Northumbria more successful?

[Lindseyman]

Andronikos II up to 1291

Andronikos II, born in about 1262, was the eldest son of Maurice, and became Emperor of Rome on Maurice’s death in 1284. In many ways he reminded people of his grandfather Andronikos I in temperament and ability although fate dealt him a very different hand.

Andronikos had a younger sister Eudokia who supported her brother faithfully even after she married John I of Aegyptos in 1286. It was her influence on her husband which freed Andronikos of the worry that Aegyptos would also try to retake more than Anatolia in the aftermath of the collapse of the Mongol Illkhanate in the early 1300s.

A successful soldier, Andronikos had to first consolidate his hold on the Empire by defeating his cousin Theodore Komnenus who also claimed the throne. Theodore was strongly supported by the province of Neapolis but in a brilliant and short campaign Andronikos defeated Theodore first at Cassino and then at Casserta where Theodore was killed in the battle. His hold on the Empire now secure, Andronikos began to build up the army and fleet to take advantage of the unrest that was now occurring in both Servia and Bulgaria.

After the death of Stephanos Dragostinios in 1281, Servia had dissolved into a mess of feuding lordships and Andronikos saw the opportunity to reclaim these lands for the Empire. He invaded Servia in 1286 and over the course of two years brought all of the Servian lands back into the Empire apart from a couple of small areas which Hungary managed to control. Andronikos was not happy about this but at the time Hungary was stable and Bulgaria seemed to offer a much easier target.

Bulgaria was also falling into almost continuous civil war. Constantinios Asenios was a superb military leader but poor at ruling a country. He was unable to rule in a manner which all his subjects would accept. There were constant uprisings amongst his Greek subjects. The rebellions were always quickly crushed but they kept occurring.

Nikephorus in Constantinople had only a small army with which to intervene and so was unable to take much more than coastal strips from Constantinople to Thessalonika and then on to Achaea.

However Andronikos did have a large army, and in 1288 he invaded Bulgaria. He quickly established control of the west and south of Bulgaria. However Constantinios again showed that he was a superb military leader and was able to inflict several minor defeats on Andronikos. So in 1290 Andronikos and Constantinios signed a peace treaty at Nish. Andronikos retained control of those areas that he had occupied and Constantinios retained the rest.

However Andronikos was to discover that conquering these lands did not mean controlling them. The rebelliousness of both the Servians and the Bulgarians which had made it difficult for Dragostinios and Asenios to maintain their control also made it difficult for Andronikos. More and more of his time and resources had to be put into retaining control of these lands and this diverted resources from recovering the rest of the Empire. Andronikos slowly began to realise that it was not just a case of turning up and the Empire would be welcomed with open arms. He had to win back their hearts and minds as well.

 

[Lindseyman]

The Regatian Civil War 1291 to 1296

The Regatian Civil War, also known as the War of the Twins, has gone down in history as one of the most unfought civil wars in history! It came about because Owain the son of Constantine VII had identical twin sons, Constantine and Artair. This was unusual as there had been no history of twins in the Regatian Royal Family nor in the House of Wessex from which Owain’s wife Matilda of Flanders was descended. Although there was some consternation it was generally felt that one of them would pass away before there was a problem!

Unfortunately both Constantine and Artair had the most robust of health and both grew up into manhood. Their father Owain died in 1286 from a prolonged illness and all of a sudden the problem was important. Both were well loved by the population at large but which one would succeed their grandfather? There were no clear rules, some argued that Constantine was the first born and should therefore succeed, whilst others argued that that meant that Artair was conceived first and should therefore succeed. As is usual in such cases people began picking sides. Constantine VII tried to defuse the situation by asking the Pope to decide on his successor. However although Innocent IV decreed that in future the first born should be heir in such circumstances he did not decide between Constantine and Artair.

Constantine VII managed to keep the situation under control aided by both his grandsons who both openly admitted that they would readily accept the other as King IF Innocent’s decision had been in force at the time of their birth. However when Constantine VII died in 1291 the situation was no closer to being resolved. It was made harder in that neither had any real areas under the control of their respective supporters. Often if the Laird or Earl declared for one or the other, many of their barons would declare for the other!

So in 1292 the brothers met at a council presided over by the Cardinal Archbishop of Eork. The only precedent that could be found was that of the Duchy of Barcelona in the early 1100s where the twins had ruled jointly until one of them was killed (it was assumed at the instigation of the other!). The nobles of both sides ruled that one out, they wanted an undisputed King. It was suggested dividing Rheged into two as per old Brythonic tradition. This idea gained some support but where should the boundaries be drawn? (Especially as both wanted Caerluel in their part).

The Council went on into 1293 and became more and more heated until there were regular outbreaks of violence between both sets of supporters. Reluctantly both brothers withdrew from the Council and prepared for war. There were regular skirmishes between the two sides but no real battles. Indeed both brothers managed to succeed in ensuring that harvests were planted and collected and taxes paid to Caerluel for the next 3 years!

The strange nature of this civil war was confirmed in 1294. Alasdair of Alba invaded and attacked Riderch, the Laird of Oberdeathain (who supported Constantine) and succeeded in killing him and occupying Oberdeathain claiming it for Alba. Immediately Domnall, the Laird of Dumbarton (who supported Artair) brought his army into Oberdeathain and defeated Alasdair at first Montrose, then Huntly and finally at Elgin. Alasdair and his sons were killed at this last battle so Domnall of Dumbarton annexed southern Alba to Rheged and put one of the Gaelic Lords on the throne of the rump Alba. After garrisoning the newly conquered lands he put Aedh, the son of Riderch in charge of the Lairdship of Oberdeathain and withdrew his army back to Dumbarton.

