Buenos Aires. The rebel leaders were themselves captured and executed. Portuguese forces crossed the Paraná and captured the towns of Santa Fe, Rosario along the river and moved inland towards the intendencia of Córdoba. By the end of year the capital Córdoba had been secured.

A separate force moved north along the Rio Paraná by boats then north along the Rio Paraguai and captured the important city of Asuncion and the entire intendencia of Paraguai, in August.

In July, the government of the Vice-rei of Peru occupied all of the Vice-rei de la Plata remaining intendencias north of the Salta River. The Bolivian highlands and the Potosi minerals were once again under the Vice-rei of Peru’s control. The Portuguese consolidated their hold over the Rio de la Plata region over the remaining of the year as the military commanders in Rio Grande planned for the attack on the Vice-rei of Peru by sea.

At the end of 1807 the Spanish government in Madrid collapsed, and Espanha was subsequently invaded by its former ally, França. The Spanish government, including King Ferdinand VII fled Napoleão armies to New Espanha in 1808 with Portuguese help. Following the invasion of Espanha by França, it formed of an uneasy alliance with Portugal against França. These actions put a stop to all open hostilities between the two opposing forces and an uneasy truce was established in the Américas.

In November Portuguese forces defeated the French forces in French Guiana north of the Rio Amazonas. In December of 1808 the Mexico City Accord was signed between Portugal and Espanha. The accord established zones of administration between the two countries. The Filipinas Islands were returned to Spanish control, the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata minus the areas under the Vice-rei of Peru’s control would continue under Portuguese administration. The accord also stipulated that the Pacific Ocean and Caribbean Sea would fall under Spanish sphere of control while the Atlantic and Índian Oceans fell under Portuguese sphere of control.


Portuguese América Administration

From 1808 to the end of the war in Europa the Portuguese Américan provinces along with the other Portuguese provinces continued to prosper and grow. The Península Ibérica created thousands of refugees that were settled in both the Portuguese provinces as well as the Rio de la Plata region.

The Rio de la Plata region saw a huge population boom during the war from 1808 to 1812. The population had doubled by 1810 and again by 1812. In May 1808, the Portuguese appointed Santiago de Liniers, a former Spanish officer who had lost a leg in the battle of Buenos Aires against the rebels, as the new Vice-rei. He continued transforming the region, welcoming and providing for the thousands of new Spanish citizens who were brought to the region by Portuguese ships every month.

New areas to the west and south were opened for settlement and new towns and farms created. The Spanish Catholic Church was allowed to continue in the region after an agreement between the bishops of the region and the Portuguese administration.

The Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata was the only Vice-rei that the government actively aided the new immigrants that continued to arrive monthly. The arrival of thousands of Spanish refugees in Spanish América caused severe economic and social problems and in the areas under Spanish administration and it took several revolts by the people in other regions of Espanha to finally force the government to provide for these refugees. At first the government of the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata had done so because of Portuguese instructions but as years went by it worked feverishly on its own to settle these refuges and help them establish themselves.

By the time it was transferred over to the government of Castela in 1812 the economic activity in the Vice-rei had tripled. This had been accomplished without the minerals and wealth from the Bolivian intendencia under the Vice-rei of Peru’s control. By 1812 the production of cattle had increased to over 1 million from approximately 600,000 in 1800. The production of cereals and beans also increased substantially, becoming along with the Portuguese Rio Grande province to the north the Península Ibérica’s main producer of grains as well as the bourgeoning Portuguese America main source of beef.


Portuguese-Castela Accord

In October 1810, the Spanish king Ferdinand VII rejected the “Constitution of Santa Cruz” and ordered the arrest and execution of its authors and supporters including his brother, the Duque de Cádis. This in turn resulted in the proclamation of the Kingdom of Castela with Francisco I as its constitutional king in the Iberian Peninsul. The kingdom encompassed all the former Península Ibérica, although they only controlled the provinces of Andaluzia and Canárias Islands. They also claimed all of the Spanish Américan territory and the Filipinas.

Portugal took advantage of the creation of the new country as a means of weakening its larger neighbor and also keeping it out of the Península Ibérica. The Portuguese-Castela Accord gave the new kingdom the political, military and economic support it required and also provided for withdrawal of Portuguese forces from the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata and the turning over the territory to the Kingdom of Castela. The Portuguese in turn kept the Ibérica provinces of Galiza, Astúrias, Leão, Estremadura and the western part of Andaluzia (Huelva) which it already occupied. In the Américas, the Portuguese Castela border was established from the Rio de la Plata, north along the Rio Paraná to the Rio Paraguai and finally north along the Rio Paraguai.

Portuguese soldiers would continue to support the new Vice-rei and his government and also protect the Rio de la Plata region from attacks by its neighbors. On December 1810 the new Vice-rei, José Francisco de San Martín Matorras arrived in Buenos Aires and assumed the post of the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata.

The Portuguese stayed on in the Vice-rei as both advisor and defenders till 1812 when the last of the Portuguese soldiers left the intendencia of Salta. The Vice-rei continued to prosper and grow and by 1818 when the Francisco-Ferdinand war erupted between Castela and Espanha its population had doubled from the 1812 level and its economy accounted for more than half of the economic activity of all of Castela.


Battle of the Vice-reis

The Francisco-Ferdinand War affects to both the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata as well as Portuguese América was very minimal. The fighting was limited to the area north of the Vermejo River and never threatened the rich southern areas around Buenos Aries.

The attempt of the Vice-rei of Peru to invade and capture the Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata unsettled many people and the inability of Castela to send reinforcements as well as the despairing news from Castela proper left many people thinking of independence.

The arrival of both military and financial aid from Portugal stabilized the situation and the subsequent victories over the Spanish by the Castilian forces in both the north and later in Chile gave the people of Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata great pride and reduced most of the anxieties running through the Vice-rei.

The expanded border in the north and south along with the constitutional changes of 1820 changed the name of Vice-rei of Rio de la Plata to Argentina and made it an equal part of the kingdom of Castela. The increase in the number of delegates sent to Madrid also increased its influence and power in Madrid allowing for a continued integration of the country and social harmony.

The proclamation of the Republic of Grand Peru in the north along with the expanded immigration from both Castela and also from the Italian Península was the two main issues that touched Argentina for the next two decades. Argentina continued to open new areas for settlement and development. The Free Trade between Portugal and Castela provided a huge market for Argentinean products. The threat of Espanha was greatly reduced with the emergence of the Republic of Peru as Espanha’s possession close to Argentina was reduced to the Vice-rei of Chile which was much smaller and weaker.


Economic Growth and Social Tension

Portuguese América as a whole experienced some of the most rapid economic growth in the empire from 1800 to 1825, the Portuguese government’s policy of expanded economic and industrial had allowed Portuguese Américan provinces to grow and prosper. Much of this was done under shadow of war both in the Américas as well as in Península Ibérica. Many people in the early years of the Ibérica War had advocated relocating the Portuguese government to Rio but government action and the progress of the war in Portugal’s favour meant that this option was never really taken seriously. The economic and social havoc the Spanish Empire experienced as a result of the relocation of its government provided much evidence to silence any critics of the government.

The economic and industrial growth experienced in Portuguese América did not correspond with social and political growth in the provinces, in addition continued social tensions between the northern and southern provinces continued to plague the region. The northern slave owning provinces continued to clash with the southern non slave owning provinces. The southern regions also had a much greater percentage of non-European citizen’s than the north. The size of the Rio Grande province and economic strength, second only to Rio Region created much resentment in the Northern Provinces.

In 1810, the Rio Grande province was initially expanded to include all the new territory from the Uruguai River to the Paraná River ceded by Castela but in 1812 in an effort to placate northern animosity the Rio Grande province was split into three provinces: Rio Grande in the north, Colonia in the south and Paraguai in the west. These three provinces shared many of the same characteristics: almost half the population was non European but citizens, the economic strength as well as political power was equally divided between rural areas and the new industrial and commercial cities and towns. By the 1820s the economic growth in the southern provinces was almost double of that of the Northern provinces.

The Northern provinces continued for the most part very rural, economically as well as politically conservative with the farms, ranches as well as plantations providing the bulk of the economic as well as political strength. Slavery was also still the accepted form of labor and many land owners resented and conspired against the governments restrictions on slave ownership.

