Margareta domina: A Margaret of Austria TL

[HortenseMancini]

September 1495​

The news spreads quickly. Philip of Austria, Duke of Burgundy is dead at 17 years old. The only son of the Holy Roman Emperor and the Duchess of Burgundy, he was a young man of great promise. Philip had inherited Burgundy from his mother at only four years of age, with his father Maximilian acting as regent. The early years of his reign had been marked by conflict between the nobles and burghers of the Low Countries and his father’s deputies. Nonetheless, by the time that Maximilian inherited the Imperial title from his own father in 1493, tensions had eased. Young Philip, at fifteen years old, already showed signs of being capable and intelligent. Having grown up mostly in the Low Countries, he was well viewed by his mother’s former vassals, in spite of his father’s mismanagements. And Maximilian had hardly neglected his son’s Habsburg patrimony either; Philip was widely expected to be the next Holy Roman Emperor.

The fallout from Philip’s death hits hardest in Vienna. Emperor Maximilian is, naturally, devastated. But the grief is more than just that of a father for his son. With this loss, Maximilian becomes the last remaining male of the mainline Habsburgs. His heir, as of Philip’s death, is his elderly and senile cousin, Archduke Sigismund of Inner Austria. Aged 67, the Archduke has no children and shows no signs of producing issue despite being on his second wife, the 20-something Catherine of Saxony. The Habsburgs, at least in the male line, seem to be a dying breed.

Of course, Philip is not Maximilian’s only child. And Maximilian isn’t done trying to have children. He has a new wife of less than a year, Bianca Maria Sforza. The Empress is a lovely woman and a perfectly competent consort but, unfortunately, hasn’t fallen pregnant yet. And then there’s his daughter, the late Philip’s sister. Margaret of Austria. Attractive, charming, and well educated, Margaret has spent the past few years living at the court of her step-grandmother and namesake [1], the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, after having been raised at the French court as the future wife of King Charles VIII. That marriage may not have taken place but Margaret is still the emperor’s daughter and has been engaged to the Prince of Asturias, heir to the Spanish thrones of Castile and Aragon, since 1494. Like her brother, she seems to have a bright future as of September 1495.

Diptych of Philip of Austria, Duke of Burgundy (left) and his sister Margaret (right) circa 1494.​

Unfortunately, as promising of a young woman as she is, Margaret solves only part of the problems created by her brother’s death. While she immediately succeeds him as Duchess of Burgundy, Margaret simply can’t replace Philip as her father’s heir in the Habsburg lands. Maximilian isn’t even willing to consider the prospect. Besides, he’s still set on conceiving a son with his new Sforza wife. Only time will tell if he’s successful.

For now, Maximilian makes his way to Lier, the city where the Duke of Burgundy finally expired, probably of typhoid fever. Margaret, who was quite close with her brother, travels from Brussels with her step-grandmother and, together, the three of them - two duchesses and an emperor - escort the boy who would’ve been called ‘the Handsome’ to his final resting place, beside his mother at the cathedral in Bruges.

--

[1] Margaret of York (b. 1446), sister of the late King Edward IV of England and King Richard III, and aunt of the current Queen of England, Elizabeth of York

 

[HortenseMancini]

September 1495: Part II​

Duke Philip’s death has some immediate consequences on the Iberian peninsula as well. Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, known together as the “Catholic Monarchs”, have been planning a double match between two of their children, Juan and Juana, and Philip and Margaret for over a year now. Of course, the match between Juana and Philip is off the table now but to Ferdinand and Isabella, that doesn’t necessarily mean that Margaret and Juan won’t marry. By December, Ferdinand writes to Emperor Maximilian to confirm as much.

Admittedly, Maximilian isn’t quite sure what to do regarding Margaret’s standing betrothal. He begins to think that a more...domestic match might be the way to go. Burgundy is certainly wealthy and resourceful enough to stand on its own but Margaret will need an heir and, by extension, a husband. His main concern about the match with the Prince of Asturias is that Margaret needs a husband who won’t bog her (or their children) down with foreign obligations. Thus, Maximilian wearily looks to the other princes of northwestern Europe and weighs his options.

Meanwhile, in Spain, the future of Infanta Juana hangs similarly in question. Despite having looks, intelligence, and passion, she is quite an emotionally volatile and headstrong girl. Her parents would really rather her be more like her older sister, Infanta Isabel, who is still campaigning to be allowed to join a convent after having been widowed back in 1491. But truth be told, Juana is ill suited to religious life and would likely cause trouble even if she could be prevailed upon to take the veil. Ferdinand and Isabella know this, and so with great reluctance they begin the process of finding another match for their second daughter.

The "Catholic Monarchs", Ferdinand II of Aragon (left) and Isabella of Castile (right), with their eldest son, Juan, and eldest daughter, Isabel, kneeling before Christ and the Virgin Mary circa 1490-1495.​

A possible answer to this problem of the Catholic Monarchs comes in October 1495, barely a month after Philip’s death, with another death. King John II of Portugal, one time father-in-law of Infanta Isabel, expires and dies at the age of 40, leaving behind a grieving widow and an illegitimate son but no legitimate children. The new king of Portugal is John’s cousin, Manuel of Viseu. Manuel is young(-ish), unmarried, and ripe for a match with one of the Spanish infantas.

Ferdinand and Isabella move quickly. Within a month of his ascension, Manuel is bombarded with missives from Spain about Infanta Juana, who is apparently the perfect candidate to be Queen of Portugal. Unfortunately, Manuel already has his heart set on a bride, and it isn’t Juana but rather her widowed sister, Isabel. Isabel has already been Princess of Portugal and is well liked there, plus she provides a solid link between Manuel and the late King John. The fact that Manuel, who has met Isabel, finds her to be charming and incredibly beautiful doesn’t hurt matters either.

Isabel herself has quite opposite feelings in regards to a match with the King of Portugal. She is still utterly devoted to the memory of her first husband, and, as previously mentioned, is determined to become a nun. See, she happens to view her husband’s death as God’s vengeance upon her for agreeing to go to Portugal when Portugal was sheltering the Jews that her parents had expelled from their territories, and she’ll be damned if she’s not going to try and atone for it. Isabel makes as much clear to her mother when Isabella comes and tells her that Manuel seeks her hand in marriage. Ferdinand and Isabella take this in stride, as they both have a soft spot for their eldest daughter and firstborn child, but they’re not going to be so easily deterred. The next Queen of Portugal will be one of their daughters; just which one exactly remains to be seen.

 

[HortenseMancini]

December 1495-January 1497​

The winter of 1495-1496 comes and goes. There is no Yuletide court for the Habsburgs, as they are still in mourning for Duke Philip, but in January Margaret is officially invested as Duchess of Burgundy in Brussels. The ceremony goes off without a hitch, but there’s clearly some tension between Maximilian (who has been in Brussels since after his son’s funeral) and the Burgundian nobles. See, prior to Philip’s death, Maximilian had been ousted as regent of Burgundy and replaced by a council of nobles. This continued for only about a year though before Philip was declared to be of legal majority at 16 years of age.

The question now is what to do regarding Margaret. Despite her careful education, she’s younger than her brother was when he was declared to be of majority, and even then he was a boy, not a girl. Maximilian has already been jostling to be regent again but the nobles have a good memory and aren't about to go through a repeat of that. In the end, the lords of the Low Countries move quickly following the investiture and decide that Margaret will rule in her own name but will be advised by the same council of nobles that held the government for her brother during his minority until she turns 18. Naturally this doesn’t sit well with Maximilian, and in (admittedly hasty) retaliation he writes to Ferdinand and Isabella in Spain to confirm Margaret’s betrothal to the Prince of Asturias.

The nobles, of course, are furious when they hear of this. Margaret herself has heard good things about the handsome and intelligent prince, so she has no complaints personally. But, she doesn’t want to alienate her vassals and she’s honestly kind of miffed with her father over this. In March, a deputation headed by the Duke of Guelders (a man who has been and will continue to be problematic) appears before Margaret with a set of requests in light of her betrothal. They want to make sure that Margaret’s heir in the Low Countries is actually brought up in his future realm, and they also want to ensure that she won’t be an absentee overlord/lady. Margaret, being pragmatic enough for a 15 year old, agrees to this without hesitation. Maximilian isn’t happy about it, but can’t deny that his daughter probably did the right thing. Envoys of the Spanish monarchs arrive in Vienna by the end of April, and negotiations set the marriage to take place in early April 1497 in Burgos.

Meanwhile, the aforementioned Spanish monarchs are still dealing with some drama regarding their attempts to marry one of their daughters to the Portuguese king. They’ve managed to get Infanta Isabel to at least consider the match, but she’s not sold yet. Before negotiations on a betrothal can even begin, she has some conditions. Namely, she wants King Manuel to expel the Jews that went to Portugal after being expelled from her parents’ realms. Manuel, to his own shock, finds himself seriously considering this. After all, he’s still fairly determined to have Isabel as his wife.

By July, Manuel has an edict drawn up and is ready to expel the Jewish people from Portugal. But then, he looks at the treasury records. The Jews from Spain, with their money lending services, have already contributed greatly to the Portuguese economy in the short while that they’ve been there. Manuel decides to write to Ferdinand and Isabella, inquiring if they will require him to expel the Jews should he marry their second daughter, Infanta Juana. Juana, who has no particularly strong negative or positive feelings towards minority religious groups, tells her parents that, “the usurers can stay,” in regards to Portugal. Manuel, on hearing this, instructs his envoys to change the name in the betrothal contract from Juana to Isabel, with the full approval of Ferdinand and Isabella.

Of course, there is a drawback to this change of arrangements. Juana, being the second daughter and further down the line of succession in Castile, will bring in less of a dowry but Manuel figures that the economic benefits of having basically all of the money lending power on the Iberian peninsula will eventually outweigh this. By August, the engagement of Infanta Juana and King Manuel has been solemnized. In mid October, Juana departs Spain and she marries Manuel on October 20 in Alcácer do Sal, Portugal.

Portrait of Infanta Juana of Aragon and Castile, Queen of Portugal by Juan de Flandes in the early days of her marriage to King Manuel, circa 1496-1500.​

Manuel is at once charmed by his new bride, ultimately finding her even more attractive than her older sister. That Juana lacks Isabel’s (almost hysterical) religious streak and thus doesn’t fast extensively or wear coarse hair shirts certainly helps. The wedding night goes off without a hitch, and Juana seems quite pleased with her attentive husband, even if Manuel privately finds himself a little perturbed by his wife’s turbulent nature. One department in which the new couple definitely doesn’t have issues, however, is reproduction; by the end of 1496, Juana is already carrying her and Manuel’s first child.

Back in Spain, Isabel, breathing a sigh of relief despite being scorned, turns happily away from all prospects of remarriage. With the full support of her parents, in November of 1496 she enters the convent at Las Hueglas, taking the ecclesiastical name María Ignacia. But even after finally becoming a nun, her penitential ways - and her parents’ doting on her - will continue until her eventual death.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1497​

1497 starts with the official announcement from the Portuguese court in February that Queen Juana is expecting her first child. This will be the first grandchild for the Catholic Monarchs and te deums are said at the Spanish court for the safety of mother and child. Fortunately, Juana’s pregnancy and her delivery in August both go smoothly. Her child is a son, to the delight of all, and is thus Prince of Portugal and heir apparent to the throne from the moment of his birth. The little infante is eventually christened with the name João, in honor of a number of his forebears and St. John the Baptist.

