For the Good of Fiji, For the Good of Us All
Introduction
The archipelago of Fiji was subjugated into the British Empire in 1874, with the colonial administrators bringing over Indian contract labourers to develop the fledging sugar industry. The native populace were actively prohibited from integration themselves into the colony, with the first Governor of Fiji (Arthur Charles Hamilton-Gordon) disallowing their use in labour schemes or interference into their way of life. (Nevertheless, British rule substantially altered the demographic make-up of the islands; by the middle of the Second World War 94,000 of the 210,000 population were of Indian descent in comparison to 102,000 native Fijians). In 1904, the Legislative Council of Fiji - the precursor to the modern Fijian Parliament - was reconstituted as a partly-elected body with European male settlers and Fijian chiefs dominating the new political system. Most seats were filled by nomination rather than election, and even as the Council was further liberalized in 1929 and 1953 those of European or (wealthy) Indian origin dominated it. Only in 1963 were indigenous Fijians enfranchised and indigenous representation in the Council was made elective (although two members remained chosen by the Great Council of Chiefs). Women were also enfranchised. The 1960s were a period of great political change, as in 1964 a member system was introduced and while in 1965 a constitutional conference - whilst initially unsuccessful in establishing a timetable for self-governance - formed the basis for further compromise. 1967 saw the appointment of the first Chief Minister - Ratu Sir Kamisese Mara - and in 1970 the two major political factions agreed upon a constitutional formula, enabling Fijian independence in 1970.
Chief Ministers of the Crown Colony of Fiji (1967-1970)
1967-1970: Katu Sir Kamisese Mara (Alliance)
1967: Appointed by colonial administration
Prime Ministers of the Dominion of Fiji (1970-1980)
1970-1977: Katu Sir Kamisese Mara (Alliance)
1972: Katu Sir Kamisese Mara (Alliance) [33], Sidiq Koya (National Federation) [19]
1977-1977: Sidiq Koya (National Federation)
1977 (March): Sidiq Koya (National Federation) [25], Katu Sir Kamisese Mara (Alliance) [23], Sakeasi Butadroka (Fijian Nationalist) [4]
1977 (August): Sidiq Koya (National Federation) [23], Katu Sir Kamisese Mara (Alliance) [23], Sakeasi Butadroka (Fijian Nationalist) [6]
1977-1978: Jai Ram Reddy (National Unity Government: National Federation)
1978-1980: Irene Jai Narayan (National Unity Government: National Federation)
1980: Irene Jai Narayan (National Federation) [17], Penaia Ganilau (Alliance) [13], Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [16], Sakeasi Butadroka (Fijian Nationalist) [6]
The 1972 election, the first in the post-independence era, was comfortably won by the Alliance Party of the former Chief Minister Kamisese Mara, although surprisingly the party captured almost 25% of the Indo-Fijian vote. The opposition National Federation Party (led by Sidiq Koya), which had the Indians as their chief supporter demographic, won the remaining 19 seats. The election highlighted the controversial role of ethnicity in the Fijian political system, as the Alliance won all of the Communal and General Communal seats while the NFP secured all the Indian Communal seats by 73%. Nevertheless, the co-operation between the two parties continued as it had prior to independence. Raojibhai Dahyabhai Patel was nominated as the Speaker of the Alliance-dominated House of Representations, but remained a covert opponent of the partnership between Koya and Mara. However, as the government continued the relationship between the two party leaders began to disintegrate, chiefly over NFP concerns about Fijian nationalism. The Alliance announced they would not fund school fees for non-Fijians, and heated arguments broke out after some in the party advocated the repatriation of Indians to India. Mara also rejected recommendations proposed in the Royal Commission for reform to the voting system. However, both parties entered into the election in March 1977 in