The central provinces centered on the Rio region had become the industrial heartland of the Portuguese Américan provinces. During the Ibérica War many Portuguese business had set up business and factories in this area as a precaution in case França had defeated the Portuguese forces. The stalemate and the continued labor shortage back on the Península Ibérica convinced most businesses to continue their operations in the Américas as well as in the Península Ibérica. The urban population of the cities and towns began to contrast with the rural population as non-Europeans including free Áfricans grew in increasing number in the towns and cities to fill the vacant jobs.

Social tension grew more acute forcing many central provinces to allow local bylaws granting and abolishing slavery. Rio along with all cities and most large towns voted to ban slavery while many rural parishes and concelhos continued supporting it. This caused many problems as many slaves simply ran away from the farms to the towns and cities and landowners were unable to retrieve them.

Slowly over time many farms and plantations were forced to change as they were unable to maintain slaves so close to “slave free” towns and cities.

Southern half of the América Continent in 1825 showing Portuguese, Castilian, Spanish and others territory
Portuguese Provinces shown in Green
Castela-Argentina shown in orange
Republic of Grand Peru shown in Purple
Spanish Empire shown Yellow​

 

[Lusitania]

Book III 1800-1825
O Renascimento de um Império - Guerra e Política (Part XXI)​

Portuguese Índia

At the start of the 19th century Portuguese Índia and the British East Índia Company were locked into a competition for the influence and control of western Índia. The British were the dominant force in the East and South but the Portuguese had been able to assert their dominance in territory as well as influence on the western half of the sub-continent.

The Portuguese had taken three little backwards enclaves in 1750 and created four prosperous and powerful provinces. They had also prevented the English from excluding Portugal from Índia and dealing with the current Índian states. The Portuguese had fought alongside the British against both the Dutch and French in Índia and elsewhere and stripped these two countries of their possessions and territory in Índia.

Portuguese Índia referred to the partnership between the Portuguese government represented by the Vice-rei in Goa and all the individual Portuguese Índian Provincial governments, the “Companhia da Índia Portuguesa”, the Portuguese Military, the Portuguese Catholic Church and the growing commercial and capitalist class. This partnership had endured and prospered allowing the Portuguese territory to grow immensely and provided the means for it to prosper and grow amongst adversaries and challenges.

In 1799 the Portuguese had been a participant in the last Mysore war that had resulted in Mysore becoming a client state to both the British and Portuguese much to the displeasure of the British East Índia Company.

Richard Wellesley, the Governor-General of the company began negotiations with the Maratha Confederation to make them dependencies of the company in an attempt to bar the Portuguese and other European countries from Índia, which the English still believed to be theirs.

The Peshwa, Madhau Rao Narayan was still the official head of the Maratha but the most powerful Maratha powers were: Doulut Rao Shindhia of Gwalior and Jaswant Rao Holkar of Indore and the lesser powers were: Gaekwar of Baroda and Ragogee Bhonsla, Raja of Berar.


Portuguese-Maratha War of 1802

In October 10 1802, Gaekwar and Narayan’s joint forces were utterly defeated by Holkar at the Battle of Pune. Narayan fled to English protection and while under British protection signed the Treaty of Bassein, which ceded territory in exchange for the maintenance of a subsidiary force and formed an alliance with the British as well as agreeing to treat with no other power.

The Portuguese Vice-rei, Francisco António da Veiga Cabral da Câmara Pimentel, in Goa was incensed and demanded that Narayan rescind the treaty immediately. When he refused, the Portuguese army under the command of Captain Guimarães marched north and captured Pune on March 1, 1803 thus preventing Narayan return from Bombay.

The outrage was not only felt by the Portuguese as both Shindhia and Holkar were outraged at Narayan’s actions and Holkar sent his forces against Narayan’s only ally Gaekwar. As the army approached the city of Baroda he abandoned his capital and sought English protection. In an effort to stop Gaekwar from repeating Narayan’s example of trading land for safety the Portuguese forces from Damão captured him and his escort before he reached Surat. On March 15 Holkar forces captured Baroda without opposition.

Richard Wellesley’s strategy of isolating Portugal and making the Maratha States dependencies of the company started coming undone. Negotiations with both Shindhia and Holkar by the company as well as Portuguese failed.

On June 1 a joint Shindhia and Holkar force of 40,000 strong under the French commander Perron attacked the Portuguese at Pune. The Portuguese forces defeated the Maratha forces inflicting heavy casualties. The Maratha lost over 5,000 men compared to the Portuguese loses of ten men. Perron was forced to withdraw his forces after Portuguese re-enforcements arrived including 3,000 cavalry.

The situation stayed at a stalemate for over six month until on January 15 1804 Richard Wellesley received direct orders from London ordering him not to take any action against the Portuguese forces. The situation in Europa was heating up and hostilities between França and Luso-British alliance were due to break out again and London wanted nothing to jeopardize their alliance with the Portuguese.

Richard Wellesley decided to deal with the Maratha directly and ignore the Portuguese; he formed two armies, the northern army under General Gerard Lake and the Southern Army under Arthur Wellesley.

On March 5 Arthur Wellesley marched on the fortification of Ahmednuggur and on August 8 stormed and took the city and laid siege to the fort and accepted its surrender on March 12.

Shindhia’s forces had regrouped from their defeat in Pune the previous year and joined with Ragogee Bhonsla forces, they met Wellesley at Assaye on April 30. The Maratha force numbered over 40,000 but was defeated by an English force of less than 7,000. Wellesley’s force suffered heavy casualties in the victory and was unable to pursue the defeated enemy.

Wellesley regrouped his forces and continued his attacks and on June 29 attacked Ragogee Bhonsla forces, which had been reinforced by Shindhia’s cavalry. Wellesley army of approximately 11,000 crushed the Maratha force of over 40,000 while suffering less than 500 casualties.

On August 20 Wellesley captured the fortress of Gawilghur. The Raja of Berar sued for peace the next day and on September 30 1803 ceded the province of Cuttack to the company and other territory to its allies.

In northern Índia, General Lake campaigned in Hindustan against the Shindhia army commanded by Perron. On April 4 184 he advanced and took the fort of Aligarh. The losses to the Portuguese and now English forces were too much for Perron and he resigned his commission in Shindhia’s service. He was succeeded by another Frenchman Louis Bourquain, who marched against General Lake’s force of 4,500 men with an army of over 19,000 men near Delphi. General Lake drove the Maratha force from the field capturing their artillery.

On May 16 General Lake marched into Delphi and was welcomed by the Mogul Emperor Shal Alum. These successes convinced Raja of Bhurtpore, a powerful Jat Chief to conclude an alliance with the English and on June 20 General Lake accepted the surrender of fortress Agra.

Shindhia’s last army was defeated at Laswaree on November 10 1804. Shindhia was left with no choice but to sue for peace with the English. On December 30 a peace treaty was signed with the English in which Shindhia lost much territory to the company.

Holkar regrouped his forces after the failed attack on the Portuguese at Pune and on September 10 attacked Portuguese city of Sargana in the province of Damão. The Portuguese garrison held against repeated attacks on September 15, 20 and 27. Meanwhile the Portuguese force under the command of Captain Guimarães marched from Pune and attacked Holkar’s forces.

Holkar’s forces had suffered heavy casualties in the repeated attacks on Sargana and when the Portuguese Índia field army attacked them on September 29 they were annihilated. Of the approximately 40,000 men sent against the Portuguese less than 5,000 escaped. The Portuguese captured over 20,000 men and all their artillery which totaled over 98 guns.

The Portuguese marched into the city of Baroda without any opposition on October 10. Holkar, left with little or no army concluded a peace treaty with the Portuguese on October 30.

The Portuguese concluded a peace treaty with the Gaekwar of Baroda on November 10 in which Portugal received all territory along the Gulf of Cambay. The capital of Gaekwar of Baroda was moved north to Sadra and was state was renamed the Gaekwar of Sadra.

In June 1805 under pressure from London and Lisboa the British East Índia Company and Portuguese Índia signed a peace treaty. The treaty let both the company and Portuguese Índia keep all territory gained through conquest and the size of English enclave of Surat was increased. The Peshwa was allowed to return to Pune and remain under joint Portuguese and English protection, which both countries would pay jointly. Portuguese Índia would continue to have access to Índia.