The whole matter finally resolved itself in 1296 when Constantine died in a riding accident (it was an accident, it occurred in front of too many witnesses for it to have been otherwise!). All Constantine’s supporters immediately sent messages to Artair accepting him as King. Artair accepted their oaths of allegiance and was crowned Artair II in 1297.

 

[Julius Vogel]

Sucks to be Alba I guess, as per usual!

 

[Lindseyman]

Sucks to be Alba I guess, as per usual!

Alba will have its day in the sun, though not for a long time.

 

[Julius Vogel]

Alba will have its day in the sun, though not for a long time.

Phew! I shall look forward to that

It does make sense though, it is just a bit sad. I think many of my ancestors migrated from the Highlands/islands to the Antipodes for economic and social reasons so perhaps I take it more personally than I should!

 

[Lindseyman]

King Edmund I (Part 1)

Edward IV had no sons to follow him, so Edmund of Abertawe claimed the throne by right of being married to Mathilde, Edward’s elder daughter, and because he was also descended father to son from Heinrich (albeit as a cadet branch of the House of Wessex). Unfortunately for him he was very unpopular being seen as Welsh despite his ancestry but mainly because he was a very unpleasant person who seemed to delight in the misery of others.

It was an open secret that his marriage to Mathilde was not particularly happy especially as he had a string of mistresses and illegitimate children. There were other claimants to the throne but they were descended from daughters rather than sons of previous Kings. The exception was Robert of Flanders who was the son of Wilhelm the youngest brother of Robert I. Many Earls would have welcomed Robert with open arms. However he was having problems of his own with Frankenreich and with the expansion northwards of Ostreich and so took no immediate action to press his claim. The other serious claimants to the throne were the twins Constantine and Artair of Rheged. However they were otherwise preoccupied in 1292!

So despite many misgivings preparations were made for the coronation of Edmund I. However the coronation never took place as the Earldoms of Exeter and Winchester rose up in rebellion against Edmund wishing to place Wilhelm of Winchester on the throne. Despite his many faults Edmund was a sound military leader and the rebellion was quickly put down. However it was also very brutally put down and this caused even more unrest as the Earl of Tamworth and many of the Barons of the Northern part of the Earldom of Lincoln refused to swear allegiance to him.

To add oil to the fire in 1293 when Edmund was again planning his coronation Robert of Flanders, having sorted out his problems in Europe landed with a sizeable army at Ipswich, and claimed the throne. England split into three armed camps. What remained of Exeter and Winchester were under the control of Edmund’s cronies so they declared for Edmund. Lincoln, Ipswich and Tamworth declared for Robert, and finally Canterbury under the influence of Pope Innocent IV declared itself neutral. However Edward, the Earl of Canterbury, still raised an army and swore that he would fight against anyone who entered his lands.

Although armed clashes occurred between supporters of Edmund and Robert, the first open fighting broke out in 1294 at the First Battle of St Albans. Several prominent supporters of Edmund died, but their heirs continued a deadly feud with Robert. Although peace was temporarily restored, the Edmundians were inspired by Mathilde to contest Robert's claim (although unhappy with Edmund, she wished her son Edward to become King). Fighting resumed more violently in 1295. Edmund and his supporters were forced at one time to retreat to Abertawe, but one of his most prominent supporters, the Baron of Warwick, managed to capture Robert at the Battle of Northampton.

Edmund ransomed Robert to his son (Wilhelm) for a sizable amount of money and got Robert to swear an oath to the Pope that he would not further contest Edmund becoming King of England. So on Christmas Day 1296, Edmund was finally crowned as King Edmund I. However it was not the end of the Civil War. Firstly although Robert had sworn an oath not to contest the Kingdom, by an oversight, the oath did not stop Wilhelm from contesting the throne. Also Alienor reappeared to further muddy the waters.

 

[EmperorOfTheNorthSea]

Nice TL, subbed

 

[Lindseyman]

King Edmund I (Part 2)

There was an uneasy peace throughout 1297. Edmund was not faced with any outright rebellion but his hold on England was not secure and it would only take a small spark to reignite the civil war. It was not a small spark that occurred in 1298 but a major conflagration!

Alienor finally resurfaced in Flanders. She had fled to her cousin in Catalunye who was sympathetic but not willing to offer concrete support. So she moved to Flanders where she married Wilhelm despite her being 10 years older. They were second or third cousins so such a marriage was not unheard of albeit unusual. When Edmund heard of the marriage he immediately started drinking heavily and thought of fleeing. Alienor was very popular in England and he well knew that many nobles would prefer Wilhelm (if not his father Robert who fortunately had sworn an oath not to contest the throne). Alienor and Wilhelm invaded in 1298 and half the country rose in their support.

Neither side was able to achieve a decisive advantage during the first years of the war; Alienor came to control the east of England and much of the Thames Valley, while Edmund remained in control of the west. The castles of the period were easily defensible, and much of the fighting was attritional in character, comprising sieges, raiding and skirmishing between armies of knights and foot soldiers, many of them mercenaries.

In 1299 Edmund was captured following the battle of Lincoln, causing a collapse in his authority over most of the country. However, on the verge of being crowned queen, Alienor was forced to retreat from Westminster by hostile crowds (they objected to the behaviour of Wilhelm's troops); shortly afterwards, Wilhelm was captured at the rout of Winchester and the two sides agreed to swap their respective captives. Edmund then almost seized Alienor in 1300 during the siege of Oxford, but the Empress escaped from Oxford Castle across the frozen River Thames to safety.

