Notes: Since sleep is for chumps, I have more studies of Angola as Nzinga would have known it out for you all. This time we're looking at the Ndongo Kingdom: the main setting of the first parts of our story. I have more to say on the early history of the Ndongo and Mbundu society in coming posts, since much of it ties into Nzinga's rise to power and how she reshaped society in her wake, but this entry on geography will suffice for the first "Welcome to Ndongo" entry. Both religion and the role of women/third-gender folk in Ndongo society will get separate entries of their own, so don't worry if that seems a little sparse here. As always, feel free to ask for clarification if needed and may the Great Queen's warriors always shoot true.
"Waterfall Country"
Part II - The Lands of the Ndongo Kings
An Ndongo Royal Guardsman and an Imbangala commune-warrior wielding traditional weapons, as portrayed in a Portuguese frontispiece
At the time of the Portuguese arrival in Kongo, Ndongo was the second-largest state in central Africa, having an area about one-third that of Kongo. It encompassed what are today the provinces of Cuanza Norte, Cuanza Sul, Malange, and Bengo in modern Angola-Nzingana. (Angola derives its name from the word ngola, the title of the ruler of Ndongo.) Ndongo bordered the Atlantic Ocean and extended from the frontier with Kongo at the outlet of the Bengo River south to the bay where the mighty Kwanza River empties into the ocean. Ndongo’s northern boundary wound its way eastward from the Atlantic through the Dembos region and the lands bordering Kongo’s southern provinces, such as Mbwila, until it reached the Lucala River. The southern boundary followed the Kwanza River some 170 miles inland, including lands on both sides of the river, until it reached a series of large rock formations at Pungo Ndongo, located a few miles north of the river. Ndongo’s eastern boundary began some miles beyond Pungo Ndongo, and included lands to the south as far as the Kutato River. The eastern boundary continued in a northeasterly direction, following the Lucala River to the border of Kongo.
Unlike Kongo, Ndongo had a few rivers that were navigable over many miles, but many also had treacherous falls and whirlpools. The Kwanza River, the main waterway that led to the center of the kingdom, was navigable by small boats for some 125 miles inland, but at that point the Cambambe waterfall, seventy feet high, made such navigation impossible. An even larger waterfall farther upstream imposed an additional barrier. The Lucala River, the other main watercourse in the kingdom and a tributary of the Kwanza, though navigable in some parts, has even more spectacular waterfalls that also prevented its full use for river transport. The most impressive of these waterfalls towered from a spectacular height of three hundred feet in an area studded with tall trees and dense underbrush. While waterfalls proved hazardous to navigation, the shallowness of the rivers in other parts also placed limits on river travel. Parts of the Kwanza flowed through swamps containing crocodiles, hippopotamuses, and other dangers. Such conditions meant that even land transport near the banks of rivers was treacherous, and travelers were forced to disassemble bigger canoes and hire or commandeer humans to transport the boats and military hardware away from the river to settled areas, often miles away. But the rivers were not as challenging to the local Mbundu population as they would be to the Portuguese, who arrived in the area in 1575. People used large but manuverable canoes that were easy to navigate over rapids or in the shallows.
Kalandula Falls on the Lucala River
The upper reaches of the Kwanza River also contained a collection of large islands, the Kindonga Islands, that were economically and strategically significant. They provided excellent fishing grounds, and some were large enough to support villages and agriculture. A few were for the exclusive use of the ruler: one was used as a royal capital, while another was the site for the tombs of Ndongo rulers and members of the ruling lineages. The islands were also strategically located: they were close enough together that soldiers—or spies—could easily move between them, and during combat, soldiers posted on the low-lying hills could fire muskets or launch arrows against opposing armies approaching in canoes while still protecting themselves. In addition, since the islands were not far from the bank, a ruler who feared being attacked at the capital could easily relocate the court to the islands and continue to conduct war, send out diplomatic missions, and manage other state affairs, as Njinga would do on several occasions. Finally, if all else failed, leaders and soldiers could escape by using canoes to move from island to island undetected until they reached safety on the opposite side of the river.
Just as they found ways to make use of the rivers, the Mbundu people had been able to exploit the land resources and to connect all parts of the country. The people had adapted to a climate that ranged from semi-arid conditions on the coast, to cool and even frosty conditions in the plateau region, to humid and tropical conditions in the valleys and savanna areas. In the low-lying coastal areas south of Luanda, including parts of Kisama, the climate was semi-arid and inhospitable. Here, however, the majestic and imposing
imbondeiro, the baobab tree, was the lifeline of the local population, providing water, food, shelter, and medicine. The Kisama region was famous for large slabs of rock salt, which were mined and distributed to all parts of the country. The climate and resources of the plateau regions in the interior of Ndongo differed drastically from the dry coastal areas. The many rivers that flowed down from high mountains into meadows and valleys provided abundant water for fertile fields where people grew a range of tropical crops, and for pastures where they raised domestic animals, including cattle, goats, pigs, and fowl. The highlands offered natural protection, and it was here that the ngola (the rulers of Ndongo) located their capital. From here the Ndongo rulers and their officials supervised the slave and other dependent populations who also formed part of the military force and provided the various kinds of tribute and farm labor necessary for their upkeep. Travel between the population centers could be treacherous prior to the creation of the Queensroad. Uncultivated regions were covered by thick forests and harbored a wide variety of wild animals, including large pythons capable of swallowing a grown man, elephants, rhinoceroses, lions, leopards, and hyenas. The highlands also featured massive rocky outcrops, steep precipices, and ravines that presented challenges to even the most experienced travelers going from one community to the other.
The miobo woodland-savanna of Central Angola
Although some of the ngola’s legitimacy was based on his being a member of a ruling lineage, as well as on his ability to command military forces to victory and to oversee the growth of economic resources, much rested on the spiritual position as Land Steward he occupied in Mbundu society. Ndongo tradition attributed the founding of the state to a skilled blacksmith and farmer from Kongo who heard the voice of a god named Zampungu that told him to bring his people south. People greatly respected the kings and religious authorities because they believed they possessed a special connection to the soil, flora, and fauna of the Ndongo lands. These mighty men and women, called Waterfall People after the the awe-inspiring power of the kingdom's steep waterfalls, had influence both worldly and otherworldly, controlling the rain and the fertility of the soil, wielding authority over life and death, and possessing hidden knowledge through divination rites performed at large waterfalls. Similar to the medieval idea of sacred kingship, once a person became the ngola, the people considered their body to be invested with special spiritual powers over the physical environment. Kings were imbued with far more formidable powers as well, but that discussion is more suited to our look at the structure of Ndongo society.....