Northern Portuguese Índia provinces after Portuguese-Maratha War of 1802
English enclave of Surat shown in Pink
Gaekwar of Sadra shown in Blue​

Portuguese-Índia in 1805

The recent conquests in Northern Índia changed the makeup of Portuguese Índia. Goa was Portuguese Índia’s administration center and since the 1750s its largest province and industrial center. The new territory had expanded Portuguese holdings in Northern Índia considerably providing the Portuguese with huge economic opportunities but also presenting them with many new and complex administration and religious problems.

Portuguese Índia was reorganized in order to manage the new territory better: In the north the Portuguese Northern Índia territory was divided into six provinces. The original provinces Damão and Diu were enlarged while the remaining territory was divided into four new provinces: Rajkot, Vasco da Gama, Baroda, and Navari. In the south the huge province of Goa was also divided into six provinces: Goa, Savantare, Colhapur, Belguam, Karwar and Dharvar and lastly the province of Calecute was divided into 3 provinces: Cananor, Calecute and Malabar.

The powers of the Vice-rei in Goa were modified so that he could concentrate on the security issues, taxation and foreign matters for not only Portuguese Índia but also all of Portuguese East Asia and Far East, while leaving the daily administration and implementation of government policy to the provincial governors.

The Portuguese military command in Índia and Asia was centralized and reformed as part of the Portuguese Military reforms of 1805. Overall military command for Índia and Asia was established in Goa with both Navy and Army reporting to the Admiral of Goa; the first Admiral was Dom Pedro Azevedo. The military was divided into three commands: Goa, Dili and Macau.

All lands and possessions of the Gaekwar of Sadra along with all land of Hindu and Islamic religious centers and orders were confiscated following their territory incorporation into the Portuguese Empire. This was followed by the arrival of thousands of new colonial soldiers to help administer the new provinces. All local leaders who had worked for the previous administrator were given a choice of converting to Portuguese Catholicism, pledging allegiance to the Portuguese crown and staying in the new provinces, those that refused were deported to the Gaekwar of Sadra. All land owners were forced to turn over one third of all lands and pledge allegiance to the Portuguese crown. Those that refused were arrested and their estates and assets confiscated. The Portuguese heavy hand caused several revolts in the new provinces from 1805-1807 and thousands of Hindu and Muslims left Portuguese Índia.

The introduction of both the Portuguese Catholic Church as well as language was much slower than in previous newly acquired territory due to the Portuguese Catholic Church’s limited resources as well as the government’s preoccupation with the political and military matters on the Península Ibérica.

Portuguese taxation laws though were fully introduced along with limitations of Islamic and Hindu worship. Thousands of Índians from the new provinces were sent to other Portuguese provinces in the Américas and the Península Ibérica. [1]

Thousands of colonial soldiers were presented with land as reward for their loyalty and service to Portuguese empire. In 1808 the Vice-rei extended the citizenship rights to all black soldiers including retired ones living in Portuguese provinces in Índia and Asia[2].


Portuguese-Maratha War of 1819

The period from 1805 to 1819 saw a continued rivalry between Portuguese Índia and the Bombay Presidency of the British East Índia Company. During this time both countries were also allied and locked in a desperate struggle against Napoleão’s França.

The final defeat of Napoleão in 1813 and his ultimate death in 1815 left the two countries, Great Britain and Portugal still allies but also increasingly economic rivals and this was continually played out all over the world especially in Índia.

The English Governor General Lord Hastings continued the long standing policy of intimidation and bribery to seize the remaining independent Índian states for the British East Índia Company. The Portuguese victories in the Portuguese-Maratha War of 1802 had left the Portuguese and the major European power on the Western Índia while the English continued to dominate the Eastern and southern parts.

In 1817 and again in 1818 the English used the pretence of pursuing Pindari robber bandits to attempt to provoke a war with the remaining Independent Maratha states and seize their territory. Portuguese battalions operated extensively along the Damão – Goa road through the Peshwa of Pune territory. Several skirmishes were fought but the situation always seemed to settle down before all out war broke out.

In October 15, 1819 the British East Índia Company forces under the command of Captain Ford once again invaded the Peshwa of Pune territory in pursuit of Pindari robber bandits and this time attacked the Peshwa forces. Unbeknown to the English was that two Portuguese reserve battalions were also part of the Peshwa forces gathered there to repulse the English. The English forces were not able to defeat the combined Portuguese-Maratha force but Moropant Dixit, Peshwa's commander was killed in the battle. Both forces suffered severe casualties and were forced to withdraw.

The battle aroused anti European drive in the Maratha Confederacy and the Bhonsle of Nagpur, Holkar of Indore and Shindhia of Gwalior all joined the Peshwa of Pune in their fight against the Europeans. At first the war seemed to be limited to a fight between the Maratha and the British East Índia Company with Portuguese Índia as more of a spectator than a participant but two factors soon arose that brought them to the forefront of the conflict.

Over the previous ten years the Portuguese Catholic Church had destroyed or converted thousands of Hindu, Islamic and Jain temples in the Portuguese Índian provinces. This had resulted in several revolts amongst the remaining non Catholic people of Portuguese Índia. The increased heavy taxes on the individuals and these holy sites also created great resentment amongst these people. In the summer months of 1819 the Portuguese authorities in the provinces of Rajkot and Vasco da Gama seized the Hindu holy temple in Dwarka and the Jain Holy temple in Palitana respectively. All adherents of those faiths were expelled and the land and buildings confiscated. In December 1819 the land in both cities was sold to private capitalists and authorization given to demolish the buildings and rebuild.

These two actions resulted in armed protests by Hindus and non-violent protest by the Jains. Both of the protest became economically disruptive and the provincial authorities ordered the army to deal with the protesters. By the end of February the entire Northern provinces which still had about half the population non Catholic were in open revolt, the southern provinces which had been under Portuguese control longer only had small non catholic minorities and for the most part were spared the fighting witnessed in the north.

The Vice-rei of Goa, Diogo de Sousa, sent several divisions to the Northern provinces from Goa starting in January to help in dealing with the revolts. Thousands of Índians (Hindu, Islamic and Jain) fled Portuguese Índia and the Portuguese Army’s heavy handed reprisals. Tens of thousands of Índians were either captured and those that refused to convert and swear allegiance to God and the Portuguese state were deported and sent to work in prison camps in other Portuguese provinces. Any person caught in open or convert insurrection towards the Portuguese Church and State were executed.

The brutal reprisals and action by the Portuguese resulted in the Portuguese Índian provinces being brought under full control by the end of June but turned the people of Índia and the Maratha leaders against Portugal. The Portuguese were soon having to defend their territory from Índian attacks as well as defending the Damão-Goa road from attacks. On July 15 the war was thrown wide open when the first Portuguese-English battle erupted on the outskirts of the Pune.

Portuguese forces operating in the area around Pune against Maratha patriots and the remains of the Peshwa of Pune’s forces were confronted by the English forces commanded by Sir Thomas Hyslop who was attempting to capture Pune. The English forces attacked the Portuguese forces and drove them from the field. The English then marched in Pune and captured the Peshwa.

On July 17, the regrouped and reinforced Portuguese attacked the English in Pune and not only drove the English from the town but in doing so complete destroyed it leaving only a burned out ruin in place of the town and palace. The English attempted to evacuate the Peshwa to Bombay but on July 25 he along with the remaining Maratha dignitaries died when Portuguese forces ambushed the retreating English forces. Sir Thomas Hyslop and his remaining 50 soldiers returned to Bombay where the Bombay governor Mountstuart Elphinstone tried to diffuse the situation but English governor-general, Lord Hastings, ordered an all out attack on the Portuguese.

On September 18, Captain Ford led English forces including most of Bombay’s Native Infantry against the Portuguese province of Damão from the south while Lt. Col. Burr led the English forces from the East after defeating the forces of Holkar of Indore. The Portuguese governors ordered a general mobilization of the Portuguese reservist in all Portuguese Índian provinces. Over 100,000 men answered the call and the English forces were easily defeated and repulsed. On October 20 the English enclave of Surat surrendered to the besieging Portuguese forces.