The war dragged on, Alienor's husband, Wilhelm, successfully conquered Winchester and Exeter, but neither side could achieve victory. Rebel barons began to acquire ever greater power in northern England and in East Anglia, with widespread devastation in the regions of major fighting. In 1302 Alienor returned to Flanders with her young son Edward, leaving the campaigning in England to Wilhelm. Edmund unsuccessfully attempted to have his own son, also Edward, recognised by the Church as the next king of England. By 1308 the barons and the Church mostly wanted a long-term peace.

When Alienor re-invaded England in 1310, neither faction's forces were keen to fight. After limited campaigning and the siege of Wallingford, Edmund and Alienor agreed a negotiated peace, the Treaty of Westminster, in which Edmund recognised Edward Alienor’s son as his heir (his son Edward having died from illness (probably smallpox)). Edmund died in 1314 and Edward ascended the throne as Edward V, the first king of the House of Flanders, beginning a long period of reconstruction. Later chroniclers described the period as one in which "Christ and his saints were asleep" and historians in the 19th Century called the conflict "the Anarchy" because of the chaos, although modern historians have questioned the accuracy of the term and of some contemporary accounts.

 

[Lindseyman]

Ioslainn (OTL Iceland)

The island of Ioslainn had been known to Europeans since the eighth century when it had been settled by Hibernian monks wishing to live far from the strife that continually engulfed that island. As is common in such cases where the monks led others followed and by 800AD there was a thriving (if small) Hibernian community based around Cuan Detaigh (OTL Reykjavik). They led a relatively prosperous life as although the winters were much colder than in Hibernia in summer they were able to grow barley and oats and there was abundant fish.

In the ninth and tenth centuries there was an influx of Norse settlers and also Hibernians fleeing from the Norse invasions of Hibernia. In the main their relationship was peaceful, the climate was such that none of the farming folk could afford to be away from their land for long and this stymied those who wished to expand their lands by conquest.

In the main, the Norse settled the east of the island around Eskifjordir and the Hibernians the west around the old settlement of Cuan Detaigh. Over the years there developed a strange amalgam of Hibernian and Norse culture which in the main came to see itself as Hibernian rather than Norse even though most of their style of living was actually Norse!

In 930AD, the ruling chiefs established an assembly called the Comhairle. The parliament convened each summer at Hofn (at the borders between the old Hibernian and Norse lands although that distinction meant much less by now), where representative chieftains amended laws, settled disputes and appointed juries to judge lawsuits. Laws were written down and kept by an elected Law Keeper (Coimeadai dli).

The Comhairle is sometimes stated to be the world's oldest existing parliament. Importantly, there was no central executive power, and therefore laws were enforced only by the people. This gave rise to blood-feuds, which for reasons mentioned above tended to involve very little actual bloodshed but a lot of kidnapping and grandstanding, but provided the writers of sagas with plenty of material.

Ioslainn enjoyed a mostly uninterrupted period of growth in its commonwealth years. Settlements from that era have been found in southwest Ghraonlainn (OTL Greenland) and Talamh an Eisc (OTL Newfoundland), and sagas such as Eiríks saga and the Ghraonlainn saga speak of the settlers' exploits.

The settlers of Ioslainn were predominantly Hibernian style Christians. However by the 12th century political pressure from Europe to change to Catholicism mounted. At the end of the 13th century the church in Ioslainn had accepted the reorganisations promoted for the Church in Hibernia by the Synod of Armagh.

During the 12th and 13th centuries, the centralization of power had worn down the institutions of the Comhairle, as the former, notable independence of local farmers and chieftains gave way to the growing power of a handful of families and their leaders. The period from around 1250 to 1312 is generally known as Age of the Uaisle. This refers to the major landowners fighting for power over Ioslainn, causing havoc in a land inhabited almost entirely by farmers who could ill-afford to travel far from their farms, across the island to fight for their leaders.

It was in 1312 that a fleet arrived from Rheged.

 

[Lindseyman]

Some technological developments of the 12th and 13th Centuries

The period of the 12th and 13th centuries saw various technological advancements some of which did not depend upon learning from the classics or being imported along the trade routes from China. Indeed despite everything this time actually saw science advance more in Western Europe than since the fall of the Roman Empire. Admittedly a lot of this advance was in weaponry but finally after a long hiatus new discoveries and developments were being made.

Counterweight trebuchet (1100s) - Gravity powered, these weapons revolutionized medieval siege weapons by use of counterweights allowing it to hurl huge stones very long distances. It was first used in the eastern Mediterranean basin. Trebuchets were used in the wars of East Rome by the 1120s, and in the West by the 1150s. There is some dispute about who first developed the idea but given the locations of their first use it seems likely that it was an engineer in the East Roman Army who developed the idea.

Longbow with massed, disciplined archery (1100s) - The Longbow was powerful, accurate and had in some form or other existed in Gwynedd and other Welsh Kingdoms since the 900s. However it reached its final form in Gwynedd in the early 1100s. Surprisingly the English did not adopt it then, despite seeing the effectiveness of the longbow when used against them. Instead it was Rheged that took to the Longbow and despite a lack of wars they developed the best tactics for its use. The effectiveness of these were finally seen in the Battle of Elgin in 1294 when a very small force of Regatian soldiers completely destroyed an Alban Army. The longbow would be finally adopted by the English in the early 1300s.