In the Low Countries, Margaret of Austria runs into more problems regarding her (still standing) engagement to the Prince of Asturias. It’s as unpopular as ever with the nobles, but there haven’t been any moves by Margaret (or her father) to cancel it. Thus, in March, a small group of nobles decides to travel to Brussels and force her hand. They make it quite clear that she will be facing an armed rebellion if she doesn’t renounce her engagement to Juan. Margaret isn’t quite pleased but she knows that this is what she’ll have to do in order to retain her lands and title.

In spite of the ending of her engagement, Margaret still needs a husband. And at this point there’s only really one man for the job, at least in the view of the Burgundian nobles. Charles, Duke of Guelders is 29 years old and a seasoned opponent of Emperor Maximilian. Margaret has met him before during discussions surrounding her previous engagement and wasn’t terribly impressed, but Charles can be charming when he wants. He certainly intends to be when, with the full support of other nobles and the French king [1], he arrives in Brussels in March 1497 to request Margaret’s hand in marriage.

Charles and Margaret’s second meeting goes...badly. Margaret correctly guesses why the Duke of Guelders wants to see her, and refuses to admit him to her audience for three days. A number of missives arrive for her, including one from her father. Maximilian is furious over the situation and encourages his daughter to hold out. Above all, he insists that she must try to resist as much as possible in order increase the chances of an annulment being granted if she and Charles are married. Other letters arrive from some of Margaret’s more notable vassals, all urging her to willingly enter into marriage with the Duke of Guelders, for the good of the realm. After five days, the Duke of Guelders finally manages to get an audience with the Duchess of Burgundy, which goes about as well as can be expected.

Portrait of Charles II, Duke of Guelders, date unknown.​

Margaret is positively frosty and Charles is similarly terse, and there is an incredible tension between the two as both feel that they have been fundamentally disrespected. Margaret is livid that Charles would come with an armed force to demand her hand in marriage, and Charles is still bitter that Margaret’s father would presume to govern his duchy [2]. Thankfully, both are also reasonably diplomatic and an understanding is reached before anything is thrown: in the end, Margaret and Charles exchange tokens and allow themselves to be officially betrothed. Margaret is unhappy but resigned, and spends the next few weeks in a bit of a fog. But as he walks away, Charles finds himself strangely enchanted with the plucky and attractive teenage duchess. Time will tell if his future bride will return those feelings.

There are truly few words that can describe Emperor Maximilian’s fury on finally learning of these events at the beginning of April 1497. The unlucky envoy who delivers the letter from Margaret to her father in which she confirms in her own handwriting her engagement to the Duke of Guelders is banished from the Imperial court and won’t receive another official appointment in his lifetime. A vase brought by the late Empress Eleanor from Portugal on the occasion of her marriage is shattered. And when the haze of anger finally dissipates, Maximilian summons Empress Bianca and takes consolation in her graceful arms, likely in hopes of producing his (now more than ever) desired male heir.

—

[1] Still Charles VIII at this point.
[2] Maximilian had previously occupied Guelders, which obviously didn’t sit well with Charles despite the fact that his grandfather had sold Guelders to the Dukes of Burgundy.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1497 (continued)​

While Margaret’s new engagement moves forward, her previous fiancé, the Prince of Asturias, finds himself without a bride. This is particularly concerning for Isabella and Ferdinand, as their only son and heir is rather sickly. Juan needs to have a son and heir of his own as soon as possible. Margaret gave everyone quite a bit of hope, seeing as she was a healthy and vibrant young woman from a fertile background, but truth be told, Juan’s options aside from her aren’t the best. At least, they weren’t up until September 1496.

See, in September 1496, young King Ferdinand II of Naples had suddenly died at the age of 27. He left behind a young widow, his 18 year old half-aunt Giovanna of Naples. Giovanna 'inherits' her late husband/nephew's claim to throne, at least according to her ambitious mother. Dowager Queen Joanna of Naples also happens to be the sister of Ferdinand of Aragon and in spring 1497, she decides to enlist her brother’s help in securing Giovanna’s claim against her uncle Frederick, who holds the Neapolitan throne for now. Ferdinand eventually welcomes his sister and niece to his kingdom, hoping to use Giovanna to reclaim Naples for the main Trastámara line. Shortly after her arrival in Spain, Giovanna is betrothed to the Prince of Asturias. They marry in Burgos on 3 November 1497, a dispensation from Pope Alexander (for the newlyweds are first cousins) having been issued the previous month.

Juan and Giovanna are, for the most part, happy together. Giovanna is an attractive young woman and Juan, having a normal sensual appetite, happily does his duty by her. The court doctors even express concern to their monarchs over how much time the young couple spends in bed, given the prince’s delicate health. It is only with great unease that Ferdinand and Isabella disregard this advice, as they know how crucial it is for Juan to produce a son with Giovanna and wish for that to happen as soon as possible.

Moving to the British Isles, in September 1497 is finalized the engagement of Margaret Tudor, elder surviving daughter of King Henry VII of England, to James IV Stewart, King of Scots. As Margaret is only nine while James is fully 24, their marriage will not take place for at least five years. For now, Margaret’s betrothal helps the first Tudor king to cement his family’s status as a legitimate dynasty. Henry VII is still dealing with the rebel Perkin Warbeck, who claims to be the lost brother of his wife Elizabeth, the son of the late King Edward IV, and thus the true King of England. The King of Scots has been a key ally for Warbeck, and Henry hopes to gain James’s loyalty through this new match, which is conveniently accompanied by the signing of a peace treaty between Scotland and England, the first in over 300 years.

But even more helpful than Margaret’s engagement to the King of Scots is the impending betrothal of her older brother Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales to Infanta Catalina of Aragon and Castile, youngest daughter and child of the Catholic Monarchs. This, more than anything else, will bring the Tudors into the realm of established European royalty. Being accompanied by a trade treaty, it also provides the newly united Spanish kingdoms with some much needed foreign recognition outside of the Iberian peninsula.

Around the same time that the so-called Treaty of Perpetual Peace is concluded between England and Scotland, in the Low Countries Charles of Guelders is growing impatient with Margaret of Austria, who keeps dithering on setting a date for their wedding. Charles is weary of forcing Margaret into matrimony, knowing that a) she would likely use it against him to obtain an annulment and b) she already resents their engagement enough as it is, but he is beginning to wonder if it will happen at all. Margaret knows that this will cause some problems if she allows it to go on much longer, and so on the advice of her step-grandmother, the Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, she and Charles fix a date for their wedding of 5 October.

It’s short notice, and that’s not without intention. While Maximilian probably wouldn’t try to pull anything, Margaret isn’t quite sure what lengths her father will go to to defend his right to choose his daughter’s husband. That Juan of Asturias has a new fiancée by now hardly changes things. And the French king, Charles VIII, never seems to miss an opportunity to show up Maximilian or, in true Valois fashion, the Burgundians. He’s backed Charles of Guelders against the Habsburgs for years now and there’s no telling what he might do if Margaret pulls out of the engagement, especially if her father also intervenes on her ‘behalf’.

The day arrives, and Margaret of Austria and Charles of Guelders are finally wed on 5 October 1497 in the city of Lier. Charles of France sends an ornate gold salt cellar to the newlyweds, and Maximilian grudgingly sends his daughter some fine brocaded silk from Venice to make gowns for her trousseau. The latter probably sends his gift at the recommendation of Empress Bianca, who is somewhat of a moderating influence as of late. She’s still not pregnant, but that possibility combined with Maximilian’s existing affection for his daughter has him very gradually softening towards Margaret…

The Cellini Salt Cellar, commissioned by the son of Charles of Guelders and Margaret of Austria in 1524 and supposedly based on the one sent as a wedding gift to his parents by Charles VIII of France.​

 

[HortenseMancini]

1498 ​

By the end of 1497, both Margaret and Charles, Duchess and Duke jure uxoris of Burgundy, and Juan and Giovanna, Prince and Princess of Asturias, have settled into their respective marriages. Things go decently well for both couples, though a genuine affection begins to grow between Juan and Giovanna that is lacking with Margaret and Charles. But it turns out that Margaret has a...passionate nature. As a result, she and Charles are very quick to conceive their first child, with Margaret being visibly pregnant by the end of spring 1498. Around the same time, the Prince and Princess of Asturias finally realize that they’re expecting their first child, much to the delight of the Catholic Monarchs.

Ferdinand and Isabella also begin to finalize plans for their two younger daughters in early 1498. Infanta Catalina, the younger of the two, is betrothed to the Prince of Wales, as had been planned. The elder, Infanta María, is the middle daughter and a bit of an afterthought but her parents are nonetheless determined to find her a husband. There was previously some discussion of marrying María to the King of Scots, ostensibly with the idea that María and Catalina could keep peace between their husbands and their respective nations, though probably more in the hopes of luring Scotland away from her Auld Alliance with France. Of course, these tentative plans fall through when Margaret Tudor is offered as a bride for the Scottish king, and the Catholic Monarchs turn eastward in looking for a husband for María.

Vladislaus II Jagiellon is the King of Hungary and Bohemia, a realm which borders northeastern Italy, the Adriatic Sea, and the Ottoman Empire. Up until now, Vladislaus has had little relation with the Spanish kingdoms, but in May 1498 Ferdinand and Isabella reach out to him on the subject of an alliance. Supporting Vladislaus against the Muslim threat posed by the Ottoman Turks is certainly appealing to the Catholic Monarchs, and they propose to cement this budding friendship by marriage. Vladislaus has been married twice previously, perhaps bigamously; before his ascension as King of Hungary and Bohemia, he was married by proxy to Barbara of Brandenburg. But when Vladislaus became King of Hungary and Bohemia, he attempted to extricate himself from this marriage, which was never consummated, in order to marry his predecessor’s widow, Beatrice of Naples. He went ahead and married Beatrice, reportedly under duress from the Bohemian nobility, before his marriage to Barbara could be properly dissolved. Now Vladislaus is trying to get himself out of that situation, and the Catholic Monarchs know that he will need to marry yet again in order to produce a son. So, they offer Infanta María to be Vladislaus’s wife whenever he finally finds himself free to remarry, and Vladislaus quickly accepts this proposal. The official betrothal contract between Vladislaus and María will be signed in September 1498, though only time will tell how long it will be before they can marry.

By summer 1498, Ferdinand of Aragon is seriously considering his next moves in Italy. It’s been two years since Charles of France retreated from Naples and King Frederick has mostly been unopposed, despite his reign being questioned from abroad. Ferdinand isn’t a fan of Frederick, and the new Princess of Asturias happens to have an even better claim to the Neapolitan throne than his own. Thus, in August 1498, Ferdinand mounts an invasion of Naples, bringing a Castilian and Aragonese force right to the royal palace. By the end of August, King Frederick is in the custody of the King of Aragon. Giovanna, being heavily pregnant and thus in Spain, is declared to be Queen of Naples in absentia, with her father-in-law as regent. In a stroke, Naples and Sicily have both been united once again with the eastern coast of Spain.

About two weeks later, in early September, the Princess of Asturias delivers her first child, a son who is christened with the name Ferdinand. Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile are, of course, delieriously happy to have another healthy grandson and their joy is all the more augmented by the fact that their succession seems, for the moment, to be reasonably secure, with the Prince of Asturias finally having a son and heir of his own. Little Infante Ferdinand is also soon bestowed with the title Duke of Calabria, as heir apparent to his mother’s throne of Naples.