On November 25, Captain Silva Pereira led the Portuguese forces from Damão and defeated the English forces under the command of Captain Ford and began besieging the city of Bombay. In the south the Portuguese forces repulsed several attempted English incursions into the province of Calecute.

On December 1 the last of the Maratha leaders still defying the British East Índia Company, Bhonsle of Nagpur surrendered and the Maratha confederacy was finished. The other Maratha rulers; Holkar of Indore and Shindhia of Gwalior had already surrendered and the Peshwa no longer existed leaving the Portuguese and English alone. On December 6 the day that the siege of Bombay was to end with the formal surrender of the city to the attacking Portuguese forces news arrived on a joint English-Portuguese Naval task force sent from London and Lisboa with order to cease all hostilities. So the English avoided the embarrassment of losing the city of Bombay.

The Portuguese and English governments representatives had shuttled back between London and Lisboa since August to try to stop all out war between the two allies. At the end of October the Silveira-Wellington Accord was signed and given royal accent. The accord was the work of the Península Ibérica’s two most decorated Generals and imposed a peace agreement that provided for the betterment of both countries.

Some of the details had been agreed upon prior to their finalization in Índia. The British East Índia Company received the remainder of Rajasthan from the Shindhia of Gwalior. The position of the Peshwa of Pune was to be eliminated and all of the Peshwas lands in the Bundelkhand were to be turned over to the English. The Holkar of Indore also lost half of his territory. The last Maratha ruler Nagpur Bhonsle was forced to give up half his territory to the English. The English land around Bombay was also doubled.

The Portuguese received all land south of the Sastri and the Warna Rivers.

The Gaekwar of Sadra kept all its lands and the remaining lands between Bombay, Damão and Goa were turned over to the Maratha prince in Satara.

All Maratha princes other than the Gaekwar of Sadra and Maharaja of Satara recognized the English rule but Portuguese could continue to trade duty free. While the Gaekwar of Sadra and Maharaja of Satara recognized both the Portuguese and English rule. Each country would appoint a governor to guide and manage the territory. Both countries would have equal access and rights in these two princely states.


Portuguese Índia Golden Age

Starting in 1820 and continuing till the 1850’s Portuguese Índia entered into what many considered its golden age. The Portuguese territory in Índia was at its greatest extent since the arrival of the Portuguese off the coast of Índia in 1498. The Portuguese Índian provinces were some of the most profitable provinces in the empire and the continued investment in their development and the combined government-church-military administration continued the vastly different Portuguese colonial and empire model as opposed to the model used in English controlled Índia.

The English and the British East Índia Company believed in slow reforms that would not jeopardize their rule and control of Índia. The English instituted many great changes and modifications but for the most part preferred to do it through local means. The Portuguese on the other hand basically tore their entire area down before rebuilding it. Local and non Portuguese customs and religion including language were for the most part completely wiped out. A great percentage of the original population in the Portuguese Índian provinces were deported or moved to other Portuguese provinces. By the end of the 1820s almost half the people of Índian decent in Portuguese Empire lived outside of the Portuguese Índian provinces. A huge number of Áfricans, Macaenses and Timorenses had in turn replaced them in Portuguese Índian provinces. In 1825 the number of Europeans in Portuguese Índia surpassed one million for the first time. This was a major factor and added to the provinces value and prestige within the empire.

The granting of full equal Portuguese nationality to all Luso-Índians and equal access along with disperse of the people as the Portuguese moved into new areas to all Portuguese provinces along with the adoption of the Portuguese Catholicism by those that were moved as well as those that stayed behind changed the composition and loyalty of the Portuguese-Índians. The vast majority believed as did other people living throughout the Empire that they too were Portuguese. This belief was at the heart of their work effort and contribution to the Empire.

The other major difference between English and Portuguese Índia was the growing number of Industries in the Portuguese provinces. The Portuguese had realized early on that they did not have the manpower or land in Europa to compete with the other European powers notably the English. The Portuguese Índian provinces became the third most industrial part of the Empire. The industrial output in Portuguese Índia in 1820’s was five times that of all of Portugal in the 1750’s. Portuguese goods made in Portuguese Índia were sold throughout the empire and even the world. There was no distinction between goods manufactured in Portuguese Índia and the Península Ibérica or Portuguese América. While the English continued to treat their territory as well as all their colonies as a source of raw materials for their industry back in Great Britain and as a market for their goods made in Europa.

Portuguese India shown in Green, with English in Pink ​

[1] This was in complete contrast to the unrestricted religious practice and taxation for new Christians and Jews.

[2] This action caused several problems for the Portuguese government in Lisboa with considerable backlash from some of the more conservative members of the government and nobility in an uproar. This was only resolved in 1808 when D. José II proclaimed that any member of the military who retired due to injury or end of service was entitled to citizenship.

 

[Lusitania]

Book III 1800-1825
O Renascimento de um Império - Guerra e Política (Fin)​

Portuguese East Indies

The Dutch East Indies which had been ruled by the Dutch East Indies Company for over 200 years had come under direct Dutch rule in 1799 when the company declared bankruptcy due to the loss in revenue and territory as a result of the war with Portugal and Great Britain in the early 1780s.

Since 1795 the Dutch government had come under the direct control of França and following the cessation of hostilities between França and Luso-British alliance in 1802 the Dutch started sending military reinforcements to Java to protect it from continued Portuguese and British aggressions.

In 1804 hostilities commenced anew between França and the Luso-British Alliance with the seizure of all Portuguese and English citizens in França and French controlled territory. In the Dutch East Indies over 500 Portuguese citizens had been seized along with 8 ships. The news of the state of war between Portugal and the Dutch arrived at the same time in both the Dutch and Portuguese controlled areas except that Portuguese ships at sea were not aware of the situation when they put into Dutch ports.

In 1806 the Vice-rei of Goa, Francisco António da Veiga Cabral da Câmara Pimentel, sent 5,000 additional soldiers along with 15 naval ships to Dili. The first major naval battle was between the Portuguese Naval ships together with five British ships against a combined Dutch-French naval force off the coast of Java. The Dutch-French force sustained heavy damages and had to return to port, leaving the Portuguese and English in control of the seas.

From that time on the British concentrated their attacks on the islands of Java, Sumatra and Borneo while the Portuguese forces attacked the Dutch in the Moluccas Islands, Celebes and Lesser Sunda Islands.


Portuguese-Dutch War of 1806

In August 1806, the British forces attack on the Dutch commenced with the seizure of Bagda off the coast of Sumatra. This was followed by British and Portuguese Naval forces fighting the Dutch-French Naval forces off the coast of Java. The Dutch-French naval forces were routed and the few ships that remained retreated to Batavia. The Dutch forces in the East Indies were from then on completely isolated due to Portuguese-English command of the seas.

On September 20 the Portuguese attacked and captured Ambon from the Dutch, this was followed by the capture of both Ternate and Tidore in November.

In 1807 the French-run government of the Netherlands appointed Daendels as Governor-General of the Dutch Indies. His naval task force lost half their ships in their trip to the Dutch East Indies due to weather and Portuguese-English naval attacks. On January 1, 1808 Daendels arrived in Java with just three ships.

In 1807, Tonado, a local Minhasa ruler lead a rebellion against the British in Minhasa. After six months of attacks the British had lost two thirds of their forces. In November 1807 Portuguese forces landed in Northern Minhasa region and secured the city of Manado. The British forces withdrew to Melaka. In December Portuguese forces met the Minhasa forces for the first time and drove them from the field. In February 20 1808 the two forces met again and this time Tonado was killed in battle and his forces were either captured or killed.

Portuguese forces used their base in Monado to capture the Dutch forts on the islands of Sanguihe, Talaud and Palau. Portuguese forces spend the remainder of the year pacifying the areas under Portuguese control.

In 1808 the British forces retook control of Malacca and attacked Dutch forces on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo.

From 1809 to 1810 the Dutch abandoned all positions on the islands of Borneo and Sumatra in order to consolidate their position on Java. On August 15 1810 the British landed on Java and advanced on Batavia. On September 10 the British forces captured Batavia forcing the Dutch forces to retreat to Semarang.