a state of weakness due to factional infighting. The rapid rise of the xenophobic Nationalist Party, which had fractured the Alliance, hurt the fortunes of the latter at the polls. Sidiq Koya and the NFP secured the largest number of seats, by one, and consequently the country fell into a state of severe instability. The ethnic Fijians resisted the government and riots broke out. When news reached the Prime Minister that the Governor-General, Katu Sir George Cakobau, was preparing to appoint Mara (his relative) as Prime Minister to resolve the crisis with Nationalist support there was widespread outrage. Many believed that the country was on the brink of civil war. Emergency crisis talks led to the calling of a second election in a bid to bring order to the chaos. The second 1977 election was, in many ways, truly catastrophic. The National Federation and the Alliance Party secured the same number of seats, as the Nationalists furthered increased their share of the vote, which led to Cakobau forcing the formation of a National Unity Government (opposed by both Koya and Mara). The internal crisis in the Federation led to the toppling of Koya and the instigation of Jai Ram Reddy as both party leader and Prime Minister with support from Alliance members. It was clear, however, that despite the partnership between the Alliance and the NFP that the country was in a very serious position. This was alarmingly exposed in 1977, when it was speculated elements of the Fijian Infantry Regiment were proposing action against the government. Once again, the Federation fell into infighting and whilst Reddy was ousted he was succeeded by an ally - Irene Jai Narayan. The Unity Government was on the rocks by 1978, with public disaffection turning against the two major parties. The Nationalists continued to radicalize many of the ethnic Fijians, and in response the government was forced to take increasingly radical measures against them. Narayan desperately tried to retain public order, but the 1980 Suva Riots pointed to the complete collapse of civil obedience and the very real threat of mutiny in the armed forces. After negotiations with the demonstrators came to naught, a general election was called.
Prime Ministers of the First Republic of Fiji (1980-1982)
1980-1982: Ro Lala Mara (Independent - appointed by military administration)
The 1980 election would see the complete fracturing of the main political parties as the new Democratic Party (led by NFP-breakaway Karam Chang Ramrakha) split the vote almost evenly as the ethnic Fijians struggled to rally around a single candidate. When it seemed likely that Narayan would be returned as Prime Minister during the coalition negotiations, the army took action. The wife of Kamisese Mara, herself an influential tribal chief, was appointed by the military administration to head a non-partisan to resolve the crisis in Fiji peacefully. Nobody was killed during the coup, and it actually calmed the tensions that had been previously running amok across the country. However, Fiji proclaimed itself a republic and rebuked the authority of Elizabeth II. The aim of the military action was to force a constitutional review in a bid to address the perpetual Fijian political crisis. At the heart of this lay the abolition of National constituencies; these ethnically-allocated legislative bodies had exacerbated the divisions between the many Fijian peoples, and it was hoped that come the restoration of democracy the marginalization of whole minorities could be avoided. The role of Prime Minister was nevertheless declared to only be open to native Fijians. Similarly, the Alliance and NFP underwent a period of major change - as the Democratic Party emerged as the dominant opposition to the government, most of the remaining members reformed themselves into the Peoples Party, declaring to represent all of the nation. Lala Mara had no intention of keeping Fiji under military rule indefinitely, so once it was believed order had been restored and a political compromise reached the 'First Republic' came to an end and multi-party democracy was restored.