Artesian well (1100s) - A thin rod with a hard iron cutting edge is placed in a bore hole and repeatedly struck with a hammer. Underground water pressure forces the water up the hole without pumping. Artesian wells are named for Artesie in Frankenreich (then in the Duchy of Normandy in the HRE), where the first was drilled by monks in 1126. It is thought that the idea came from China where similar wells had been drilled for the previous 200 years. However since the monks had had no direct contact with China they may have come up with the idea independently.

Wheelbarrow (1170s) - Useful in construction, mining, and farming. Wheelbarrows appeared in stories and pictures between 1170 and 1250 in North-western Europe. Its inventor is unknown but it revolutionised the previously mentioned areas as it enabled a single man to transport much bigger quantities of materials. Some historians think that the famines which followed the Black Death of the mid-14th Century would have been much greater but for the Wheelbarrow.

Blast furnace (late 1100s/early 1200s) - Cast iron first appears in the HRE around 1190. The technique is considered to be an independent European development as certainly it did not appear in China until the late 1300s. A rare case (up to then) of an invention being made in Europe and travelling east to China.

Vertical windmills (1180s) – Probably invented in Rheged, as the pivotable post mill it was efficient at grinding grain or draining water. The first mention of one is from south of Eork in Rheged in 1185.

Spectacles (1280s) - From Florentia in the Roman Empire, convex lenses to help far-sighted people. Concave lenses for near-sighted people weren't developed before the 15th century.

Spinning wheel (1200s) - Brought to Europe probably from India. This caused the rapid expansion of the wool trade as it enabled yarn to be spun much more quickly and efficiently than the old hand techniques.

Mirrors (1180) - First mention of a mirror was made in 1180 by Alexander Neckam Bishop of Winchester (who wrote several treatises on what is now considered to be Physics) who said "Take away the lead which is behind the glass and there will be no image of the one looking in." It is not known where the mirror was developed but as again it appeared in the East (at least in this form) in the mid-1200s this could well be another European development.

 

[Lindseyman]

Kaidu

Kaidu is little remembered in the west, however he was in a large part responsible for the length of time that it took Hulagu to conquer all of China. Kaidu ensured that many resources were tied down in the west of the Khanate. He was a grandson of Ögedei Khan and a great-grandson of Genghis Khan and Börte. His mother's name was Shabkana Khatun from the Bekrin (Mekrin) tribe of mountaineers that were "neither Mongols, nor Uighurs".

Roman Merchants described Yarkand, part of the area under Kaidu as "five days' journey in extent"; that its inhabitants were mostly Muslim although there were also some Nestorian and Jacobite Assyrians; and that it had plenty of food and other necessities, "especially cotton." In the Civil War in the late 1260s, Hulagu Khan was warring with his own brother Ariq Böke, who was proclaimed Great Khan at Karakorum, Kaidu began to have major conflicts with both Hulagu and Kublai.

This was because the Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who supported Hulagu as Khagan, ravaged the lands of Kaidu. This forced Kaidu to make an alliance with Berke, the khan of the Golden Horde.

After the defeat of Ariq Böke in 1269, Hulagu summoned him at his court, possibly discuss the future of the empire and give his share from Ögedeid appanage in China. But Kaidu avoided appearing at his court and said that his horses were too thin to bear long distance. Because Genghis Khan had made a law that all branches of the family had to approve the granting of the title of Great Khan, Kaidu's enmity was a constant obstacle to Hulagu's ambitions.

In 1271 Baraq was dispatched to Central Asia to take the throne of Chagatai. Hulagu instigated Baraq to attack him in 1273. At first Baraq defeated Kaidu, however, the former was defeated by the latter with the assistance of Möngke-Temür, successor of Berke. When Barak advanced towards Kaidu, the latter set a trap for the invader's troops on the bank of the Jaxartes, and defeated his forces. Transoxiana was then ravaged by Kaidu. Baraq fled to Samarkand, then Bukhara, plundering the cities along the way in an attempt to rebuild his army. These actions alarmed Kaidu, who did not want the region to be further devastated. Kaidu also needed to free up his army for a potential conflict with Hulagu. Peace was therefore proposed, and Baraq was pressured by the governors of the sedentary areas of the khanate, Mas'ud Beg and Daifu, to accept. He did, and peace was declared, although sources conflict on the time and location. Rashid al-Din claims that the meeting took place in the spring of 1275 in Talas, while Wassaf writes that it took place around 1274 to the south of Samarkand. Either way, two-thirds of Transoxiana were granted to Baraq, while the other third went to Kaidu and Mengu-Timur. Kaidu also gained control of the region around Bukhara. Neither side gained control of the cities; the administration of these instead devolved to Mas'ud Beg, while Baraq and Kaidu agreed to reside only in the deserts and mountains.

Kaidu finally convinced Baraq to attack the Illkhanate under the Kublai, who had become a staunch supporter of Hulagu. Baraq suffered a large defeat at Herat on in 1278 against Abagha. Baraq died en route to meet Kaidu who had been waiting for such a circumstance. The Chagatayid princes including Mubarak Shah submitted to Kaidu and proclaimed him as their overlord. Sons of Baraq rebelled against Kaidu but they were defeated. Many of the Chagatayid princes fled to the Ilkhanate. Kaidu's early attempt to rule the Chagatayids faced a serious resistance. The Mongol princes such as Negübei, whom he appointed khan of the House of Chagatai revolted several times. Stable control came when Duwa was made khan who became his number two in 1284.