On September 10 Portuguese forces landed at Makassar, the city was taken and looted. The Portuguese forces attacked and killed the entire local leaders both political and religious. This action by the Portuguese forces caused uproar amongst the local people and the Portuguese forces were forced to fight a rebellion around Makassar till 1812 when a truce was arranged. By that time over two thirds of the people around Makassar had been deported, fled or died in the conflict and or disease.

On October 1 1810 the last military action in the region took place at Salatiga where the British forces defeated the Dutch. The Dutch East Indies were divided into two spheres of administration with the Portuguese administering the Moluccas Islands, Celebes and Lesser Sunda Islands while the English would administer the Islands of Borneo, Java and Sumatra.


Portuguese East Indies after 1815

From 1810 to 1815 The Portuguese worked hard trying to consolidate their rule. The cities of Kendari and Palu on the Celebes were captured. Portuguese forces captured the island of Tanimbar. Portuguese brought thousands of Áfricans, Índians and Macaenses to the islands and thousands of locals were in turn sent to other Portuguese provinces.

Portuguese Catholic Missionaries were sent to the places under Portuguese administration. Dutch missionaries were expelled from Portuguese sphere and all Dutch citizens are ordered to swear allegiance to Portuguese crown or be expelled to Java.

In 1812 with the end of the Napoleonic Wars in Europa and the independence of Netherlands, the Portuguese, British and the Kingdom of Netherlands started discussing the future of the East Indies. The negotiations were complicated when Portugal announced unitarily that it would annex all territory under its sphere of administration. The English and Netherlands apposed Portuguese position but Portugal convinced the British to support the Portuguese position in return for Portuguese support for British claim for the island of Borneo and Malaysian Mainland. The Netherlands was left with the islands of Java and Sumatra along with several small islands close to Sumatra.

The Portuguese East Indies in 1813 included all islands east of Java and Borneo but in reality the Portuguese controlled only a very small portion of the territory.

From 1817 the Portuguese launches several military campaigns to bring the other areas under Portuguese control. The Portuguese refused to allow local leaders to remain in control and also refused to negotiate with any leader who was either Muslim or Hindu.

On the Celebes, the Portuguese fought the locals both in the north and in the south. In 1820 Gorontalo was captured and by 1823 the Portuguese had constructed a road from Palu to Monado through Gorontalo. The Portuguese attempt at conquering the territory south of Palu was met with great resistance. The Portuguese had an easier time extending their control from the southern cities of Makassar and Kendari.

On the island of Halmahera the Portuguese expanded throughout the entire island this had been made easy compared to the other cities by a huge outbreak of smallpox that hit the island and between smallpox and starvation as a result of displacement of people over 50 percent of the population died by 1825.

The Portuguese took advantage of the successful work of the Portuguese Catholic missionaries in establishing a strong foothold in the islands of Ceram, Baru, Kepuluan Sul and Arum. On these islands the Portuguese government took a much softer approach. Local leaders converted along with their people to Portuguese Catholicism and they were allowed to keep half of their lands. Many locals from these islands were recruited for the Portuguese armed forces and used in many cases in other islands.

The Portuguese movement into the islands of Sumbawa, Lombok and Bali was the most difficult of all. The Portuguese landed a major force and captured the city of Mataram in 1819. The Islamic king, his court and all Islamic leaders were executed for failing to convert to Portuguese Catholicism. The island of Lombok continued to resist Portuguese control and by 1830 the Portuguese only controlled about a third of the island. On Sumbawa the Portuguese had captured Bima on the western tip in 1823 but had been unable to extend their rule further west.

On Bali the Portuguese had captured Denpasar but stiff resistance from the two main kingdoms in Bali: Klungkung and Mengwi bottled the Portuguese in Denpasar for many years.

In 1824 the Portuguese East Indies was divided into four provinces: Celebes, Moluccas, Timor and Flores. The “Companhia de Timor” had expanded into all four provinces and Portuguese revenue from the islands continued to grow. Several new enterprises to process the spices and raw materials grown on the islands were established in Dili, Larantuka and Kupang the largest cities in the Portuguese East Indies.

Extent of Portuguese East Indies per the Congress of Vienna 1814
Portuguese controlled area in 1815 shown in Green
Portuguese controlled area added to 1830 shown in Blue
Dutch East Indies as of 1815 shown in Brown
English controlled area in island of Borneo shown in Pink ​

Portuguese África

The Portuguese presence in África during the turbulent years of 1800 to 1825 was comparatively subdued when taken into context of the wars and political maneuvering experienced in the other Portuguese provinces in Europa, Américas, Índia and Ásia.

The lack of any substantial opposition to the Portuguese in África for the most part allowed the government to use the military resources originally stationed in África in other parts of the empire more hard pressed. Only in Southern África where Portuguese territory was coming into contact with English claims and as well as in North África where the Portuguese enclaves continued to anger the Marrocans proving to be a major irritant in Portuguese-Marrocan relations were the Portuguese ever pressured.

The lack of direct Portuguese government intervention did not mean that Portuguese África was neglected or that it did not grow or prosper. The three Portuguese Áfrican trading companies were very busy expanding their holdings and business interests. By contrast in North África constant border clashes especially after Portugal took possession of all Spanish holding in Marrocos influenced Portuguese politics and economic development.

The massive push into the Áfrican interior alongside the push inland in Ásia, Índia and the Américas by the Portuguese was for the most part only hampered by disease. Malaria was one of the most destructive and limiting agents but in the late 1810s Portuguese researchers Samuel Joaquim and Elisio Martin working along with French researcher Pierre Joseph Pelletier developed Quinine from the Aemricas cinchona tree. So important was this discovery that the Portuguese government setup large scale production immediately in the Américan provinces and by 1821 large scale use of Quinine to treat malaria was being adopted by the Portuguese government in all Portuguese provinces.

In 1820 the Academy of Science of Lisboa along with all the Portuguese universities began the study of communicable disease study. This study looked at the reason for the spread of disease and established clinics throughout the empire including all parts of Portuguese empire. It was from these that the Malaria vaccine was administered. In África these clinics provided information and data about the diseases affecting Portuguese and would become instrumental in the understanding and fight against the diseases affecting people such as Yellow Fever, Dengue Fever and Tsetse Fly.

One of the first and foremost health “edicts” published by it was the “Agua Boa”, good water statement. Portuguese researchers and doctors had observed a huge drop in sickness amongst people in the Península Ibérica due to clean water and prohibition of dumping waste outside and close to other humans. This was spread through the rest of the empire starting in the early 20s. The Portuguese government enforced health regulation throughout the empire for the establishment of clean drinking water and proper waste disposal in all towns, cities and settlements throughout the empire.

These were one of the major reasons that the Portuguese were able to continue expanding inland in África, otherwise many of the early settlements and developments throughout the continent might have failed due to the continued health problems.


Province of Cabo Verde e Guiné

The province of Cabo Verde e Guiné and all the territory administered by “Companhia de Bissau” continued to prosper and the actual land under Portuguese control continued to expand inland but as the Portuguese expanded more inland the expansion was met by fiercer opposition.

Along the Áfrican continent the provinces three areas of deepest inland expansion were the South Gambian River Basin, the Balantes and Bulola rivers in the Guinea region and the three rivers of Serra Leona. In these three regions Portuguese expansion was more limited by transportation and communication as opposed to opposition to Portuguese control. The scarcity of soldiers also limited the extent of Portuguese control.

The Coast between Serra Leona and Gambia River was completely under Portuguese control and administration and Portuguese plantations, towns and administration was firmly entrenched. In the southern part the province the Foulahs tribe continued to both resist attempts by both the Portuguese Catholic Church and the companhia to expand their influence and control. Constant raids plagued several areas until the 1820 when Portuguese-Foulahs border was pushed over 100 miles inland with the help of thousands of returning and newly arrived soldiers and their families. At the battles of Bashia and Rebusho in 1822 and 1823 the Portuguese defeated the Foulahs and broke their power. The Foulahs stopped being a political and military force as it broke up into dozens of competing and rival smaller tribes.

The Portuguese cities along the coast continued to grow as more and more processing and manufacturing was done along the coast for both the raw materials from the inland before being exported and also many craft shops were setup to provide the goods needed in the province. The cities of Vasco da Gama, Bissau and Bathurst all continued to grow and by 1815 had more than doubled in size and importance.