This painting by Juan de Flandes, completed circa 1499, is often said to depict Giovanna of Naples and Ferdinand, Duke of Calabria in the role of the Virgin Mary and the infant Christ.​

Towards the end of September, another significant birth occurs. In Brussels, the 18 year old Duchess of Burgundy delivers her first child, a small but healthy baby girl. Margaret names her new daughter Mary, in honor of her own mother. She and Charles aren’t necessarily thrilled that their firstborn is a girl, but they’re both young and healthy, and begetting the babe was easy enough, so they give thanks for Margaret and Mary’s safety and pray that the next one is a boy.

To round out the year, in November the Queen of Portugal gives birth to her second child, a daughter who is baptized with the name Leonor and joins her brother in the royal nursery.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1499​

With one healthy child now in the cradle, the Duchess of Burgundy begins to turn her attention outward. Namely, to her southern neighbor. For all of the animosity that she now holds towards her childhood home, after being scorned by Charles VIII for the Duchess of Brittany, Margaret is as much a Fille de France as she is an Archduchess of Austria. Charles of Guelders understands this about his wife, and so he is (mistakenly) hopeful when he approaches her early in 1499 about the prospect of an alliance with France. Margaret quickly shuts him down; Charles of Guelders may be Duke of Burgundy jure uxoris but she is still Duchess suo jure and she is not going to let a husband run the show for her.

In fact, Margaret takes a bold step by putting forward a counter-proposal of her own: the Low Countries should ally with Spain and Portugal, in order to combat French ambitions from the north and the south. It’s been a few years now since Charles VIII has pursued open warefare, but there’s no doubt that he’s planning more moves in Italy and an expansionist French king is hardly something that sits well with Margaret, even if Charles isn’t exactly knocking on her door yet.

Charles of Guelders is understandably peeved by this. He too was raised in France and for years now the French have been his most ardent supporters against the Habsburgs, his wife's natal family, even if their reasons aren’t purely altruistic. He’s also not keen on playing second fiddle to a woman, especially since he is technically her equal, being a duke in his own right as well. But Margaret is quick to remind him of two things: a) he chose to marry her knowing that she was a sovereign duchess, and in fact instigated their engagement, and b) she is a Habsburg, whether he likes it or not. Charles simply counters that being friendly with the French is always better than the alternative (i.e. the Burgundian lands being overrun and annexed to the French crown). Margaret has to admit that, as much as she dislikes France, she dislikes the idea of a war with France even more.

In the end, Margaret is willing to make some friendly overtures to France; though she’s hardly willing to sign a treaty or anything, Charles of Guelders and certain pro-French nobles take this as a small victory. And a small victory it is, considering that Charles of Guelders even wanted to see his young daughter Mary as the wife of Charles VIII’s yet-to-be-born heir. Anne of Brittany was announced to be pregnant yet again in April 1499, and Charles of Guelders had hoped that she might be carrying his future son-in-law. Of course, Margaret would never have allowed such a marriage for her eldest daughter, and Anne of Brittany’s child proves to be a girl anyways so the point is thankfully moot. Still, the situation goes a long way towards showing just how committed Charles of Guelders is to the idea of a formal alliance with France.

Possible portrait of Mary of Burgundy and Guelders, circa late 1499/early 1500, by the Master of the Legend of the Magdalen.​

Despite their differences when it comes to international politics, the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy are still determined to produce a son together and thus share a bed frequently. As a result, Margaret is pregnant again by the end of summer 1499. At the same time, she begins to mend fences with her father, managing to get him to agree to act as a sponsor for the baptism of her unborn child, who is presumed to be a son. Emperor Maximilian was quite pleased to hear that his first granddaughter was named after his much-loved first wife, and in September 1499 he even makes a visit with Margaret and Mary at Mechelen (Charles of Guelders is strategically absent). Also absent is Empress Bianca, whose continued infertility is somewhat of a strain on the Imperial marriage.

​

Late September finally sees the wedding of Infanta María of Aragon and Castile with Vladislaus Jagiellon, King of Hungary and Bohemia. The couple marry in Buda on 26 September 1499, with Vladislaus’s two standing marriages having been dissolved earlier in the year by Pope Alexander, under heavy pressure from Ferdinand of Aragon. María quickly proves an apt consort for her new husband and Vladislaus treats her quite well, not in the least because he is glad to finally have a young and fertile wife of his own choice. In spite of this, it will be a couple years before they have their first child.

In England, Henry VII takes the next step to consolidating his power by having the pretender Perkin Warbeck and Edward, earl of Warwick, his wife’s cousin, both executed in November. The decision in regards to the earl of Warwick raises some eyebrows, since the young man was generally considered to be mentally incapacitated, but not that many considering the actions of past kings and England’s tumultuous recent history. The executions are certainly necessary in light of showing the Catholic Monarchs that the Tudors are secure in their reign, and that England is safe for their daughter.

Speaking of the Catholic Monarchs, tragedy strikes in Spain after several years of joy when their son, Juan, Prince of Asturias, dies in mid September, just days after Infanta María leaves for her wedding in Hungary. Juan’s death is shortly followed by the revelation that his widow, Giovanna, is pregnant with her second child. Meanwhile, the little Duke of Calabria also assumes his late father’s titles of Prince of Asturias and Prince of Girona as heir presumptive to the thrones of Castile and Aragon.

Moving northward, Charles VIII of France isn’t thrilled when Queen Anne finally delivers a seemingly healthy, surviving child in October 1499 only for the baby to be a girl. See, earlier in the year, not long after Anne’s pregnancy was announced, Charles had agreed to the dissolution of the marriage of his sister Jeanne to Louis, Duke of Orléans, the man who would inherit the throne should Charles die without issue. This naturally frees up Louis of Orléans to marry again and potentially produce a son. Charles wastes no time in selecting a bride for the duke, who is a great friend of his. He arranges a marriage between Louis and the Dowager Countess of Angoulême, Louise of Savoy.

Louise is an ambitious woman, and her young son François of Angoulême is right behind Louis of Orléans in line for the throne. Normally, Charles wouldn’t contenance such a match; Louis is also quite savvy, and only time will tell what sort of mischief he and Louise will get up to. But Charles, with another child on the way, feels quite confident that he and Anne will soon have a healthy son, leaving Louis (and his soon-to-be stepson) further from the throne. Louise also happens to be young and fertile, having been widowed at not even twenty years old, so Louis is happy enough with this turn of events. He and Louise marry on 30 August 1499.

Unfortunately for Charles, the remarriage of the Duke of Orléans to a presumably fertile young woman only highlights his increasing anxieties about his own progeny, or rather, lack thereof. Charlotte of France, the unfortunate little girl born in October 1499, happens to be Charles's only living child at her birth. He and Anne have had four sons make it out of the womb alive but have subsequently buried each of them. With all of this in mind, by the end of the year Charles VIII is bitterly regretting his decision to back the dissolution of his sister’s marriage, even if Jeanne is happy enough with it herself and has now entered a convent.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1500​

The year 1500 starts with some developments in France that are unsurprising but also unexpected. Charles of France has been stewing over his Italian campaigns for the past five years, trying to regroup after a retreat following the Battle of Fornovo in June 1495. Now that he and his wife have at least one healthy child (with, presumably, many more on the way), he’s feeling bold again. Charles is particularly unhappy about the current situation in Naples. Although Giovanna of Naples has not been formally crowned, Naples is for the most part held in her name by Aragonese troops. This had mostly gone well for Ferdinand of Aragon, until he was obliged to allow his Trastámara kinsman, the deposed King Frederick IV of Naples, to purchase his freedom in September 1499 after spending nearly a year in custody in Aragon.

From Aragon, Frederick makes his way north to the French court. Charles VIII is ill-inclined to help the man, seeing as he wants to pursue his own claim to Naples, but he does see an opportunity to perhaps secure French dominance in Italy. After all, if he can put Frederick back on the throne of Naples then the man would surely be indebted to the French crown until the end of his days, and Charles makes sure that Frederick knows it. Just to increase the possible debt owed, Charles also begins negotiations to have his daughter Charlotte betrothed to Frederick’s son Ferdinando. The objections of Anne of Brittany (who does not want to see her daughter and heiress marry a foreign king), the fact that Ferdinando himself is still in Aragonese custody in Naples, and Charlotte’s still being only an infant are all ignored.

By the end of February, Charles is quite prepared to relaunch his campaign in Frederick’s name. The two men depart from Amboise with an army in early March, leading their troops on a rain-soaked march through the coastal portions of Savoy, which happens to be ruled by Duke Philibert, Charles’s cousin and Frederick's nephew by his first marriage to Anne of Savoy. While there, Charles stops briefly to arrange for the widower Philibert’s betrothal to Frederick’s daughter Charlotte of Naples, who is also a cousin to both Philibert and his late first wife. Charlotte is left behind when her father and the French king depart for their pursuits in Italy, and she eventually marries Philibert on 15 August 1500.

Charles and Frederick initally meet with quite a bit of success in their Italian ventures. In early April, Charles’s commander Louis II de la Trémoille manages to push back the forces of Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan at Novara in Lombardy but Sforza himself escapes back to Milan to regroup. The French press on, their numbers augmented by mercenary deserters from the Milanese army.

In March, Giovanna of Naples, Dowager Princess of Asturias delivers a second, posthumous child by her late husband. The baby is a boy and she names her new son Carlos, after her only full brother who died in childhood. The infante’s paternal grandparents, Ferdinand and Isabella, aren’t necessarily happy about this choice of name but they’re willing to indulge their grieving daughter-in-law for the moment, especially since she has now given them two healthy grandsons. It seems that everyone in Spain breathes a sigh of relief as the Dowager Princess’s pregnancy is brought to a successful conclusion. Giovanna’s grief on her husband’s death was immense (at one point she even tried to throw herself out of a window) and there was fear that she would miscarry. Her child, however, managed to persist and Giovanna’s despair seems to be receding for the time being, probably in no small part due to her new son’s arrival.

Similarly to the year 1498, the Duchess of Burgundy delivers her next child within weeks of Giovanna of Naples. In the first half of April, Margaret gives birth to a son, to the delight of her, her husband, and pretty much all of the Low Countries. Also like Giovanna, Margaret chooses to call her new child after her deceased brother. Little Philip of Burgundy is soon bestowed with the title Count of Charolais, as heir apparent to his mother’s duchy.

Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy by Pieter van Coninxloo circa 1500, the year that she gave birth to her son Philip, Count of Charolais.​

News of the birth of Margaret’s son is very well received in Vienna. Emperor Maximilian even briefly considers making the newborn King of the Romans (and thus heir to the Holy Roman Empire), but his pride prevents him from entirely acknowledging that there will likely be no children for him and Bianca. As well, he knows that the election of a child (an infant, actually) to the post would not be well received. Maximilian does send his hearty congratulations to his daughter, and a gift for his grandson since he was technically a sponsor at the christening, despite not being present.

Maximilian nonetheless has the urge to make the boy his heir in Austria at least. After all, Philip is a legitimate male child with Habsburg blood and the direct descendant of the last mainline Habsburg male (i.e. Maximilian himself). There is a significant party building behind Maximilian’s sister Kunigunde’s husband Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria but Albert, being older and in poor health, is hardly likely to outlive Maximilian. Kunigunde also has sons, of course, but they’re all just children themselves, her third son being even younger than Philip of Burgundy with a birth date of June 1500.