In 1285 Kaidu invaded Ürümqi and demanded its submission, but the Buddhist Idiqut resisted. Hulagu sent a relief force to expel him. This force occupied Almaliq from 1286–96, to prevent Kaidu's invasion. In 1287, a group of Genghisid princes under Möngke's son Shiregi rebelled, kidnapping two of Hulagu's sons and his general Antong. The rebels handed Antong to Kaidu and the princes to Möngke-Temür. The Great Khan's armies drove Shiregi's forces west of the Altai Mountains and strengthened the garrisons in Mongolia and Xinjiang. However, Kaidu took control over Almaliq.
Though Kaidu had fourteen sons, he relied mostly on his daughter Khutulun for advice and aid in military matters.

Kaidu had waged almost continuous warfare for more than 30 years against Hulagu and his successor Ghazan, though he eventually fell in 1301, when he was defeated and wounded during a battle near Karakorum and died shortly afterwards.

 

[Lindseyman]

Artair II of Rheged

After Artair II ascended the throne the first part of his rule was spent in consolidating his position. Although after the accidental death of his twin brother Constantine all the nobles of Rheged accepted him as undisputed King there was still considerable bad blood between those who had always supported Artair and those who only recognised him after Constantine’s death. Luckily Artair had a forceful personality and after he had knocked a few heads together the ill feeling died down and by 1300 the Kingdom was fully at peace with itself once more.

Artair's main policies were concerned with avoiding the further development of the great noble houses, kingdoms inside the kingdom, and concentrating power in the person of the king and to a lesser extent the Seneth. Indeed Artair did have some problems with the Seneth as it had got used to running the country during the Civil War. However again by 1300 he and the Seneth had come to a Modus Vivendi although problems about the limits of the powers of the King would resurface at various times in the next 300 years (usually on the accession of a new King).

Artair then turned his attentions north. (England could be safely ignored as it still suffering from its own civil war). He first had to deal with the Faeroes. The islanders had rediscovered a taste for the old Viking way of life and continually mounted raids on the Orkneys, Shetlands and Hibernia. Although they were still officially part of the Kingdom of Norway this was a polite fiction used by the Faeroes to protect themselves. By 1303 Artair had had enough and mounted an expedition to these islands and forcibly annexed them. The Scandians protested although that is all they did. Privately the King of Norway was glad to be shot of them. Let Artair have the problems involved in bringing them into line. Much to everyone’s surprise that is exactly what Artair managed. Within 5 years the Faeroes were fully pacified and the islanders returned to fishing, whaling and sheep rearing.

Artair then turned his attention to Ioslainn. The period of troubles that had afflicted the island for the past fifty years had finally begun to impact on the fishing industry. It was no longer safe for Regatian fishermen to land as their ships would be captured and their catches taken to feed the armies roaming the island. So in 1312 Artair mounted a major expedition to Ioslainn. His fleet anchored off the main town Cuan Detaigh and his army disembarked. He was welcomed by the ordinary folk as a liberator. They were by now fed up of the fighting between the Uaisle and just wanted a return to peace.
Most of the landowners saw the way the wind was blowing and surrendered. Just one family the Aerikssons tried to resist but they were defeated at Eskifjordir in 1313 and Artair had full control of Ioslainn. Although he forced his acceptance as King of Ioslainn he did not integrate the island into Rheged. Instead he reinforced the powers of the Comhairle and installed his cousin Domnall of Dunedin as Gobharnoir. This would become the model for all Rheged’s colonies and Protectorates in the future-local rule but accepting the Kings of Rheged as their ruler.

Artair then returned to Rheged and did not leave the country for the rest of his rule although he encouraged his sons to travel widely throughout all the lands that accepted him as King. The last years of his rule were years of peace and plenty for Rheged especially as Edward V consolidated his hold on England and trade began to flourish once more. The roads were rebuilt to even higher standards and Artair even managed to reduce taxes. He re-founded a University at Eork in 1323 which he intended to rival Oxford and encouraged Regatian scholars to study there rather than elsewhere.

One of his last acts as King was to formally recognise that his twin Constantine had the right to be called Constantine VIII. So when he passed away peacefully in his bed in 1342, he was succeeded by his son Constantine as Constantine IX.

 

[Lindseyman]

The Ilkhanate to 1292

From 1272 Kublai spent much time in the consolidation of the Ilkhanate. The Persian territories were relatively easily pacified. However the lands conquered from Rome and the old Turkish and Arab lands in Mesopotamia were much less so. Kublai built a new capitol on the old site of Baghdad, now called Pyersiin, as it was central to his realm. This enabled him to keep a much tighter hold on his western provinces but after one more Turkish uprising in 1283 he forcibly moved the Turks into Anatolia and resettled the old Turkish lands with settlers from Persia.

The period from 1283 until his death in 1289 was dominated by increasing clashes with the Golden Horde over the Caucasus area. This struggle would continue for the next 50 or so years and would gravely weaken both Mongol States leading to their eventual final collapse in the late 1300s. This campaign against the Golden Horde was led by his son Zhenjiin as after his wife Chabi died in 1284, Kublai began to withdraw from direct contact with his advisers, and he issued instructions through one of his other queens, Nambui.

Zhenjiin initially proved to be very successful and re-established the Ilkhanate’s control over the contested area. However as Kublai withdrew from public life there began to be a power struggle between Zhenjiin and Nomukhan, another of Kublai’s sons. Indeed this power struggle threatened to tear the Ilkhanate apart but in one of his last public appearances Kublai exiled Nomukhan to China to be kept under Hulagu’s control. Nomukhan then disappeared, it is assumed that he pushed his uncle too far and paid for it with his life.