The Mandingoes people continued to expand and push other tribes away becoming the major tributary to the Portuguese crown and with the help of the Portuguese became the dominant tribe south of the Gambian River. The spread of Portuguese Catholicism among the tribes including most of tribal chiefs also expanded and it became the dominant religion south of the Gambian River.

The expansion of Portuguese Catholicism to the Gambian River marked the maximum extent of both Portuguese and Portuguese Catholic Church control and influence. The tribes both north and east of the Gambian River were Islamic and opposed both of them. Attacks by Islamic tribes across the Gambian River and reprisal attacks by Mandingoes tribes and Portuguese soldiers continued unabated till the 1850s when these areas came under French control.

The economic growth and prosperity of the province of Cabo Verde a Guiné from the gold and diamonds in Serra Leona in the south, the shipbuilding in Bissau and the forestry and plantations provided the “Companhia de Bissau” with huge profits and wealth. Much of the actual administration and development was actually done by contractors but in 1816 the Portuguese government was forced to strip many of these contractors of their property and assets due to both abuses of their workers and cheating the government of taxes. The most troubling was the Vasco da Gama Mining company which saw its founders and directors arrested and charged with treason for smuggling large amounts of gold and diamonds south into both French and English ports.

The huge wealth being generated by the Portuguese did not go unnoticed by rival European countries as both Great Britain and França expanded their presence and influence in the area. The area along with most of Portugal’s provinces became a target of increased pirate attacks. The Portuguese navy continued to protect Portuguese provinces as well hunt for pirates.

In 1814 the Portuguese, English and French governments signed the Barcelona Accord banning all slavery and allowing each country to pursue and persecute anyone caught involved in slave trading. Over the next ten years over 100 ships were stopped and seized, their captains and crew convicted of slave trading. Unfortunately thousands of slaves were also thrown overboard by these slave traders upon seeing an approaching Portuguese Naval Ship.

The Portuguese province of Cabo Verde e Guiné started becoming pressured and “boxed in by the French in the northern bank of the Gambian River and the English south of the Serra Leona.

The islands of Cabo Verde along with the gulf islands continued to prosper and grow, the droughts on the Cabo Verde Islands became less severe as both land use and forest reclamation continued to provided the islands with means to support its remaining population and the growing naval base in Praia.

The focus “Companhia de Bissau on West África meant that for the most part its Gulf possessions were ignored and were lacking in both development and growth when compared to the other parts of the province. In 1820 as a result of pressure from the Department of Economic Development in Lisboa the commercial rights to the Áfrican mainland between the Niger and Ogoue Rivers was sold to the Companhia de Fernando Pó along with all gulf islands. The “Companhia de Fernando Pó” was formed by several plantation owners on the gulf islands who felt their interests were being ignored by the “Companhia de Bissau”. Several large Portuguese-Índian and Macaense families provided much of the capital along with sponsoring new immigration to the area.

At the same time as the “Companhia de Fernando Pó” was consolidating its commercial rights of the “on the continent it also started being challenged by the English in the north as they expanded east from their base in Gana and in the south by the French who started moving into Gabão and pushing the Portuguese around the Ogoue River.

Under the Portuguese government’s direction Portuguese explorers navigated, explored and charted many of the continent’s rivers and inlands. By 1805 the entire Gambian River and all other rivers in the province were completely charted. In 1818 the Niger River was complete explored from its origins in the Guinea highlands to the Gulf coast by Caetano de Silva and Christiano Miu Bing Chen, two Portuguese explorers of Goa and Macau origins. In the south the Ogoue River and other rivers between it and the Niger River were also explored and charted.


Province of Angola

The Portuguese province of Angola continued to expand inland but at a more sedate rate, the biggest impact to the province came in the conflict with the Áfrican tribes of the Congo River basin which had supplied slaves to Europeans for decades. The prohibition on slavery within the empire and on slave trade caused major disruption and anger with these tribes including the largest the Congo Empire. Portuguese forces were forced to fight several wars with the Kingdom of Congo which fielded armies of the range of 10,000 to 20,000 soldiers. The Portuguese forces which were mainly made up of retired veterans defeated them in the three main battles at Cuilo, Cuango and Casai and broke the kingdom and the outbreak of smallpox forced King Garcia V to finally recognize Portuguese sovereignty over all land south of the Congo River.

Some of the people from the Kingdom of Congo moved north of the Congo River led by self proclaimed King Henrique I which refused to accept the Portuguese administration. They merged with the Kingdom Loango and pushed the Tete kingdom north. The sealing of the Congo by the Portuguese and building forts throughout the Congo River basin at its principal River tributaries the Cuilo, Cuango and Casai Rivers. By the middle of the 1820s the Portuguese controlled Congo River to the junction of the Casai River and the Congo River.

In 1820s the French which were upset at Portuguese control of the Congo River arrived in the area and established a fort north of the Portuguese Congo. Pointe Noire was established by the French and contact between the French and the Kingdom of Loango was soon established. This trade arrangement would later become the catalyst for French expansion into the North Congo Region.

In the south the Portuguese province of Angola came into conflict with the British colony of Cape Town which they had taken over from the Dutch. The Portuguese took possession of the Golfo de Santa Maria da Conceição from the Dutch administration and renamed the town Santa Conceição. To establish control over the area the Portuguese built a fort on the northern bank of the Rio Laranja where it empties into the Henriques Bay. The British from their Cape Town colony become concerned with Portuguese expansion and also built a fort on the southern bank of the river. In 1820 as part of the Cape Town-Luanda border Agreement, the border between the Portuguese and English on the western part of África was confirmed along the Rio Laranja.

Under the direction of the Portuguese government, the Portuguese governor of Angola, Manuel Vieira Tovar de Albuquerque sent two expeditions into the interior; these were in response to the earlier two unsuccessful expeditions into the heartland of África or Matabelelandin 1796 and in 1798. In 1820 and 1821 two separate expeditions were sent but of the two only one made it through and in 1822 Louis João Pimentel traveled from the source of the Rio Zambeze in the Angolan highlands to where it emptied into the Índian Ocean in the province of Moçambique. He also became the first to see the world’s largest waterfall on the Rio Zambeze which he named in honor of Portugal’s divine protector since independence “Cataratas Imaculada Conceição”. The Portuguese from them on claimed the entire Rio Zambeze Basin as part of their empire.

The four major tribes living in the northern part of Zambeze River: the Kazembe-Lunda in the north centered on the lower Luapula River, the Bemba in the north east, the Chewa in the east and the Lozi in the west centered on the upper Zambeze River, had resisted both the Portuguese and Arabs from their territory. But in the early 1820s mass migration and invasion by the Makololo tribe from Southern África set in motion a series of events that would completely change the makeup and independence of these tribes.

In the early 1820s Sebetwane led the Makololo tribe from Southern África into the heartland of the Lozi Kingdom. There they defeated and pushed the Lozi Kingdom to its knees. The Lozi were on the verge of being conquered and its leaders wiped out when they allied themselves to the Portuguese. In 1824 the Portuguese governor Cristóvão Avelino Dias, sent a diplomatic and military expedition into the heart of the Lozi lands in effort to help them repel the Makololo. The Portuguese defeated the Makololo killing Sebetwane and forcing them south of the Zambeze River. The Lozi were so impressed by Portuguese military power that they soon adopted both their language and religion, thus the Lozi Kingdom for all intense and proposes was brought under Portuguese control. The inclusion of the Lozi lands greatly increased the Portuguese control inland deep into the continent and provided it with access to the other inland kingdoms.

The province of Angola saw large increase in size of the population as well as industry and mining. The population of the province of Angola doubled as thousands of people from Europa, Índia and Asia migrated to the province. The production of iron ore and other minerals tripled along with the export of lumber and the production of agricultural products from the plantations and private farms increased fourfold. New industries grew in the booming cities along the coast.

By 1825 the Province of Angola produced as much wealth, income as well as tax revenue as all the other Portuguese Áfrican provinces. This was in large part due to the economic activity not limited to only one company but directed by multitude of individuals and companies. This was not lost on the Portuguese government in Lisboa especially after the Península Ibérica and Portuguese América conflicts were resolved, the Angola model was soon being exported to other Portuguese provinces.