Of course, besides the major support for the Wittelsbachs, there’s also the problem of what would happen in regards to a regency should Maximilian die before baby Philip’s 16th birthday. Maximilian knows that his daughter is viewed as an outsider by the nobility of the Habsburg hereditary lands, despite Margaret’s pride in her ancestry. She would be an unpopular regent, resented for her other attachments (i.e. Burgundy) and likely heavily influenced by her pro-French husband (though that is hardly a given given Margaret's personality). Maximilian may not always get along with his vassals, but at least they can all agree upon their dislike of, or at least antipathy towards, France. All in all, Maximilian happens to know personally what it’s like to be an unpopular regent for a minor sovereign and he’s not about to saddle his daughter with that.

In October 1500, Queen Juana of Portugal delivers a second son, Infante Afonso.

By the fall, Ferdinand of Aragon is definitely worried by the French presence on the Italian peninsula. He’s hardly ready to be friendly with the French, but now that he has not one but two grandsons with a strong claim to Naples, Ferdinand is more determined than ever to keep Charles VIII out. Charles VIII is admittedly running into problems; he hasn't been able to budge past the forces from Aragon, his troops having grown discontent during the hot Italian summer, and his coffers in France are growing emptier by the day. Charles has made nice with Pope Alexander, however, acknowledging his son Cesare Borgia’s conquests in the Romagna and promising to make him Duke of Florence and Siena as well. Charles also arranges for Cesare to marry Giovanna of Savoy, the illegitimate daughter of his late uncle Philip of Savoy and thus half-sister of Philibert of Savoy.

Also in October 1500, the Pope, an Aragonese by birth, reaches out to Ferdinand in hopes of negotiating some sort of peace agreement in Italy. Ferdinand cautiously accepts these overtures, although he’s still quite determined to keep Charles VIII from reinstating Frederick IV as king. Papal, Aragonese, and French envoys spend the rest of 1500 scrambling around Aragon and the Italian peninsula as Charles VIII makes (a very cold and wet) winter camp outside of Rome. By the end of the year, it still remains to be seen what Italy will look like following this latest campaign by the French.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1501​

By early 1501, the Pope, Charles of France, and Ferdinand of Aragon have finally come to a conclusion regarding recent events in Italy. All three have driven a hard bargain throughout the process: Alexander wants his son Cesare to keep (and continue) his conquests in the Romagna, Charles now wants Milan for his cousin, the Duke of Orléans, and both Charles and Ferdinand want Naples. Frederick IV of Naples has now been a background player for the most part and Giovanna of Naples remains sequestered away with her mother-in-law and infant sons in Spain. There is also the matter of “Il Moro” (the Moor) Ludovico Sforza, Duke of Milan. It was Ludovico’s invitation that started off the French campaigns in Italy in 1495, and his wheeling and dealing since then (he dropped the French once he realized that they wanted Milan too) has put him in hot water with all three parties currently at the negotiating table. In fact, initially the fact that Il Moro must go as Duke of Milan was the only thing that the French and the Aragonese could agree on.

It was Pope Alexander who managed to get some sort of concord between the two in regards to Naples and Milan. He proposes the idea of spheres of influence; not a fullproof plan for peace by any means, considering that this is Renaissance Italy, but it is without a doubt the best way to get both France and Aragon (mostly) out of the Italian peninsula for the time being. So as to what his plan itself involves, Naples is to remain with Giovanna, who will be crowned officially as Giovanna III of Naples. She is to be succeeded by her second son; little Infante Carlos, who will be known in his mother’s realm as Carlo d’Aragona, thus replaces his brother Ferdinand as Duke of Calabria (though not as Prince of Asturias and Girona).

While the Aragonese get Naples, the French will receive Milan. Louis of Orléans has, with plenty of encouragement from his new wife, been heavily pressing his claim to Milan with his cousin the king, with a great amount of success (Charles VIII isn’t known as The Affable for nothing). Louis and Louise even accompanied Charles on this latest campaign, hoping to use the chance to further promote themselves as the rightful heirs of Milan. Of course, all of this is contingent on the French being able to turn out Ludovico Sforza, but this is looking increasingly likely as the Sforza forces were mostly Swiss mercenaries (who have mostly deserted by this point) and the French will have Papal forces to supplement their own, which are admittedly looking rather paltry.

Of course, Alexander VI isn’t about to carve up Italy without saving a slice for his own Borgia relatives. His able and militaristic son, Cesare, has been acknowledged for his conquests in the Romagna by the French king (and summarily rewarded with a bride) but Alexander wants more for him. Tuscany has mostly remained a power void since the Medici were turned out by the friar Savonarola in the early 1490s, and it’s even more so now that Savonarola is dead. Alexander wants Cesare to fill that void by conquering Florence and Siena, and he wants France and Aragon to allow and support this. Alexander also recognizes the importance of having a buffer (read: Papacy-controlled) state between the northern, French territories and the southern, Aragonese territories. Fortunately for him, so do Ferdinand II and Charles VIII (as well as their representatives in Rome).

In the end, these changes/realignments are rolled into the Treaty of Granada, so called because it is signed by Ferdinand of Aragon (the last of the three major signatories to do so) at the Spanish royal residence in Granada. France, Aragon, and the Papacy are hopeful with the advent of this new agreement, but it remains to be seen how well it will work at keeping the peace in Italy.

If the treaty is a victory for anyone, it is certainly the Duke and Duchess of Orléans. Louis and Louise are riding high as the French return from Italy in spring 1501, and their joy is only augmented by the revelation that Louise is carrying her and Louis’s first child. In August 1501, Louise gives birth to a son, Charles, who is soon created Count of Valois. Of course, she and Louis still have Il Moro standing between them and Milan but they are determined to get their due and the son of a condotierro isn’t about to phase either of them.

The treaty also works out well for Cesare Borgia. Per its terms, he is officially titled Duke of the Romagna in May 1501. Cesare and his condotierri have some further consolidation to take care of, but he is arguably in the best position in his life by the end of the year.

September 1501 sees the 15th birthday of Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales. Considering that 14 is the ecclesiastically sanctioned age for the marriage of men, early in the year Henry VII and the Catholic Monarchs finalize plans for Infanta Catalina’s departure for England and marriage to Prince Arthur. Catalina and Arthur have been corresponding in Latin for the past couple of years, and Catalina believes herself fond of her husband-to-be. For his part, Arthur has seen Catalina’s portrait and was thoroughly enchanted. Nonetheless, Catalina’s parting from her home and family looks to be bittersweet; since her brother Juan’s death, she has become especially close with Giovanna of Naples and her two young sons. Ferdinand and Isabella arrange with Henry VII that Catalina will depart from A Coruña in Galicia in mid August with her arrival in England expected by late September.

Portrait of Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales by an anonymous artist circa 1500, the year before his marriage to Catalina of Aragon.​

Of course, that is not quite how things go. Catalina and her entourage board their ships but are quickly blown off course by some (very early) autumn storms in the Atlantic. They arrive in England in late October, a full month later than expected. The young infanta and her Spanish attendants are given some time to recuperate from their arduous journey before Catalina is formally introduced to her fiancé on 4 November. Arthur and Catalina’s conversation is a bit stunted by the language barrier (their spoken Latin proves not to be mutually intelligible) but things seem to go well anyways, with the betrothed couple even sharing a few dances. Catalina and Arthur are married ten days later on 14 November 1501 in London. Their wedding is shortly followed by their departure for Arthur’s court at Ludlow in the Welsh Marches.

In Buda, Queen María of Hungary and Bohemia finally delivers her first child, a daughter named Elisabeth Jagiellonica, in July 1501. Vladislaus greets the arrival of his firstborn with pleasure but both he and María hope that sons will follow. Vladislaus’s concern regarding his succession is particularly heightened when his brother John Albert, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, dies without children in December 1501. His other brother Alexander succeeds John Albert in Poland-Lithuania but Alexander and his Muscovite wife have been married for twice as long as Vladislaus and María without any signs of pregnancy.

In October, Infante Afonso of Portugal becomes the first grandchild of the Catholic Monarchs to die at a little over a year old. Afonso’s death will have major consequences for Queen Juana’s mental health, as she becomes obsessively concerned with the health of her two older children, especially Prince João since he is once again the only son. King Manuel will routinely try to distract his wife from her anxieties, mostly by allowing her to take the lead over the construction and design of a grand new palace outside of Lisbon, but his attempts will be in vain for the most part.

In late September, Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian takes a fall from his horse while hunting and suffers a broken leg. Maximilian never loses consciousness and manages to get back on his feet by All Soul’s Day but the event startles him into realizing that he needs to secure his succession. Come January 1502, he is ready to call for a new King of the Romans to be elected...

 

[HortenseMancini]

Brussels, Duchy of Burgundy
6 January 1502​

Margaret shifted in her chair as she waited for the messenger from Vienna, attempting to get comfortable. That was not an easy feat, considering that she was rapidly nearing her final month of pregnancy. For God’s sake, I wish you’d just get here already, she thought, resting a hand on her stomach. Mary, now a very lively three year old, was quite insistent on wanting a sister but both Margaret and Charles hoped that they would soon have another son. Philip, being not even two yet, had no opinion on the matter.

Margaret was drawn out of her thoughts by the sound of a door opening as her husband, Charles, Duke of Guelders entered the room.

“Ah,” Margaret said as she glanced up, a smirk playing on her lips, “You’ve deigned to join me, my lord husband. I would’ve assumed that you’d be too tired, I heard the musicians until quite late last night…”

Charles, who had stopped to adjust his hat, humphed at this, “Yes, well, some things cannot be pushed off, my good Duchess, however much we may desire it.”

Margaret stifled a chuckle as Charles sat himself next to her, “Of course. The world does not stop for Christmastide. I am quite surprised at my father’s sending a messenger like this, though. Normally he would just send a letter…”

“He would,” Charles replied with a shrug, “But you’ve said yourself, he hasn’t been the same since the incident with his horse.”

“I know, I just,” Margaret sighed heavily and started fiddling with the hem of her sleeve, “I wish we had some idea of why this man is coming today. It is so unlike my father, even since his accident. It makes me worry.”

“Come now, surely your state just has you a little worked up,” Charles said, placing a hand on his wife’s forearm and lowering his voice, “I told you that you should be in confinement by now…”

“Well if I was in confinement, then who would be here to see the messenger? There are things that must be done, a court to be presided over,” Margaret protested, shooting a sharp look at her husband.

“I can do all those things as well,” Charles retorted, removing his hand from her arm, “My dear, is that not the point of having a husband and a consort? And besides, you didn’t wait this long with the first two, I don’t understand-”

Charles was cut off by the sound of the door opening. Margaret’s maid, Appolonia, bustled over and announced the presence of the very man that her master and mistress had been waiting on, one Jost von Aarau.

Von Aarau was nearly breathless as he entered; he had clearly been riding hard and fast for some time. Margaret and Charles exchanged a glance, then rose to greet the man. Von Aarau gave a quick bow, and then they were all seated.

“Some wine?” Margaret asked the messenger, with a gesture to Appolonia.

“Yes, please,” von Aarau managed to get out, “Your Graces, I’ve made all haste from Vienna...I have some very unfortunate news.”

“Well out with it then,” Charles said, somewhat impatiently. He was adjusting his hat again.

“Your Graces, I am very sorry to say this but the Emperor Maximilian has died.”

In shock, Margaret dropped the goblet that Appolonia had just handed her. Her father, dead. It didn’t seem real.