The succession now made clear Kublai withdrew completely and Zhenjiin effectively ruled the Ilkhanate. Kublai had become increasingly despondent after the death of his favourite wife and he turned to food and drink for comfort, became grossly overweight, and suffered gout and diabetes. The emperor overindulged in alcohol and the traditional meat-rich Mongol diet, which may have contributed to his gout. Kublai sank into depression due his poor health and advancing age. He tried every medical treatment available, from Mongolian shamans to Persian and even Roman doctors, and remedies and medicines, but to no avail.

Before his death, Kublai passed the seal of Crown Prince to Zhenjiin, who now officially ruled the Ilkanate in his father’s name. Seeking an old companion to comfort him in his final illness, the palace staff could choose only Bayan, more than 30 years his junior. Kublai weakened steadily, and in February, 1289, he died at the age of 73.

Zhenjiin did not long survive Kublai dying of food poisoning in 1292. His reign is best remembered for the first major defeat inflicted upon a Mongol Army since Andronikos in Hungary. Zhenjiin had got tired of Robert of Jerusalem’s tardiness in paying tribute and in 1292 despatched Nayan, the son of Kitbuqa, to conquer the Kingdom. Unfortunately Nayan was met in battle at Acre not only by Robert of Jerusalem but also John I Kontastephanos, the Roman Emperor of Aegyptos. Although at first the battle seemed to be going Nayan’s way as it went on it became evident that the Aegyptian Army was actually far better trained and disciplined than the Mongol forces which hadn’t fought a major battle in nearly a generation (the war against the Golden Horde was just a series of skirmishes at this time). The battle finally turned into a rout of the Mongol forces and Temur, Zhenjiin’s son (second in command of the army), only managed to pull a fragment of the army out in any semblance of order.

When Temur returned to Pyersiin, he found that his father had just died and so succeeded to the throne.

 

[Lindseyman]

Edward V of England

On being crowned in 1314, Edward quickly took oaths of loyalty the barons. The royal court was gathered in April 1315, where the barons again swore fealty to the King. Potential rivals still existed, including Artair II of Rheged (occupied in the North Atlantic) and Edward's brother Robert (occupied with the expanding Ostreich), but they showed no inclination to contest the Kingship of England, leaving Edward's position remarkably secure.

Nonetheless, Edward inherited a difficult situation in England, as the kingdom had suffered extensively during the civil war. In many parts of the country the fighting had caused serious devastation, although some other areas remained largely unaffected. Numerous "adulterine", or unauthorised, castles had been built as bases for local lords. The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country. The king's income had declined seriously and royal control over the mints remained limited.

Edward presented himself as the legitimate heir to Edward IV and commenced rebuilding the kingdom in his image. Although Edmund had tried to continue Edward IV's method of government during his reign, the younger Edward's new government characterised those years as a chaotic and troubled period, with all these problems resulting from Edmund's seizure of the throne. Edward was also careful to show that, he would listen to the advice and counsel of others. Various measures were immediately carried out although, since Edward spent six and a half years out of the first eight years of his reign in Flanders, much work had to be done at a distance. The process of demolishing the unauthorised castles from the war continued. Efforts were made to restore the system of royal justice and the royal finances. Edward also invested heavily in the construction and renovation of prestigious new royal buildings.

Edward had a problematic relationship with Otto II of Ostreich throughout the 1320s. The two men had already clashed over Edward's succession to Flanders in 1316 and the relationship was not repaired. Otto invariably attempted to take the moral high ground in respect to Edward, capitalising on his reputation as the liberator of Poland and circulating rumours about his rival's behaviour and character. Edward had lesser resources than Otto, however Otto was far less dynamic in resisting Edward’s power after it was clear that he would be unchallenged as King of England. The disputes between the two drew in other powers across the region, including Louis, the King of Franken Reich, who signed a military alliance with Edward, albeit with a clause that prevented the Louis from being forced to fight against Otto. Further west, Hoel IV of Brittany, a rival of Louis, became another early ally of Edward. The resulting military tension frequently flared but never escalated into war. Otto had more pressing matters in the East and Edward had a Kingdom to rebuild.

Edward after 1324, rarely left England leaving the rule of Flanders to his younger brother Robert. (Indeed Flanders once again became independent from England on Edward’s death). His rule instead concentrated on the rebuilding of England. The road system which had fallen somewhat into disrepair was fully restored which restarted the free movement of goods. He reappointed many Justices of the Peace and severely curtailed the power of the Earls. This caused some resentment but this never became more than grumbling as Edward also maintained a standing army which gained lots of experience when he, rather surprisingly given their relationship, responded to a plea for help from Otto when the Golden Horde invaded the Ostreich in 1334.

England slowly but surely returned to levels of prosperity not seen since the days of Robert I. Edward maintained cordial if distant relations with Artair II of Rheged and also with the High Kingdom of Hibernia and the Kingdom of Gwynedd. He had married Yolande the eldest daughter of Hoel of Brittany in 1318 and they had a happy relationship which resulted in several children. The eldest of these Robert II succeeded to the throne in 1343.

 

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Rome to 1323

Andronikos II had to spend the years up until 1310 establishing his control of the Servian and Bulgarian lands which he had reconquered. There were constant rebellions led by local leaders some of whom claimed to be descended from heroes of old. However as time went on Roman law was re-established and as prosperity returned the rebellions became fewer (the last one was in 1307).

He was aided by the death of Constantinios Asenios in 1289 as his son Johannes Asenios had to deal with constant rebellions. On Johannes death in 1310 Andronikos was able to take over the rest of Bulgaria with virtually no opposition. Bulgaria had exhausted itself and lost a lot of its manpower in the 20 years or so of civil war. The Romans had learnt their lesson from the previous occupation of Bulgarian lands and took their time in re-establishing control.