The Portuguese Catholic Church also saw its congregation increase as the new people and the current inhabitants that were not followers were converted. Unlike other Portuguese Áfrican Provinces the Portuguese Catholic Church did not face any other competing religion other than pagan worship. The economic and militarily power displayed by the Portuguese soon convinced many of the locals especially those in power to convert and adopt Portuguese language and religion.


Province of Moçambique

The expansion and growth of the Province of Moçambique from 1800 to 1825 was to a large part influenced by external factors and the drive to stop the spread of Islam. The growth of the province was in part due as a result of immigration of skilled labor into the province. The majority of immigrants were either from Portuguese Índia or Asia since only a small amount of immigrants from Europa chose Moçambique due to the attractions of other provinces especially the Province of Angola with its wealth and location. Following the War of 1814 Moçambique saw its first mass migration as over 30,000 Portuguese-Américans migrated from United States to it. The southern frontier became more established with the implementation of the Cape Town – Lourenço Marques border Agreement. While in the north the desire to expel the Arabs and their Islamic religion from África drove the province’s border deeper inland and further north.

In the south, English who had become keen on expanding their South África Colony continued to clash with the Portuguese both in terms of attempt to control the Áfrican territory and also influence the various Áfrican tribes. In 1820 both countries formally established the border between the Cape Town Colony and the Province of Moçambique. The English had established the Natal Colony with the capital at Port Natal present day Durban in 1817 in an attempt to enlarge their presence in Southern África; this was solely in an attempt to limit the expansion of the Portuguese in the east. The Natal-Moçambique border was established along the Umfolosi White River. In the 1820s two events: the Boer (Dutch Decedent) migration north and east of the Orange River and the rise of the Zulu nation in the east defined both the English expansion plans as well as Portuguese control and settlement over Eastern África.

The Boers, who had become dissatisfied with the English especially their limitation and ban on slavery, started in the early 1820s migrating en mass north and east of the Orange River which formed both Cape Town’s and Natal’s northern and eastern frontier. They eventually settled in the interior between the Orange River in the south and the Limpopo River in the north, displacing many of the original inhabitants and adding to the general “difaqane” engulfing South África starting in the 1810s.

The second more devastating event was the rise of the Zulu Kingdom in the Natal / Southern Moçambique area under direction of Shaka Zulu. He united the disorganized Nguni Tribes into a centralized militaristic state. The rise of the Zulu led to widespread forced migration. One of these groups was the Makololo tribe who would eventually move north through Botswana and attempt to conquer the Lozi Kingdom before being defeated by the Portuguese and fleeing back to Botswana where they displaced the local tribes there and formed the Makololo Kingdom.

The Kingdom of Mwenemutaps which hadn’t still recovered from the devastating war with the Portuguese was almost destroyed by the arrival of the Ndebele Tribe who themselves were a refugee of the Zulu and Boers in Southern África. The Ndebele Tribe led by Mzilikazi, a former general in Shaka's army had adopted the Zulu tactics and as they migrated north absorbed many other also displaced. In 1824 they defeated the last army of the Kingdom of Mwenemutaps and the remnants of the kingdom along with their wounded king, Nyasoro, fled east to the province of Moçambique.

In 1825 the Portuguese sent an army of over 5,000 which only comprised 1000 actual Portuguese soldiers while the rest was made up of the Mwenemutaps soldiers. The Ndebele were defeated at two battles and at the second battle in the Matobo Hills which they had retreated Mzilikazi was killed and the Ndebele dispersed. The province of Moçambique annexed the entire land between the Zambeze and the Limpopo Rivers and absorbed the remains of the Mwenemutaps kingdom. The Portuguese over the next decade would continue to block continued attempts by other groups from South África to migrate north specifically the Angoni which eventually were forced to move west.

In the South, the province faced its greatest military threat from the Kingdom of the Zulu. The Zulus under the leadership of Shaka Zulu fought several battles from 1815 to 1822 against the Portuguese including the Pongola River, Usulu River and finally at Lebombo Mountains which tested both Portuguese resolve and Zulu ferocity. The Portuguese were slowly forced to retreat north until the last battle in the Lebombo Mountains where they held the Zulus.

The Lebombo Battle pitted over 2,000 Portuguese soldiers against over 20,000 Zulu warriors. The Portuguese had retreated to their fort and from here held the Zulus for 30 days in which the Zulus lost over 10,000 men to war and disease.

The Zulus withdrew south when a relief army arrived from Lourenço Marquês. The Portuguese once again battled the Zulus near the Pongola River and this time defeated them but lacked the ability to pursue them. The Zulus and the Portuguese entered into an unease truce which the Portuguese did not move south of the Pongolo River.

Over the next four years the Zulus fought both the English in the Natal Colony as well as the Boers north of the Orange River but were unable to drive either of these groups away and in 1825 Shaka Zulu was killed by his half brothers Dingaan and Umthlangana. Umthlangana the more skilled and stronger of the two become new king and while he was able to keep the Zulus free of European control the approximation of the Portuguese in the east, English in the south and the Boers in the north would eventually spell doom for the Zulu Nation.

In the North, the ban on slavery and slave trade put the Portuguese at a great disadvantage against the Arabs who became the principal buyers of slaves in the early 1800s. In an attempt to stop the slave trade and stop the spread of Islam the Portuguese launched a major campaign against both the Maravi Empire which was situated on the western side of Niassa Lake and the Islamic Ayao tribe on the eastern side of the lake. The Ayao rivals the Makua had adopted Portuguese Catholicism and with the Portuguese help drive the Ayao north.

The Maravi Empire was slowly pushed north of Ruvuma River situated about half way along the Niassa Lake and by 1820s and had established their capital at Chilumba on the coast of the Niassa Lake. In the north the Portuguese were not as successful, they were defeated at the Battle of Lindi in 1824 and the maximum extent of Portuguese expansion was the Ruvuma River to the Niassa Lake. The only success was the capture of the deserted island of Mafia off the coast. The Portuguese then began building a fort, town and port on the island that could be used to control all trade south of the Rufiji River and stop the slave trade.

The expansion of the province into the new territory both in the north and the south was the principal economic driving force. The production of tobacco, cotton, tea and sugar tripped. The provincial government greatly extended the provinces meager transportation infrastructure. Fisheries became a major industry as well as new enterprises were started by the new immigrants in the major towns and cities.


Province of Mazagão & Ceuta

The most significant change to the Portuguese province in Marrocos was the return of Ceuta which originally was captured by Portugal in 1415 and subsequently lost to Espanha after Portugal’s restoration in 1640. The inclusion of the city and other former Spanish possessions in North África added a new dimension to the Portuguese presence in Marrocos not seen since the 16th century.

The Portuguese possessions continued to come under constant border clashes and raids, the additional lands to the north infuriated the Marrocans even more. The major difficulty faced by the Portuguese was the inability of Lisboa to provide any substantial assistance to the province due to the Península Ibérica War.

The Sultan of Marrocos Slimane which ruled the country till his death in 1820 had done much to limit the attacks and prevent a full scale war with Portugal. He banned his countries’ trade with Portugal and limited it severely with the rest of Europa while at the same time expanding it with United States. He also attempted to reduce piracy along the Marrocan coast.

In 1820 he was succeeded by Moulay Abderrahmane who hated the Portuguese and the rest of the Christians and actively supported attacks on them. Under his rule piracy became more prevalent and border incursions and attacks also increased.

In 1824 the Portuguese Navy launched a series of full scale attacks against Marrocan ports and cities. The coastal Atlantic cities of Tangier, Fidallah, Rabat, Mhedia and El Araiche were attacked and captured. Thousands of Marrocans were captured and sent to other Portuguese provinces in the Américas, Índia and Asia. As the main Marrocan forces approached the occupied cities the Portuguese would withdraw leaving behind ghost cities empty of people and valuables.

On November 1824 the Portuguese changed tactics and attacked and conquered the city of Tetuan south of Ceuta. The Marrocans besieged the invading Portuguese but could not repulse them. This was followed by the Portuguese recapture of the city of Tangier in January 1825.