“When did it happen?” Margaret managed to ask, blinking back a tear. Her mind was racing. What would happen to his lands...her family’s lands? The Imperial throne? He hadn’t even had time to properly appoint a successor, whoever that might’ve been.

“Almost two weeks ago, by this point,” came von Aarau’s reply, “Not two days before the Feast of the Nativity, he developed a fever and chills. He didn’t linger for long after. He died on 24 December.”

Margaret wanted to scream. Her poor father...

“What caused it?” Charles asked, leaning forward in his chair though clearly trying not to look too eager, “Was it poison, some wrongness with foodstuffs? I thought His Imperial Highness was on the mend.”

“Yes, all of Germany thought so too, Your Grace. But the doctors, they said there was some sort of malady that had entered his body through the injury in his leg. There is no way of treating it. And usually such things fester, but it seems that the one inflicting His Highness passed directly to the blood.”

As von Aarau spoke, Margaret could feel the color drain from her face, “So...my father is dead. He has no son. What becomes then of his patrimony?”

Now it was von Aarau’s turn to go pale, “That, I am not sure of. I assume a new emperor will be elected in due course. As for the Habsburg lands…”

“They are Margaret’s, surely,” Charles interjected after a moment of silence, “Or at least, they go to her line. Which means our son, Philip.”

“I don’t know about that, Charles,” Margaret replied, her brow creased with worry, “The Empire has different inheritance customs than we do here in the Low Countries. Often, a woman and her line are completely passed over in favor of a male relative.”

“But there are no male relatives,” Charles pointed out, “And I know that the lands go back to the Emperor in that case, but there’s no emperor either.”

“There will be, eventually,” Margaret said flatly. The words felt heavy as they left her mouth. She glanced at von Aarau.

“I thank you, sir, for bringing us this news in such a timely manner. Please, I know it is early yet but rest here before your return journey. Appolonia will show you to a room, and food will be brought for you. Your horse may be kept in the stable.”

“Thank you, Your Grace,” Von Aarau said, rising and giving a nod to Charles and Margaret, “My condolences to Your Graces in this difficult time. May God keep you.”

“May God keep you,” Charles replied. Margaret was silent as Appolonia led von Aarau out of the room. As the door closed, she turned to her husband.

“My God, Charles,” Margaret said, suddenly feeling very worn for 21 years old, “My father is dead. I knew this would happen but so soon, and so suddenly...” Something welled in her chest, and she felt as if she could burst into tears.

“Now,” Charles said calmly, taking his wife’s hand, “Listen, Margaret. This changes things, yes, but we’ll get through. Do you know what you want to do about the Habsburg lands?”

Margaret frowned, “What I want to do? I want to be able to bury my father, as a daughter should properly do. But no, I’m stuck carrying this child for at least another month, and then two months of recovery after that before I can travel again!” She glanced at her husband then, to see that Charles was looking quite confused.

“I know you mean my father’s lands. What do I want to do about them. And the truth is, I don’t know, Charles. They truly have little to offer us if we don’t have the Imperial crown as well. We could occupy them now, before a new Emperor takes his place, but I don’t think the Estates would take kindly to that.”

“Neither would I,” Charles said with a small smile, “Mounting a campaign in Austria in the winter is the last thing that I want to do. But Margaret, are you quite sure that the next emperor wouldn’t just install Philip as Archduke? I mean, he’s young, yes, but he has the best claim.”

“He does,” Margaret pursed her lips as she thought, “Perhaps we could wait. The only problem is, the next emperor could really be anyone. How likely is it that whoever is elected will be that amenable to us and our family? Unless...”

Charles’s eyes widened as he realized what his wife was thinking, “Margaret...no, no, I don’t think so.”

“It’s the best choice, really, and the precedent is there,” Margaret said, a pleading tone in her voice, “Imagine, we could have Philip elected as King of the Romans in due time and make sure that our next boy gets Burgundy. That ought to satisfy the Estates, and it would keep my father’s lands in the family!”

Charles was silent for a moment, then let out a heavy sigh. “So...Holy Roman Emperor, then?”

Margaret beamed and leaned back in her chair, feeling quite like she was Athena guiding Odysseus.

 

[HortenseMancini]

Death of an Emperor: The Imperial Election of 1502​

Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor died on 24 December 1501. Following his accident in September, he seemed to be on the mend for most of the fall. The princes and electors of Germany watched uneasily as their emperor regained his strength; there was more than a little anxiety about what would happen should Maximilian die. The dreaded event unfortunately did not take long to occur. Maximilian took to his bed with a fever and chills on 22 December and was dead two days later. It is generally agreed that he was killed by an infection in his broken leg, which was a result of his accident.

Maximilian’s death, of course, sparked a crisis in regards to Austria and the Habsburg patrimony. Archduke Sigismund, the only other remaining Habsburg male besides Maximilian and the late Philip of Burgundy, had finally died in 1497. Now, Margaret, Duchess of Burgundy was the sole representative of the Habsburg family but there was nothing clearly in Imperial law that guaranteed the inheritance of the Habsburg lands to a woman or through her line.

Margaret of Austria understood all of this, but was still determined that her sons at least should hold her family’s lands. Almost immediately when they learned of Maximilian’s death, Margaret and Charles announced that Charles was putting himself forward to be the next Holy Roman Emperor, on the basis that he was the only son-in-law of the late Emperor Maximilian.

The reaction to this from the electors was...mixed, to say the least. Charles of Guelders was a foreigner to them; he didn’t even speak German. Margaret, of course, knew German, and there were few who doubted that she would be the driving force behind the throne should her husband win election. But Margaret’s prominence presented an issue in and of itself. In some ways, s he was as much a foreigner as Charles. Her domains in the Low Countries were only seen as an additional burden, something that would divide her attention. And even though Margaret and Charles had a healthy little boy to succeed them in due time, he was, like his parents considered to be too foreign, a Burgundian.

On the other hand, there were those who found positives in Charles’s candidacy. Some truly thought that Charles and Margaret were simply the best option. The Low Countries were clearly flourishing under their rule, as they had not done since the second quarter of the 15th century [2]. Margaret and Charles were also able, healthy adults with a growing family [3]. There were also those electors who weren’t particularly excited about the Burgundian couple but simply found them to be the most suitable option, especially in regards to the Habsburg patrimony. In addition to his daughter, Maximilian had also left behind a sister, Kunigunde, Duchess of Bavaria-Munich. Both Kunigunde and Margaret had underage male heirs, and Kunigunde’s husband was old and sickly, albeit a German, while Margaret’s husband was a foreigner but young and capable. This considered, in the view of these particular electors Margaret and Charles were the more palatable of two distasteful options.

But this was just in consideration of the Habsburg patrimony. Many electors were in view that the new emperor should genuinely be elected on his merits, not simply his relation to the former emperor or the domains of the Archdukes of Austria [4]. As a counterweight to the two or so dynasties that had thrown their weight around on the Imperial throne for the past 200 years or so, a representative of the House of Wettin, which had never held the Imperial throne, put his name forward, to much acclaim. Frederick III had been elector of Saxony for about 15 years by early 1501. He was thoroughly German, roughly the same age as Charles of Guelders, and had shown himself to be quite reform-minded during the later parts of Emperor Maximilian’s reign. This sat well with his fellow electors, who largely favored a streamlining of legal, administrative, and fiscal processes and a decentralization of power within the Empire.

There was also a third candidate who decided to seek the Imperial throne early in 1502. Louis d’Orléans was finally duke of Milan, he had a healthy son in the cradle, and an ambitious wife who encouraged him to aim high [5]. Thus, Louis announced at the end of January that he wanted to be Holy Roman Emperor, with the full support of his cousin Charles VIII. It was an audacious step. Louis had only ruled in Milan for a few months, and he faced the same challenges as Charles of Guelders in regards to being a foreigner but without having the connections of a Habsburg wife. Nonetheless, Louis went all in, and his wife went with him. He and Louise of Savoy campaigned heavily with the electors from Milan but their cause seems to have been lost before it was begun; Louis would not secure a single vote at the Imperial election.

Under these circumstances, the Imperial electors finally convened in Frankfurt in late April, Frederick of Saxony among them. Frederick, being a candidate, officially recused himself before the beginning of the voting. Voting went smoothly, and in the end Frederick of Saxony was elected to be the next Holy Roman Emperor by a vote of 4-2 against Charles of Guelders. He was immediately proclaimed King of the Romans, and was declared Frederick IV, Holy Roman Emperor on 24 March 1502 at Aachen.

Frederick III 'the Wise', Elector of Saxony by Louis Cranach the Elder, around the time of his election as Holy Roman Emperor.
​

Emperor Frederick soon took up residence in Frankfurt, and was succeeded as Elector of Saxony by his younger brother, Johann. Meanwhile, Margaret and Charles reached out personally to the new Emperor on the subject of Austria, for they dared not make a move without Imperial support.


--


[1] Despite being a Habsburg by birth, Margaret had not lived in her father’s family’s ancestral lands since she was a small child and was relatively disconnected from the Habsburg vassals.
[2] Indeed, this was when the Renaissance really started to take off in the Low Countries.
[3] Margaret gave birth to her third child, a daughter named Catherine in honor of Charles of Guelders’s mother, a little over a month after her father’s death.
[4] In fact, this was the view held by the majority of electors, to the detriment of Margaret of Austria and her husband.
[5] Louis’s conquest of Milan (and his expanding family) will be covered in a following update.
[6] The younger of these two brothers, Philip, also happened to be a bishop.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1502: The Rest of Europe ​

Of course, life goes on in the rest of Christendom as the drama surrounding Emperor Maximilian’s death is unfolding in the Holy Roman Empire. Not long after the news of Maximilian’s death breaks, Isabella of Castile issues a long-planned edict outlawing Islam in her domains. This is the final completion of the Reconquista begun nearly 800 years previously.

In the spring, both the Prince and Princess of Wales escape death at the hands of the sweating sickness at Ludlow by the skin of their teeth. It does, however, do permanent damage to Prince Arthur’s health, while Princess Katherine becomes intensely paranoid regarding illness for the rest of her life [1]. The near-death of his eldest son and heir prompts King Henry to begin the search for a potential bride for his second son, the 11 year old Duke of York.

Relations between England and Spain are shaky by this point, as the Catholic Monarchs have failed to deliver the amount of Princess Katherine’s dowry that was promised at her marriage. There are also questions of whether the marriage between the Prince and Princess of Wales has been consummated yet. Indeed, it most likely has not considering that the young couple have both been sick for the past few months. To this end, Henry VII orders the marriage to be ‘consummated in its entirety’ in May 1502, leaving no room for the Catholic Monarchs to demand its annulment or withhold dowry.

In April, Crown Prince Christian of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway marries Anna, the sister of the Elector of Brandenburg, to seal an alliance aimed at reducing the power of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic and Northern Germany. The marriage begins promisingly, with the new Crown Princess becoming pregnant soon after the wedding. Crown Prince Christian is surprisingly faithful to his young bride.

By the summer, the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy are still stewing from the Duke’s failure to win election as Holy Roman Emperor. To this end, they begin to consider plans to bolster their claims in the future. This is aided by the Emperor’s decision, in June, to bestow the title Archduke and Archduchess of Austria upon the ducal couple. Margaret and Charles travel to Vienna for their formal investiture and subsequently re-establish their court at Luxembourg Castle [2], a location more proximal to Austria than their domains in the Low Countries.