It was during this time that Andronikos was also able to wrest control of Thessalonika and Achaea from Constantinople admittedly without any bloodshed. The Constantinopolitan control of these areas had always been weak and the authorities were riddled with corruption so the locals welcomed Andronikos with open arms. Andronikos despite now being 56 was still healthy and began to turn his eyes to Constantinople itself.

However here his ambitions hit major problems. The Ilkhanate’s control of Anatolia had finally collapsed with the death of Kublai’s son Temur in 1305 and this had enabled Michael Palaelogus’ son Andronikos to extend the lands controlled by Nicaea to include all of western Anatolia (the eastern part had become a morass of small Turkish states apart from the area controlled by the Komneni in Trebizond). In many ways Andronikos of Nicaea was in a better position to control Constantinople than was Andronikos II.

So in 1311 Andronikos entered negotiations with the Laskarid rulers of Constantinople and Andronikos of Nicaea. Andronikos II had finally absorbed the lessons of the collapse of his father’s empire. It had fallen because East Rome had expanded beyond the ability of its infrastructure to cope. Andronikos knew that despite the recapture of Constantinople was his great dream its occupation would throw great strains on his Empire and could lead to its collapse. So he came to an arrangement with the other two. They would form a defensive alliance against the Turks to the East and a resurgent Golden Horde to the North but neither Rome nor Nicaea would attempt to capture Constantinople.

This arrangement lasted 100 years until the rise of a new Empire in the East. Andronikos returned to Rome and spent his time consolidating Roman control of its current territory. He reorganised the Army, Navy and the civilian authorities to better reflect the needs of the times and his lands. It was these reorganisations that formed the basis for Rome’s survival in the next centuries.

Andronikos II died at the age of 68 in 1323 and was succeeded by his grandson Maurice II.

 

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The state of the Christian Church at the turn of the 14th Century

Although in terms of followers Christianity was on the increase during the 13th Century, it was even less of a unified force than it had been in the past. There were several Church Leaders who claimed to be the Supreme Pontiff!

Firstly there was the Pope in Canterbury. He led the Northern Catholic Church (although there was less and less emphasis on the Northern as the years went by). The Pope did control the Christian Church in the British Isles, what had been the Dreikonigsbund, Frankenreich, Brittany and Scandia. He also claimed authority over the churches of Catalunye and the rest of Hispania although here the control was less absolute.

Secondly there was the Patriarch of Rome who led the Roman Orthodox Church. He controlled the church in all lands in the Roman Empire and had a substantial number of followers in Hispania.

Thirdly there was the Patriarch of Alexandria who controlled the Coptic Church. He controlled the Church in Aegyptos and the Levant as well as claiming authority over those Christian communities that existed in the Ilkhanate. He also claimed authority over the church in Ethiopia.

Lastly there was the Patriarch of Constantinople. He claimed authority over the whole of what had been Maurice’s Empire but effectively only controlled the Church in Constantinople, Bulgaria, Nicaea and Trebizond.

The Archbishop of Jerusalem was nominally the senior representative of all the Christians in the Kingdom of Jerusalem but effectively he paid most heed to the edicts of the Patriarch of Alexandria!

There were many more Christian communities spread though out Eurasia but no one was really sure whom they saw as their spiritual leader if indeed they had one. Some of the churches that had developed in India were very close to what would be defined as Protestant in OTL.

 

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The early Premyslids and the Ostreich to 1305

From his accession to the throne of Ostreich until his death in 1285. Otto I spent his time consolidating his hold on the country. He was disturbed by the rapid collapse of the Roman Empire and was very relieved that Maurice managed to maintain the stability of Italia. He maintained good relations with the Hungarians and a peaceful if not friendly relationship with Rudolf of Hapsburg, who ruled the other major German state Swabia.

Both Otto and Rudolf extended their power northwards into the small states that were all that remained of the old Nordreich but Otto managed to gain the vast majority. There were two outstanding diplomatic problems in Germania when he died. Firstly the Margrave of Jutland was refusing to join the Ostreich and secondly the Kingdom of Flanders was becoming more powerful in alliance with England. Both of these problems were unresolved when Otto died.

He was succeeded by his son Wenceslaus I (II of Bohemia). Wenceslaus was only 14 on his father’s death but his claim to the throne was uncontested. The government was run by the Margrave of Wien until he came of age.

In many ways Wenceslaus’ rule was the start of the Golden Age of the Ostreich. He proved to be an able ruler who in the main concentrated on improving the already recovering economy of the Ostreich. This was helped by the discovery of silver in Bohemia in 1298 at Kutna Hora. Wenceslaus established complete royal control of the production.

Using the wealth so generated Wenceslaus rebuilt many of the towns and cities in the north of the Ostreich that had been devastated by the Mongol invasion and were only slowly recovering. He encouraged the founding of Universities in both Prague and Wien and of schools in many other cities. He rebuilt the roads between the major centres of population and encouraged trade with all his neighbours.

Militarily although Wenceslaus maintained a strong army he did not engage in any military adventures until the end of his rule. He managed to persuade the Margrave of Jutland to join the Ostreich in 1299 by the simple expedient of bribing him. It also helped that the Margrave was coming under increasing pressure from the Kings of Scandia who wished to finally recover Jutland and being part of the Ostreich gave him the support necessary to rebut this pressure.

Flanders was another question. There was a long running border dispute between the Ostreich and Flanders but both sides managed to avoid it becoming open war. The one major military campaign that Wenceslaus did instigate was an invasion of Hungary in 1302. Stephan the King of Hungary had died without a male heir and as Wenceslaus’ son Otto had married Stephan’s daughter he decided to press Otto’s claim to the Hungarian throne. The western part of Hungary accepted Otto as their King. However the east instead accepted Henri of Anjou (who was married to Stephan’s sister) as their King.