Prime Ministers of the Second Republic of Fiji (1982-2002)
1982-1990: Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic)
1982: Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [30], Penaia Ganilau (Peoples) [22]
1986: Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [27], Vijay Singh (Peoples) [25]
1990-1996: Apisai Tora (Peoples)
1990: Apisai Tora (Peoples) [28], Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [24]
1994: Apisai Tora (Peoples) [29], Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [23]
1996-1998: Josefa Vosanibola (Peoples)
1997: Josefa Vosanibola (Peoples) [24], Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [20], Ratu Tevita Momoedonu (Liberal & Labour Union) [8]
1998-1999: Samisoni Tikoinasau (Peoples)
1999: Karam Chand Ramrakha (Democratic) [21], Samisoni Tikoinasau (Peoples) [19], Ratu Tevita Momoedonu (Liberal & Labour Union) [12]
1999-2001: Anirudh Singh (Independent-leading Democratic/Liberal & Labour Union)
2001-2016: Anirudh Singh (Independent-leading Democratic/Liberal/Labour Association)
2002: Anirudh Singh (Independent-leading Democratic [20]/Liberal [9]/Labour Association [8]) [37], Ratu Epeli Ganilau (Peoples) [22], Fijian Independence [1]
2007: Anirudh Singh (Independent-leading Democratic [12]/Liberal [11]/Labour Association [9]) [32], Ratu Epeli Ganilau (Peoples) [28]
2012: Anirudh Singh (Independent-leading Democratic [16]/Liberal [13]/Labour Association [10]) [39], Kaliopate Tavola (Peoples) [23]
The victory of the Democratic Party in the 1982 election was an indication that some of the racial and political tensions in Fiji had been cooled by the intervention of the military and the capable government of Lala Mara. The Nationalists crashed in support and lost any hope of regaining parliamentary representation; the Democratic Party and the Peoples Party now attempted to concentrate the Second Republic into a two-party state. Efforts were made to focus upon political differences rather than ethnic ones, but due to the interlocking nature of the two this was only partly successful. Emigration from the Indian community increased nevertheless. Ramrakha presided over a turn in fortunes for the Fijian economy, as it tried to liberalize away from traditional industries and promote international investment. An air wing of the armed forces was inaugurated in 1984 and come the time of the 1986 election there was a period of tentative optimism. The result was another victory for the Democratic Party, although it did lose some seats to the Peoples Party. 1986 saw the further diversification of political support between the ethnic minorities, and whilst the Indians in particularly supported the Democratic Party the ethnic Fijians split their vote roughly evenly. Ramrakha narrowly avoided an assassination plot conducted by extreme nationalists (led by Maciu Navakasuasua) at Nadi International Airport in 1989, and the Democratic Party enacted some controversial and unpopular restrictions of freedom of speech and political meetings, largely contributing to their loss in the 1990 election. The Peoples Party, essentially the descendant of the Alliance, secured their largest parliamentary representation since 1972. The victory of the party in 1990 influenced the mandatory ten-year review of the constitution established upon the end of the First Republic; tensions arose again after a resurgence in ethnic tensions due to the long-standing argument over Indo-Fijian land leases and the growing influence of the trade union movement. Tora tried to lessen the unease by removing the necessity for the Prime Minister to be a ethnic Fijian, isolating some of the natural supporters of the party in the conservative Fijian population but doing much for Parliamentary bipartisanship. To some surprise, the Peoples secured a one-seat larger majority in 1994 as Ramrakha remained the embattled Democratic leader.
The government of Tora had a strong mandate, but behind the scenes various factions began to conspire against the Prime Minister; Josefa Vosanibola, the Minister for Home Affairs, came under increasing fire for the reluctance of the government to repeal some of the more repressive measures enacted in the latter days of the Ramrakha ministry. He also remained annoyed at the increasingly centre-left attitude of the Peoples Party which he perceived to be at odds with the traditional voter base of the Alliance Party. Taking conservative allies within the party, he ousted Tora (who immediately went off to help form the Liberal and Labour Union) and in the 1997 election the party was hammered nastily. It remained the largest parliamentary group, but lost a majority. Vosanibola ironically was removed and as the Democratic and LLU struggled to come to a coalition agreement Samisoni Tikoinasau led a minority government. It was short-lived, as the opposition came together under the Independent figurehead Anirudh Singh. It was easily the most left-wing government in Fijian history and sent ripples of unease around the military and the conservatives. Against the odds, however, Singh was able to keep his government together and with significant social reforms emerged as a popular figurehead for the coalition. During the Singh government, Fiji emerged as one of the success stories in the Pacific. Significant infrastructure and domestic progress was accompanied with substantial foreign investment, and the political forces of the organized centre-left grew significantly. The LLU separated on good terms in 2000, forming the Liberal Party and Labour Association respectively, but in the 2002 and 2007 elections the coalition fought as a united ticket under Singh, retaining the alliance with the Democratic Party. In 2007, the Peoples Party fought back harder, but was unable to unseat the young and charismatic leader. Indeed, the Singh government cemented the complete survival of the new multi-party democracy, with the 2012 election fair provided the third consecutive victory for the centre-left alliance. Fiji had seemed to shrug off the ethnic struggles of the past, and consolidated support around optimism for the future.