The present day Grand Ducal Palace of Luxembourg, built on the ruins of the palace constructed by Margaret and Charles of Guelders.
​

In July, the new Duke of Milan, Louis d’Orléans, betroths his son and heir, Charles, to Philippa, the young daughter of the Duke and Duchess of Savoy [3]. This bolsters French influence in northern Italy, but it remains to be seen whether Louis will be entirely supportive of his cousin Charles VIII’s policies. Also in July, Henry Tudor, Duke of York is betrothed to the French heiress Anne de La Tour d’Auvergne [4]. It is hailed as a grand match at the English court, but it will be years before the young couple can marry in person.

September sees the birth of a much-desired son and heir to the King and Queen of Hungary and Bohemia. The infant prince, born at Buda, is named Stephen in honor of Hungary's patron saint and first king. Stephen is not two months old before an offer arrives from the Duke and Duchess of Burgundy to have him betrothed to their second daughter, Catherine, and is quickly accepted.

---

[1] OTL King Henry VIII was incredibly paranoid of catching the sweat.
[2] The Duchy of Luxembourg had been claimed by the Dukes of Burgundy since at least 1467.
[3] Philibert II and Charlotte of Naples (b. 1478).
[4] Anne’s OTL husband John Stuart, Duke of Albany will eventually marry her sister Madeleine.

 

[HortenseMancini]

French Conquest of Milan: 1501-1502​

Louis, Duke d’Orléans had initially hoped that his cousin, Charles VIII, would press his claim to Milan as early as 1494, when Charles began to seriously press his own claim to the kingdom of Naples. This did not happen at first but Louis did accompany Charles on his Italian campaigns in that year and 1495.

It was not until 1498 that things really began to turn in Louis’s favor in regards to Milan. First was the annulment, at long last, of his marriage with Jeanne of France, Charles VIII’s sister who was sterile and lame. Then came Louis’s marriage with Louise of Savoy, the dowager Countess of Angoulême. Louise, of course, encouraged him to seriously pursue Milan, and King Charles was faced with renewed efforts on behalf of his cousin and his new wife. Both Louis and Louise accompanied Charles on his Italian campaign of 1500-1501.

Ultimately, it was the Treaty of Granada in 1501 that would affirm Louis’s right to Milan. Both the Pope and the King of Aragon (who, as a result of the treaty, controlled Naples) agreed to this. However, Louis did have to turn out Milan’s current duke, Ludovico Sforza, who had himself usurped the title from his nephew Gian Galeazzo. It was thus that Louis, with a sizable force, sets out for Milan in August 1501. Marching through Savoy, he and his soldiers arrive at Milan by the end of the month.

The next couple weeks involve mostly minor skirmishes, with no more than a few men lost between both sides. Ludovico is in dire straits; he had hired an army of Swiss mercenaries some two years prior following the first French invasion but it had been routed by the French at the Battle of Novara in April 1500. Ludovico now lacks funds to hire more men, and he has alienated his allies on the Italian peninsula. Milan is ripe for French picking.

Il Moro, however, is not yet ready to capitulate. He holes up in Milan by the middle of September and the city soon comes under siege. A siege, of course, is hardly an ideal situation for Louis. The people around Milan are relatively apathetic to his cause, though they don’t actively hinder it either. His main base of manpower and resources is back in France. The situation quickly becomes one of who can outlast who.

Ludovico proves to be less than lucky on this front. The people of Milan quickly become upset with the siege; not only does commerce halt, but supplies begin to run low by the end of September. Still, he refuses to surrender. And then, in the middle of October, the citizens of Milan stage an armed revolt, tired of the siege conditions which were growing ever worse, and force Ludovico to seek terms with Louis.

Louis is relieved to say the least. His forces have held the line fairly well for the past month but he knows that their time is not unlimited. His men storm the ducal palace, and Ludovico is taken prisoner, which he will remain for the rest of his life. Louis writes to Louise, who is in France still recovering from the birth of their son in August, in triumph.

Manuscript illustration depicting Louis, Duke of Orléans entering Milan, completed circa 1500-1510.
​

It is nearly seven months before Louis returns to France. He spends the winter of 1501-1502 in Milan, consolidating his rule. He corresponds regularly with his wife and of course, it is Louise who encourages him to put his name forward to be the next King of the Romans on the death of Emperor Maximilian in January 1502. Louis finally reunites with Louise in person in March 1502, when she and her son François travel to Milan for Louis’s official investiture as Duke.

Louis, who was ironically known in Italy as Ludovico, just like his predecessor, has a generally successful first year as Duke of Milan. Commerce quickly recuperates from the siege, and relations with France are rock solid. Louis will be remembered mostly for the fact that he took the city with minimal casualties, earning him the epithet ‘the Bloodless’.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1503​

In January 1503, while in London at the King’s court to celebrate Christmas and Epiphany, the Princess of Wales divulges to her in-laws that she is pregnant with her first child. The news is joyously received by both Henry VII and Queen Elizabeth and the Catholic Monarchs, who are notified of their newest grandchild by a letter from Katherine sent towards the end of January. As the Yuletide season comes to an end, Prince Arthur returns to Ludlow while his wife remains at the Palace of Placentia to await the birth of their child.

The next month, the 13 year old Margaret Tudor is married by proxy to James Stewart, King of Scots. James is 30 years old this year, and he is eager to have his new bride in his bed and beget an heir, but Margaret will not depart until April, once spring has set in and the weather is better. Her mother and grandmother protest a bit that Margaret is two young but their concerns are mostly unheard by King Henry, who is determined to make this new alliance with Scotland work. Margaret and James will be married in person in Edinburgh on 28 April 1503.

Also in the winter of 1503, in January, the Crown Princess of Denmark delivers a son, who is named John in honor of his paternal grandfather.

In the spring, Margaret of Austria, who is pregnant yet again, and Charles of Guelders take up residence in Vienna for the first time since becoming Archduke and Archduchess. Margaret is pleased to be able to spend time in the city of her childhood for the first time in some 19 years, and enjoys showing Mary and Philip the places that she knew at their ages. Margaret and Charles also use the time to shore up relations with their Austrian vassals.

Triple portrait of Mary, Philip, and Catherine of Burgundy circa 1503 by the Meister der St. Georgsgilde.
​

The late Emperor Maximilian was, unfortunately, not too popular in his own domains. His defeat in the Swabian War of 1499 even secured the relative independence of his former Swiss vassals, hailing from the very heart of the Habsburg hereditary lands. As of now, Margaret holds no hope of bringing the Swiss back into the Imperial fold, but she does hope that she can muster support for Charles should he be elected King of the Romans in the future. In this sense, she is mostly successful. Margaret and Charles are both assigned an easy charm and general sensibility, and though their journeys are cut somewhat short due to Margaret’s condition, they still make a good impression on the more important lords in Austria.

The month of April sees Queen Catherine of Navarre give birth to a stillborn son by her husband, Jean of Foix. With the demise of this latest child, Catherine’s heir is her nine year old daughter Magdalene, who happens to be in the custody of Ferdinand of Aragon. Upon hearing of this news, Ferdinand betroths Magdalene to his namesake grandson, the Prince of Asturias and Girona, despite the four year age difference between the two.

In June, the Queen of Portugal delivers her first child since the loss of Infante Alfonso back in 1501, a daughter named Isabel in honor of the Queen of Castile. And in July, the Queen of France, in something of a miracle following a string of miscarriages, delivers a living son, Louis, who is immediately proclaimed as dauphin. Predictably, the birth of a seemingly healthy son to Charles VIII and his wife does not go over well in Milan, with Duke Louis being next in line for the throne if Charles dies without male issue.

The disposition of the Duke and his wife, however, changes noticably when Duchess Louise delivers a healthy baby girl in September. The infant, named Jeanne in honor of her father’s first wife who also happens to be her godmother, quickly becomes the subject of planning on the part of her parents. By the end of the month, Duke Louis has already sent letters to France proposing that his new daughter be betrothed to the little dauphin. King Charles, confident that he will be able to get a suitable dowry out of Louis and Louise, agrees to this. Unfortunately, tragedy strikes before anything official can be arranged. Dauphin Louis takes ill at the end of October and dies in the first week of November. His parents are much grieved by this, the loss of yet another son, and King Charles begins to wonder sorrowfully if he should attempt to have his marriage with Anne annulled.

Also in June, Katherine, Princess of Wales delivers a stillborn daughter. Despite widespread familial disappointment, she and Arthur will soldier on; indeed, Katherine will be pregnant again by the end of the year.

In August 1503, Pope Alexander VI finally dies in Rome after a lifetime of excess. His son Cesare, now Duke of Florence, Siena, Urbino, and the Romagna and the father of two young sons, Rodrigo and Filipo, by his Savoyard wife, watches anxiously as the College of Cardinals convenes. It’s not that he hadn’t planned for this day. Cesare has consulted with the French and fortunately, they are of one mind in regards to who the new Pope should be. Their choice is Georges d’Amboise, a French cardinal elavated by Charles VIII back in 1498. Between Cesare, King Charles, and Louis d’Orléans, it seems that Georges’s election is a sure thing. And when the white smoke rises on a September day over Rome, it seems that it is. Georges is proclaimed Pope, taking the name Martin VI. Cesare breathes a sigh of relief; for the time, his position, and that of his children, is secure.

August also sees the birth of Margaret of Austria’s fourth child, another daughter. She and Charles call the baby Isabelle, a name with some solid Burgundian history. And in October, the Queen of Hungary and Bohemia as well delivers a daughter, Anna Jagiellonica.

The last seemingly major event of the year occurs in November. Infanta Isabel of Castile and Aragon, Sr. María Ignacia dies at the abbey of Las Hueglas. She is comparatively young, only 32 years old, but has been done in by an ascetic lifestyle maintained ever since her husband Afonso’s death in 1491. The infanta’s death is taken particularly hard by her mother; Queen Isabella has been in a poor state ever since Prince Juan’s death, but this will truly be the beginning of the end for her.

 

[HortenseMancini]

War of the Succession of Landshut: 1503-1505​

The Landshut War of Succession is truly laid into existence in the fall of 1503 as George the Rich, Duke of Bavaria-Landshut lays dying. George and his wife Hedwig Jagiellonica, sister to the King of Hungary and Bohemia and the King of Poland, have only two surviving children, both daughters. Elisabeth is married to the third son of the Elector Palatine and Margarethe has entered a convent as a novice. Seeing that he would have no son to succeed him and that his older surviving daughter already has two young sons of her own, George decides to bequeath his duchy to Elisabeth and her husband, Rupprecht.

Unfortunately, George’s decision is in violation of not only Imperial law but also the Wittelsbach house treaty established between the various branches of the family back in the 14th century. Though it is not initially publicized - indeed, Elisabeth of Bavaria will only learn of the changes after her father’s death - it will turn out to cause a world of problems in the Holy Roman Empire when George finally dies in December 1503.

According to the terms of the Wittelsbach house law, in the event that the legitimate male line of one branch should fail, the lands and titles belonging to that branch are to be passed to the branches with remaining legitimate, male line representatives. In 1503, the only other such branch that exists is Bavaria-Munich, headed by the aging Duke Albert IV. Albert’s wife Kunigunde is a paternal aunt of Margaret of Austria, but the two soon find themselves at odds.