On February 1825, Moulay Abderrahmane led an army of over 40,000 men in an attack on Mazagão, his forces forced the Portuguese population in the province to retreat behind the defensive walls of the three main cities: Mazagão, Azamor and Santa Clara. The Portuguese defenses of the cities were able to protect the population and the Marrocans were unable to breach the Portuguese defenses were forced to besiege the cities.

As a result of the Marrocan attack the Portuguese government declared war on Marrocos and on April 15, a force of over 25,000 landed on the southern side of the Morbea River and attacked the besieging Marrocan forces. The Battle of Morbea River was a complete victory for the Portuguese and the Marrocans were forced to withdraw from the province.


As the year came to a close the forces of war circled the Kingdom of Marrocos as Portugal amassed it military might to bring Marrocos down it was only the untimely death of King José II that prevented the outright attack that year.

Portuguese Far East

From 1795 to 1825 the Portuguese province of Macau enjoyed one of its greatest periods of economic growth and prosperity it had known. The economy grew immensely with the development of new areas of the province and the huge leap in trade between Portugal and China. Portuguese manufactured goods had found favour amongst the Chinese it part due to the manner in which the Portuguese treated the Chinese as well as the Portuguese-Chinese partnership with two most pressing issues facing the Chinese during this time, Pirates and Opium. As a result of Portuguese efforts on these two Chinese problems allowed the trade between China and Portugal to grown so much that the “Companhia de Macau” licensed four additional trading companies to trade with the Chinese and Japan.

The coast of China had always been subject to the attacks and ravages of pirates. The Portuguese with their superior ships and weapons had been able to keep the pirates at bay but the growth in trade and shipping began attracting many more pirates to the Pearl River Estuary.

In 1800 a pirate named Quan Apon Chay began operating along the Coast of China. He attacked and pillaged coastal towns and Chinese ships with immunity. By 1805 he had built up his pirate fleet to over 100 ships, the majority being Chinese Junks. The Chinese Emperor declared him an outlaw and a huge bounty put on his head.

Quan Apon Chay developed aspirations of overthrowing the Chinese Emperor and starting attacking and occupying Chinese towns and cities along the coast from Canton to Shanghai. The Chinese government sent 5 separate fleets against Quan Apon Chay from 1806 to 1808. Quan Apon Chay defeated each fleet easily and built up a greater fleet.

In 1809 the Chinese Emperor and the governor of Canton requested Portuguese assistance in dealing with Quan Apon Chay.

The governor of Macau Lucas José de Alverenga, who had grown concerned about the growing strength of Quan Apon Chay, put Miguel José de Arriaga da Silveira in charge of organizing the Portuguese response to the pirate threat.

Miguel assembled a fleet of 12 ships, three of which were Portuguese Navy ships and the remaining 9 were armed merchant ships. Admiral José Pinto Alcofora de Azevedo e Sousa was put in charge of the Portuguese Naval task force.

On November 10 Quan Apon Chay fleet was spotted in the Pearl River estuary, the Portuguese ships left the Macau harbor and met the pirate fleet of close to 200 ships. The battle of the Pearl River estuary between Admiral Alcofora and Quan Apon Chay lasted from morning to sunset. The Portuguese fleet inflicted heavy casualties on Quan Apon Chay fleet sinking or capturing over 70 ships while not suffering any loses. During the evening Quan Apon Chay and his remaining ships escaped.

Quan Apon Chay regrouped his forces and on January 5 1810 entered the Pearl River estuary again. The Portuguese fleet led by Admiral Alcofora met the pirate fleet gain that day and the ensuing battle that lasted over eight hours Quan Apon Chay lost over 50 ships. The Portuguese fleet lost one ship that was damaged and had to return to harbor.

Quan Apon Chay withdrew his ships and sought refuge in the Hiang San River where the larger Portuguese ships could not pursue him. Admiral Alcofora along with six ships half of which were Naval Ships blockaded Quan Apon Chay. After one week Quan Apon Chay sent a message to Admiral Alcofora that he wished to negotiate.

Admiral Alcofora went personally to meet Quan Apon Chay. This was a huge surprise to Quan Apon Chay who had a great admiration for Admiral Alcofora and his combat skills. Quan Apon Chay was also impressed by Admiral Alcofora courage and confidence he had placed upon Quan Apon Chay. He requested that Admiral Alcofora intercede on his behalf in negotiations with the Chinese Emperor.

On March 20 Admiral Alcofora arrived back at Hiang San River with an emissary from the Chinese Emperor. A peace treaty was signed in which Quan Apon Chay would turn over all his armada, liberate all occupied towns and cities and recognize the Emperors authority. Per Admiral Alcofora suggestion Quan Apon Chay was appointed the Chinese grand admiral that had many privileges and status, thereby saving face for all involved.

The Chinese emperor was greatly appreciative of Portuguese assistance and as a show of his appreciation gave the Portuguese the island of S. Joao where Saint Xavier was buried, which the Portuguese had been trying to get in the previous peace negotiations but the Chinese had refused. The Chinese also gave the Portuguese several small islands southeast of Macau. In June 1811 Grand Admiral Quan Apon Chay visited Macau as the Emperors emissary to present the governor of Macau with the deed to the new territory.

The Chinese government also requested that the Portuguese government help in their patrolling of the coast for opium smugglers. The Portuguese government enforcement of ban in opium smuggling was never really properly enforced because the Portuguese did not want to antagonize the British East Indies Company who was the main suppliers of Opium to China.

In 1815 the Portuguese issued a decree banning the trading of opium in Portuguese waters but opium smugglers just went around the Portuguese territory. Portuguese-Chinese trade also changed as Portuguese ships from the Empire were ordered to dock in the Province of Macau and smaller Portuguese ships traveled between Chinese cities and Macau.

The three main Macaense cities: Dom José, S Xavier and Macau grew immensely with huge warehouse and commercial zones. Their harbors were crammed with Portuguese, Chinese and ships from other nationalities.

In 1820 the Chinese Emperor Jiaqing died and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son, Emperor Daoguang, who looked upon all western powers with disdain and greatly restricted Portuguese trade as well as the Portuguese trade goods. The Portuguese merchants faced with a huge loss of revenue switched to Opium and starting in 1821 Opium became the largest trade good between Macau and China.

By 1825 the Portuguese were selling over 15,000 boxes in southern and central China greatly destabilizing China, controlling almost half of the Opium trade. The Opium trade became much more lucrative than any other trade in China and led to a great increase in the wealth and stature of the province.

The relationship between Chinese officials and Macau became one of animosity and distrust. This was in stark contrast to the relationship that had developed under Emperor Jiaqing reign. In 1824 Emperor Daoguang issued a proclamation obligating all Portuguese trade to pay special duties thereby suppressing further Chinese-Portuguese trade and increasing smuggling and opium trade.

The increase tax revenue resulting from the Opium trade allowed the Portuguese government to double the number of soldiers in the province and begin a program of upgrading the provinces defenses. The number of naval ships was also increased to protect the Portuguese waters from pirate, Chinese and other European powers.

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Macau was also affected by events in the other parts of the world such as the Península Ibérica War, in 1807 when word arrived of the start of the war between Portugal and the French-Spanish alliance the local Portuguese governor organized an expedition against the only Spanish possession in the Far East, the Filipinas Islands.

In December 1807 a fleet of over 20 Portuguese ships under the command of Admiral José Pinto Alcofora de Azevedo e Sousa sailed from Macau and attacked the Spanish garrison in the city of Manila. The Portuguese force of over 6,000 easily defeated the Spanish garrison of approximately 1,000 men and captured the Spanish Governor-General Mariano Fernández de Folgueras. The Filipinas Islands were formally returned to Espanha in December of 1808 and the last Portuguese soldier left the Filipinas for Macau in August of 1809.

Portuguese Province of Macau in 1811
Provincial boundary prior to 1811 shown in Green​

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By 1825 the composition of Macau population had greatly changed as a result of constant immigration policy. The majority of the original Chinese residents in the expanded province had overtime been sent to other Portuguese provinces. Of the approximately 250,000 people living in the province less than 100,000 were Chinese and more than 20,000 were of mixed Chinese-Other descend. While they lived next door to China the vast majority had very little in common with Chinese. Portuguese Catholicism was the predominant religion and Portuguese was the only language spoken in government, business, schools and church. Those that did not speak the language were either marginalized or were assimilated.