The war was inconclusive and as Wenceslaus was beginning to feel unwell he withdrew his forces and accepted Henri as King of Hungary in 1304. After that his health declined rapidly and he died (it is now assumed of tuberculosis) in 1305. Otto II succeeded him but like his father he was a minor at his accession. This time, unlike at the start of his father’s rule, there were problems.

 

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Map of Europe in 1305AD



1. Alba
2. High Kingdom of Hibernia
3. Ioslainn
4. Flanders
5. Gwynedd
6. Rus
7. Brittany
8. Anjou
9. Empire of Constantinople
10. Empire of Nicaea
11. Empire of Trbizond
12. Various Caucasian states
13. Empire of Aegyptos
14. Kingdom of Jerusalem
15. Emirate of Granada

 

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Talamh an Eisc

The Grand Banks fishing grounds had been exploited by English, Breton, Regatian, Hibernian and some Catalunyan fishermen since the middle of the 13th Century. More by luck than judgement some Hibernian fishermen had landed on an island to the north west of these grounds (probably they had been blown there by a storm). This island which was soon called Talamh an Eisc, both because of its proximity to the fishing grounds and because its rivers swarmed with salmon, was soon used to smoke fish before transporting it to Ioslainn and Europe.

To begin with only temporary camps were set up for use over the summer. However soon more permanent wooden buildings were constructed although these were left during the winter months. Much to the fishermen’s surprise when they returned to these buildings the next fishing season they would often find them ransacked and stripped of any left fishing tackle or stores. In some cases buildings were demolished and the nails taken.

There were never any encounters with any indigenous people (the fishermen kept to within a mile or two of the coast) but the same incidents happened over several successive winters. Eventually the fishermen organised a hunting party into the interior of the island. However although they found unmistakeable signs of fishing and hunting they never encountered the natives whom they called Isbrethion (Regatian for Ghosts). Making the wooden structures more secure only made the damage worse so in the end they just left the buildings unlocked when they left for the winter sometimes leaving worn nails and fishing tackle in plain sight!

Eventually however some hardy souls decided to over winter as they had left it too late in the year to guarantee reaching Ioslainn let alone Europe. When the other fishermen returned the next summer they found those who had stayed alive and healthy but none the wiser about the identity of the Isbrethion. They thought that they had seen people moving in the distance and some of the outlying buildings had been ransacked as usual but there had been no contact.

By 1320 overwintering had become quite common and a small settlement called St Brendans (after St Brendan the Voyager who had sailed west to the Isle of the Blest) had been formed including a small monastery of Hibernian monks. Now the pilfering stopped but hunting parties reported that traps would be stolen and also that they were certain that they were being watched even though they never found anyone.

It would take the arrival of a Regatian garrison in 1345 for the matter to be settled.

 

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Albert I of Swabia

Albert succeeded his father as Duke of Swabia in 1294. He rapidly exerted his control of the Duchy and soon brought any unrest to an end. He had a wary relationship with Wenceslaus of Ostreich even though he was married to his younger sister Elizabeth. Indeed Wenceslaus suspected Albert of having designs on Ostreich.

This came to light when Wenceslaus died after his abortive invasion of Hungary. Nobody within the Ostreich disputed Otto II’s right to succeed his father. However Albert using the old HRE laws about succession which had never been repealed tried to have himself elected as King of the Ostreich. The idea gained some traction especially amongst those Ostreich Lords whose land bordered Swabia but it never came to fruition mainly because Otto gained his majority in 1307. Disappointed Albert instead proclaimed himself to be King of Swabia in 1308. Thereafter he had a punctiliously correct relationship with his nephew and indeed supported him in 1334 when the Golden Horde threatened an invasion of the Ostreich.

Although a hard, stern man, Albert had a keen sense of justice when his own interests were not involved, and few rulers possessed so practical an intelligence. He encouraged the cities, and not content with issuing proclamations against private war, formed alliances with Lords in order to enforce his decrees. The serfs, whose wrongs seldom attracted notice in an age indifferent to the claims of common humanity, found a friend in this severe monarch, and he protected even the despised and persecuted Jews. He is held in high regard even in the Swiss cantons which asserted their autonomy in the 16th century

Albert sought to play an important part in European affairs. He seemed at first inclined to press a quarrel with Frankenreich over their common frontier, however in 1312, he made a treaty with King Louis IV, by which his son Rudolph was to marry Blanche, a daughter of the Frankenreich king. He maintained this alliance until his death, indeed this marriage of dynasties was to have repercussions in the 15th century.

Albert then turned his attention to Catalunye. This was still the most powerful nation in the west of Europe but was turning inward as long repressed antagonisms between the old Kingdoms of Guyenne and Aragon began to resurface. Albert managed to play one side off against the other and indeed gained some territory along the Rhone (which had been part of the old Sudreich). However the accession of Guillame XII in 1324 and his reassertion of the monarchies authority put paid to any further territorial ambitions that Albert might have harboured.

Albert always maintained good relations with the Roman Empire. It offered stability to the south and encouraged trade. It did help that its eyes were almost always firmly to the east especially after the collapse of the Ilkhanate. He tended to ignore Flanders except to encourage it in its border disputes with the Ostreich in the early part of its rule and paid only passing interest in anywhere else in Europe.

He finally died in 1341 having firmly established Swabia as an important power in Europe and was succeeded by his son as Rudolf I.