Posthumous portrait of Albert IV, Duke of Bavaria by Barthel Beham, completed circa 1535.
​

While her uncle by marriage vigorously asserts his claim to the Landshut territories in early 1504, Margaret of Austria petitions the Emperor to allow Elisabeth and Rupprecht to succeed to the duchy. After all, had Emperor Frederick not bequeathed Margaret and her husband with her late own father’s lands just the previous year? Frederick, while stirred by Margaret’s argument, dithers on whether on what to do in this specific situation, to the detriment of Bavaria.

In the spring, warfare finally breaks out between the supports of Rupprecht and Elisabeth, backed ostensibly by the Elector Palatine, and Duke Albert. Margaret and Charles of Guelders find themselves at odds over whether to involve their realms in the fighting. Charles of Guelders sees it as an outside conflict, one in which he and Margaret do not have a ‘dog’ so to speak, while Margaret sees Elisabeth of Bavaria’s struggle as mirroring her own desire to fully secure her father’s patrimony.

In the end, Margaret and Charles manage to stay out of the Landshut War of Succession, and both will later agree the decision to be a good one. The war proves incredibly destructive, with a number of towns near Landshut being reduced to all but ashes. It does not, thankfully, last very long. In November 1504, both Elisabeth of Bavaria and Rupprecht of the Palatinate would fall ill and die within days of each other. This effectively ends their claim to Bavaria-Landshut, though they do leave behind two orphaned young sons.

While hostilities cease following the news of these deaths, there are obviously still concerns to be put to rest. Margaret and Charles watch on with interest as Emperor Frederick convenes the Diet at Cologne in March 1505. Duke Albert is awarded the Landshut territories and the unification of all Bavarian territories is reaffirmed, but a new duchy, that of the Palatinate-Neuburg, is created for the sons of Elisabeth and Rupprecht. Being that the boys are both underage, one of their paternal uncles is appointed to serve as regent for the time being.

The whole situation of this unfortunate war leaves Margaret feeling a bit unsettled. While there had been no house treaty explicitly preventing Margaret from claiming Austria, she cannot help but worry that there are some who disapprove of her and Charles’s elevation to the Archduchy, even though the Emperor himself had sanctioned it. As a result, she and Charles resolve to ingratiate themselves even further with the princes and electors of the Empire. To this end, in spring 1505 they begin negotiations to have their daughter Isabelle wed to the heir of the Electorate of Saxony and Philip, Count of Charolais is betrothed to Catherine of the Palatinate, the youngest daughter of the Elector Palatine.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1504​

The year begins with some unfortunate developments in the duchy of Savoy. In January 1504, Duke Philibert dies at the age of 23. He leaves behind a pregnant widow, a daughter named Philippa, and a son named Louis [1]. Young Louis of Savoy is quickly proclaimed duke with his mother, Charlotte of Naples, and his uncle, Charles, Count of Geneva [2], sharing the Regency. Moves are also made to secure Louis’s future as he is betrothed to Jeanne d’Orléans, the young daughter of the Duke of Milan. Charlotte of Naples delivers a second daughter, Anne of Savoy, in May.

In April 1504, Queen Giovanna III of Naples dies in Naples at the age of 25. She leaves behind her two sons, with Carlo, Duke of Calabria becoming Carlo IV, King of Naples. Carlo and Infante Ferdinand remain in Spain in the immediate aftermath of their mother’s death, but in September Carlo departs for Naples with the Castilian general and statesman Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba. Córdoba serves for the next eight years as Viceroy of Naples in the name of Ferdinand II of Aragon, who has declared himself regent. He also is made responsible for the upbringing of young King Carlo and will send regular reports back to the boy’s grandparents in Spain.

​

Beginning in early 1504, Margaret of Austria turns her attention back to the Low Countries, which she and her husband have admittedly been neglecting since her father’s death. She knows that the Burgundians aren’t happy with being governed by an absentee ducal couple. The States General have shown themselves to be more than a little wary of Charles of Guelders’s bid for the crown of the Holy Roman Empire. Margaret, of course, is hardly going to change her mind on that but she still wants to reassure her Burgundian subjects, and the nobility in particular.

To this end, in summer 1504 Margaret permanently reestablishes the Great Council at Mechelen in Flanders. The Great Council is the highest ranking court of the Burgundian territories, and its permanent establishment will allow for Margaret’s lands to run more smoothly even when she is away. Margaret also begins construction on a new palace in Mechelen that will house the Great Council as well as being a ducal residence. Today, the building is still known as the Hof van Oostenrijk (Court of Austria) in her honor.

Modern day view of the inner courtyard at the Hof van Oostenrijk.
​

By this point, Margaret is also pregnant for a fifth time. She and Charles of Guelders have grown more distant as of late and there are rumors of infidelities on both sides; Charles has most definitely taken to bed other women, and there are whispers regarding Margaret and her devoted chamberlain, Antoine de Lalaing [3]. Nonetheless, Margaret and Charles are determined to produce at least one more son, and so they do their conjugal duties by one another.

Moving on from the Low Countries, there is great joy in England when Katherine, Princess of Wales delivers a seemingly healthy son in June 1504. The Catholic Monarchs are also delighted, and Queen Isabella even orders the Te Deum sung throughout Castile. The joy, unfortunately, will be short lived. The young prince, who is named Henry in honor of his paternal grandfather, dies towards the end of July, at not even two months of age. Katherine and Arthur are even more devastated than they were following the stillbirth of their daughter the previous year, and it will be some time before they conceive again.

In August 1504, Charles, the heir of Milan and Orléans, is betrothed to his French cousin Princess Charlotte, who is still the only child of King Charles VIII. Charlotte is an incredibly desirable bride, being the heiress of her mother’s duchy of Brittany, and her engagement to Charles reflects the ambition of his parents, who hope to see their son as king one day. In honor of the occasion, Charles d’Orléans is also created Duke of Valois by the King, his future father-in-law.

Similarly, the Duke and Duchess of Orléans arrange for the engagements of the Duchess’s two children from her first marriage. François, Duke of Angoulême is engaged to Catherine of Navarre, the second oldest daughter of Queen Catherine and thus next in line for the throne after her sister Magdalena, while Marguerite d’Angoulême is engaged to Gaston of Foix, a nephew of Duke Louis and a cousin of Catherine of Navarre. These matches place François quite close to the throne of Navarre, and ensure that a child of Louise will sit on the throne of Milan no matter what. Louis also takes this time to issue a proclamation establishing the Salic Law in Milan, thus prohibiting his daughter and stepdaughter from having a claim to the duchy.

In September 1504, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick IV finally marries Elisabeth of the Palatinate, to whom he has been betrothed since shortly after his election in spring 1502. Charles of Guelders is in attendance at the wedding, but Margaret is absent as she is due to deliver her next child in October.

And in October, Margaret finally gives birth, in Luxembourg, to a second son, whom she and Charles choose to name John and is bestowed with the title Count of Hainaut. Meanwhile, Margaret and Charles look to the future of one of their children in particular: their eldest daughter, Mary. Portugal has been an ally of Burgundy ever since the marriage of Isabella of Portugal to Duke Philip the Good in 1429-1430. And there is a mutual interest in alliance between the Low Countries and the Iberian peninsula as a whole, especially given the Portuguese and Castilian colonies in the New World and the trade connections of the Low Countries. So, in November 1504 Mary of Burgundy is betrothed to Infante João, Prince of Portugal. Considering the course of events up until now, this is Margaret’s shining moment: she has two sons to secure her succession, her younger children are poised to make advantageous matches throughout the Holy Roman Empire, hopefully paving the way for her husband’s election as Holy Roman Emperor, and her eldest daughter will be Queen of Portugal.

Meanwhile, the current Queen of Portugal, Juana of Aragon, delivers a third son, Infante Fernando, titled Duke of Beja, in November 1504. King Manuel also arranges for his eldest daughter, Infanta Leonor, to be betrothed to the new King of Naples, with the full approval of their mutual grandfather in Aragon.


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[1] Named after the Duke of Orléans and Milan, who is also his godfather.
[2] OTL successor of Philibert as Duke of Savoy.
[3] Unfortunately, no primary sources survive that can confirm one way or another whether Margaret and Antoine actually had an affair. It would certainly be a foolish thing to do on both of their parts, and Margaret was no fool. However, she and Antoine were apparently quite close, at least close enough to start the rumors. Whatever the truth of the matter is, Antoine continued to serve Margaret of Austria and her family (including her husband) for many years so Charles of Guelders certainly put no stock in the rumors himself. Still, the possibility of an affair between one of the most powerful women of the 16th century and her chamberlain will intrigue ATL historians and writers alike for ages.

 

[HortenseMancini]

As per request, here are some family trees for the main folks impacted by the butterflies of this TL.

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HOUSE OF HABSBURG
Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1459, r. 1483-1501, d. 1501) m. a) Mary, Duchess of Burgundy (b. 1457, r. 1477-1482, d. 1482) in 1476, had issue; b) Bianca Maria Sforza (b. 1473) in 1494, had no issue

1a) Philip of Austria, Duke of Burgundy (b. 1478, r. 1482-1495, d. 1495)​

2a) Margaret of Austria, Duchess of Burgundy, Archduchess of Austria (b. July 1480, r. from 1495) m. Charles II, Duke of Guelders, Archduke of Austria (b. 1467) in 1497, has issue​

1) Mary of Burgundy (b. September 1498) eng. Infante João, Prince of Portugal (b. 1497)​

2) Philip of Burgundy, Count of Charolais (b. April 1500) eng. Catherine of the Palatinate (b. 1499)​

3) Catherine of Burgundy (b. February 1502) eng. Stephen Jagiellon of Hungary and Bohemia (b. September 1502)​

4) Isabelle of Burgundy (b. August 1503) eng. Johann Frederick of Saxony (b. 1504)​

5) John of Burgundy, Count of Hainaut (b. October 1504)​

3a) Francis of Austria (b. 1481, d. 1481)​

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HOUSE OF TRASTÁMARA
Isabella I, Queen of Castile (b. 1451, r. from 1474) m. Ferdinand II, King of Aragon (b. 1453, r. from 1479) in 1469, has issue

1) Isabel of Aragon and Castile, Princess of Portugal (b. 1470, d. 1503) m. Afonso, Prince of Portugal (b. 1475, d. 1491) in 1490, had no issue​

2) Juan of Aragon and Castile, Prince of Asturias and Girona (b. 1478, d. 1499) m. Giovanna III, Queen of Naples (b. 1478, d. 1504) in 1497, had issue​

1) Ferdinand of Spain, Prince of Asturias and Girona (b. 1498) eng. Magdalena of Navarre (b. 1494)​

2) Charles IV, King of Naples (b. 1500) eng. Leonor of Portugal (b. 1498)​

3) Juana of Aragon and Castile, Queen of Portugal (b. 1479) m. Manuel I, King of Portugal (b. 1469) in 1496, has issue​

See House of Aviz for issue​

4) María of Aragon and Castile, Queen of Hungary and Bohemia (twin of stillborn child; b. 1482) m. Vladislaus II, King of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1467) in 1499, has issue​

See House of Jagiellon (Hungary and Bohemia) for issue​

5) Stillborn child (twin of Maria; b. and d. 1482)​

6) Catalina of Aragon and Castile, Princess of Wales (b. 1485) m. Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales (b. 1486) in 1502, has issue​

See House of Tudor for issue​

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HOUSE OF AVIZ
King Manuel I of Portugal (formerly Duke of Viseu; b. 1469, r. from 1495) m. Juana of Aragon and Castile (b. 1479) in 1496, has issue

1) João, Prince of Portugal (b. 1497) eng. Mary of Burgundy (b. 1498)​

2) Leonor of Portugal (b. 1498) eng. Charles IV, King of Naples (b. 1500)​

3) Afonso of Portugal (b. 1500, d. 1501)​

4) Isabel of Portugal (b. 1503)​

5) Fernando of Portugal, Duke of Beja (b. 1504)​

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HOUSE OF TUDOR
Henry VII Tudor, King of England (formerly earl of Richmond; b. 1458, r. from 1485) m. Elizabeth of York (b. 1466) in 1485, has issue

1) Arthur Tudor, Prince of Wales (b. 1486) m. Catalina of Aragon and Castile (b. 1485) in 1502, has issue​

1) Stillborn daughter (b. and d. 1503)​

2) Henry Tudor (b. and d. 1504)​

2) Margaret Tudor, Queen of Scots (b. 1489) m. James IV Stewart, King of Scots (b. 1473) in 1503, has no issue​

3) Henry Tudor, Duke of York (b. 1491, d. 1551) eng. Anne de la Tour d’Auvergne (b. 1494)​

4) Elizabeth Tudor (b. and d. 1493)​

5) Mary Tudor (b. 1496)​

6) Edmund Tudor, Duke of Somerset (b. 1499, d. 1500)​

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HOUSE OF JAGIELLON (Hungary-Bohemia)
Vladislaus II Jagiellon, King of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1456, r. from 1471) m. María of Aragon and Castile (b. 1482) in 1499, has issue

1) Elisabeth Jagiellonica of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1501)​

2) Stephen Jagiellon of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1502) eng. Catherine of Burgundy (b. 1502)​

3) Anna Jagiellonica of Hungary and Bohemia (b. 1503)​

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HOUSE OF VALOIS
King Charles VIII of France (b. 1470, r. from 1477) m. Anne, Duchess of Brittany (b. 1477, r. from 1488) in 1491, has issue

1) Charles Orland, Dauphin of France (b. 1492, d. 1495)​

2) François of France, Duke of Normandy (b. 1493)​

3) Stillborn daughter (b. and d. 1494)​

4) Stillborn daughter (b. and d. 1495)​

5) Charles, Dauphin of France (b. and d. 1496)​

6) François, Dauphin of France (b. and d. 1497)​

7) Louise of France (b. and d. 1498)​

8) Charlotte of France (b. 1499) eng. Charles d’Orléans, Duke of Valois (b. 1501)​

9) Louis, Dauphin of France (b. and d. 1503)​

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HOUSE OF SAVOY and VALOIS-ANGOULÊME/VALOIS-ORLÉANS:
Philip II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1438, r. 1496-1497, d. 1497) m. Marguerite of Bourbon (b. 1438, d. 1483) in 1472, had issue (a); Claudine de Brosse (b. 1450) in 1485, has issue (b)

1a) Louise of Savoy (b. 1476, d. 1531) m. Charles of Valois, Duke d’Angoulême (b. 1459, d. 1496) in 1489, has issue (a); Louis of Valois, Duke of Orléans and Milan (b. 1464) in 1499, has issue (b)​

1a) Marguerite d’Angoulême (b. 1492) eng. Gaston of Foix (b. 1489)​

2a) François, Duke d’Angoulême (b. 1494) eng. Catherine of Navarre (b. 1495)​

1b) Charles d’Orléans, Duke of Valois (b. 1501) eng. Charlotte of France (b. 1499)​

2b) Jeanne d’Orléans (b. 1502) [1] eng. Louis II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1501)​

2a) Girolamo of Savoy (b. and d. 1478)​

3a) Philibert II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1480, r. 1497-1504, d. 1504) m. Yolande Louise of Savoy (b. 1487, d. 1499) in 1496, had no issue (a); Charlotte of Naples, Princess of Taranto (b. 1479/1480) in 1500, has issue (b)​

1b) Louis II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1501) [2] eng. Jeanne d’Orléans (b. 1502)​

2b) Philippa of Savoy (b. 1502)​

3b) Anne of Savoy (b. 1504)​

1b) Charles of Savoy, Count of Geneva (b. 1486)​

2b) Louis of Savoy (b. 1488, d. 1502)​

3b) Philip of Savoy (b. 1490)​

4b) Assolone of Savoy (b. and d. 1494)​

5b) Giovanni of Savoy (b. and d. 1495)​

6b) Philiberta of Savoy (b. 1498)​

​

[1] Named after her father’s ex-wife, Jeanne of France, who was also named her godmother as an act of good feeling between her parents and Jeanne.
[2] Louis is named for his godfather, the Duke of Milan and Orléans
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And there we go. If anyone has any questions, feel free to ask!

 

[HortenseMancini]

Note: yes, this is short. The next few years will be pretty quiet.

1505​

This year will see the Queen of Hungary and Bohemia and the Crown Princess of Denmark both deliver sons. The Queen of Hungary and Bohemia’s son, Andrew, proves to be quite healthy and by the end of the year Vladislaus II grants his younger son the title Duke of Slavonia. On the other hand, the Crown Princess of Denmark’s son, Francis, is sickly and dies after a little less than a month of life.

In May 1505, the 10 year old Anne de La Tour d’Auvergne arrives at the English court. She is given her own household and precedence immediately behind the Princess of Wales, being already considered Duchess of York. Henry, who is not yet 13, naturally takes little interest in his future wife. It doesn’t take long, however, for Anne to endear herself to Queen Elizabeth or her future sisters-in-law, Princess Katherine and Lady Mary, the King and Queen’s younger daughter.

Meanwhile, King Charles VIII of France begins to look to his monetary situation. His Italian campaigns left him nearly bankrupt, and recently one of his financial advisors has pointed out that there are major problems with the tax collection system in France. To that end, in fall 1505 Charles issues the Ordinance of Nantes, which tightens up the tax collection system and will go quite a ways towards France’s future recovery.

Charles and Queen Anne also experience another miscarriage in 1505. While Charles and Anne are disappointed, Louis d'Orléans and Louise of Savoy are admittedly not displeased, actually being happy to see themselves and their son closer to the French throne.

On 2 July 1505, a young student at the University of Erfurt in Thuringia named Martin Luther is caught in a particularly violent thunderstorm while traveling back to the university from his parents' home. After narrowly avoiding being struck by lightning, Luther makes a vow that he will enter a monastery and become a monk if he makes it out of the storm alive. Luther survives the harrowing experience and in August he makes good on his promise, entering St. Augustine’s Monastery in Erfurt.

 

[HortenseMancini]

1506​

In August 1506, Alexander I Jagiellon, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania and brother of Vladislaus II of Hungary and Bohemia, dies at age 45. Alexander was a relatively unpopular king in Poland, and in 1505 he had been forced to accept the Nihil novi act passed by the Sejm. This essentially placed the power in Poland-Lithuania in the hands of the nobility, to the detriment of the monarch. Nonetheless, Alexander is succeeded by his brother Sigismund. Sigismund will finally marry soon after his ascension, wedding with Catherine of Mecklenburg by the end of the year.

In Milan, in June 1506, Duchess Louise delivers a second son, named Louis in honor of both of his parents. Unfortunately, the little boy dies in September after just a few months, to the supreme disappointment of the Duke and Duchess.

1506 also sees the establishment of a trade treaty between England and the Low Countries, under the direction of Henry VII and Duchess Margaret. The favorability of the treaty to Flemish textile merchants will work to further cement Margaret’s appeal to her Burgundian subjects, which will come in her favor as she pursues the Imperial throne for her husband.

And in England on 13 August 1506, Anne de La Tour d’Auvergne is married to Henry Tudor, Duke of York in the chapel at Richmond Palace.

Contemporary manuscript illustration showing the marriage of Anne de La Tour d'Auvergne and the Duke of York. ​

 

[HortenseMancini]

1507​

The year begins with the birth of a second stillborn child, this time a son, to the Prince and Princess of Wales. This is followed by the birth, in February, of a long-awaited son and heir, James, Duke of Rothesay, to the King and Queen of Scots. Then in March, in the Low Countries, Margaret of Austria gives birth, following a sixth and ultimately final pregnancy, to a fourth daughter. She and Charles name their new daughter Agnes, in honor of their mutual ancestress Agnes of Burgundy, Duchess of Bourbon. Later in the year, the Crown Princess of Denmark gives birth to a daughter, Dorothea, and the Queen of Hungary and Bohemia delivers a daughter, Catherine Jagiellonica, as well.

The Queen of Portugal also delivers a sixth child in this year, though not until the summer. The child, a son who is named Antonio in honor of Portugal’s patron saint, sadly lives only just long enough to be christened. This latest loss results in a mental breakdown for the already fragile Juana. Manuel, who has come to care quite greatly for his wife, quickly has Juana’s household moved away from the main court to a castle outside of Lisbon. He hopes that being away from the children and her duties as queen, and the fresh country air, will aid in her eventual recooperation.

On 16 November 1507, Isabella la Católica, Queen of Castile dies at the age of 56. Isabella, after several years of grief that had begun with the death of her son Juan back in 1499, had spent most of the past year and a half in seclusion, praying and making plans as to what would happen on her death. Her heir in Castile is her young grandson Ferdinand, who is not yet nine and thus will require a regent for at least eight or so years. Ferdinand II, being the child’s other grandparent and co-ruler of Castile with his now late wife, is the obvious choice but the Cortes of Castile and Léon is not so willing to accept him. Ferdinand manages to strongarm his way into the regency by the end of the year but the Cortes demands that he select a deputy, considering his other obligations, so he reluctantly leaves Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, Archbishop of Toledo in charge of Castile [1].

Infante Ferdinand, Prince of Asturias and Girona around the time of his ascension to the throne of Castile as Ferdinand VI, by an unknown artist.
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Another notable death occurs when Ludovico Sforza, former Duke of Milan, dies in a prison in France. Ludovico’s claim to the duchy then passes to his eldest son, Massimiliano, who managed to escape before the Duke of Orléans’s conquest in 1501 and now lives in the Holy Roman Empire under the protection of his cousin, Dowager Empress Bianca Maria Sforza (widow of Emperor Maximilian). Later in the year, Massimiliano marries Bona Sforza, the only surviving daughter of his cousin Gian Galeazzo, whom his father had earlier displaced as duke [2].

Speaking of Milan and the Orléans, 1507 also sees the marriage of Louis d’Orléans’s niece, Germaine of Foix, to Charles IV, Duke of Alençon, one of Louis’s most trusted friends and lieutenants [3][4]. The match will quickly prove to be unhappy as well as unfruitful, with the couple failing to produce any surviving children and spending most of their marriage living apart.

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[1] Cisneros is a former confessor to Queen Isabella and while Ferdinand would prefer to govern Castile personally until his grandson comes of age, he is quite familiar with Cisneros and thus trusts him most out of the Castilian grandés.
[2] For this reason Bona’s mother, the proud but unfortunate Isabella of Naples, was initially opposed to the marriage. However, after the death of Ludovico she quickly comes around to the idea and sends her daughter to Austria.
[3] The match also serves to place Germaine quite close to the French throne, as Alençon is next in line to succeed King Charles after Louis d’Orléans himself.
[4] And I know that Germaine and Alençon were previously stated as being betrothed to François and Marguerite of Angoulême, respectively, but I've switched the matches around somewhat. Germaine and Alençon are now marrying each other, François is marrying Catherine of Navarre, and Marguerite is marrying her main dude Gaston of Foix.