How We Lost Detroit: The Fermi Nuclear Disaster

[dartingfog]

June 30, 1967

Gordon blasts American Vietnam policy

One day before his last day in the Pearson cabinet, outgoing Cabinet member Walter Gordon gave a speech strongly critical of the American policy in Vietnam. In his speech, Gordon appealed to Canadians to follow their consciences and speak out against the war. “No Canadian likes to criticize the US or the policies of its government…Sometimes mistakes are made and when this happens the US becomes committed to policies that seem to go from bad to worse. Governments, like individuals, do not like to confess to errors or to change the policies once embarked upon…Should Canadians speak out? Our should we keep silent on the grounds that it is not our affair? …It could be dangerous for us as a nation or as individuals to criticize the US government [but] whatever the reasons I believe all of us have a duty to record our concern – our growing horror if you will – over what is going on in Vietnam. If the present policy ends in disaster – our failure to speak out against what is happening will always remain on our consciences.” [1]

Gordon obliquely criticized Canada’s contribution to the war effort. “I feel sick at heart what is going on. One is constantly reminded of the bombing, the use of napalm, the policy of defoliation and the effect this must have, not only on the lives, but on the thinking of the local population.” [1][2]

Gordon even suggested that the United States may use drastic measures, including weapons of mass destruction, if victory could not be achieved by conventional means: “If left to the Vietnamese themselves it is questionable whether the civil war could be settled without more bloodshed…However it might not be any worse for the Vietnamese to be allowed to fight things out among themselves than it is to be bombed, burned and exterminated by a foreign power… If the escalation of the war continues, as seems probable, and the North Vietnamese do not give up soon, one may wonder if the United States will be driven to use nuclear bombs or to spread germs or exterminating chemicals.” [1]

Gordon’s speech drew immediate controversy, causing much chatter in the halls of Parliament. Timed on the day before Canada Day, on the 100th anniversary of Canadian Confederation, the speech was not well received by the Pearson government. The Prime Minister disavowed Gordon, saying that his views do not represent the official position of the Government of Canada.

But Gordon’s speech comes at a time when many Canadians are outraged by the reparations agreement recently reached between the United States and Canada. Protests against the agreement have been organized across the nation, from Victoria to St. Johns. Even the American exhibit at the Montreal Expo was vandalized last night by pro-Quebecois protestors, raising security concerns for the Queen’s upcoming visit. [3]

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] All from an OTL speech given May 13, 1967. With such rhetoric, it’s surprising that Pearson didn’t demand his resignation on the spot (though perhaps Pearson privately agreed with him). Walter Gordon, A Personal Memoir, pp. 363-8

[2] Canada produced napalm and Agent Orange defoliant during the war: https://www.opencanada.org/features/murky-world-canadas-arms-manufacturing/

[3] It didn’t happen in OTL, but there had been antiwar protests at the US pavilion: https://www.cbc.ca/archives/entry/anti-vietnam-protesters-in-us-pavilion-at-expo-67

 

[49ersFootball]

Oh boy.

 

[49ersFootball]

Oh, this is bad...

This would likely push Berry Gordy in moving Motown HQ to the Golden State much sooner.

On George Romney: I'm assuming he won 20% of African Americans in 1966 ? I know he got 15% in 1964 I think.

 

[dartingfog]

July 7, 1967

Israel, Arab nations agree to ceasefire

After a month of fierce fighting, Israel and its neighbors have agreed to a UN-mediated ceasefire. Under the new deal, Israel will withdraw troops from territories it currently occupies and borders will remain the same as those from the 1949 Armistice Agreements. [1] The conflict, while brief, has taken a heavy toll on the region. Thousands of people, both soldier and civilian, both Israeli and Arab, have been killed. Hundreds of thousands have been forced to leave their homes.

While a settlement has been reached, few are satisfied. Leaders of Egypt and Syria still refuse to recognize Israel. Israeli officials blame the U.S. for its policy of neutrality in the conflict, which they say could have saved hundreds of Israeli lives. [2]

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_Armistice_Agreements

[2] Note that in the 1960s, the “special relationship” between the US and Israel had only just begun: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel–United_States_relations#Kennedy_and_Johnson_administrations_(1961–1969)

 

[dartingfog]

July 31, 1967

Detroit stays cool during long, hot summer

As violence sweeps across America's cities, one place remains relatively free of unrest. Despite rioting in inner city neighborhoods in Tampa, Buffalo, Newark, Plainfield, Minneapolis, and now Milwaukee, Detroit is at peace. Or at least eerily calm. [1]

After last year’s riots in the wake of the Fermi meltdown, Detroit and the State of Michigan have taken steps to ensure that another riot does not take place. The city touts several new initiatives aimed at integration and ending disenfranchisement. More Black officers have been hired to patrol in Black-majority neighborhoods in the city. The Greater Detroit Board of Commerce is encouraging employers to hire Black candidates. A committee known as “New Detroit” has been formed that encourages dialogue between community members, politicians, and business leaders. [2]

Governor Romney attributes Detroit’s calm to fair housing initiatives he himself supported. Despite initial opposition from both parties, the housing measure passed with the support of the governor. These initiatives include important relocation, tenants' rights and code enforcement legislation that are aimed at integrating a very racially segregated city. To win over skeptical legislators, the governor warned that if the bill were not passed, "it will accelerate the recruitment of revolutionary insurrectionists." [2]

Despite this optimism, not all is well in Detroit. While Downtown Detroit is five miles away from the northern edge of the evacuation zone, the city streets are increasingly empty. Blight is increasing as homes and businesses are abandoned, becoming havens for the criminal element. Rumors of a spike in cancer cases has many concerned for their health. These fears, combined with anxiety over increasing crime and social unrest, have caused many Detroiters to leave for the suburbs north and west of the city. These fears have also led to the formation of White radical groups like "Breakthrough”, which encourages its members to arm themselves, ostensibly against future riots. [2]

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] The last day of the Detroit riot in OTL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Detroit_riot

[2] As OTL after the riots: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Detroit_riot#Aftermath

 

[Bookmark1995]

July 31, 1967

Detroit stays cool during long, hot summer

As violence sweeps across America's cities, one place remains relatively free of unrest. Despite rioting in inner city neighborhoods in Tampa, Buffalo, Newark, Plainfield, Minneapolis, and now Milwaukee, Detroit is at peace. Or at least eerily calm. [1]

After last year’s riots in the wake of the Fermi meltdown, Detroit and the State of Michigan have taken steps to ensure that another riot does not take place. The city touts several new initiatives aimed at integration and ending disenfranchisement. More Black officers have been hired to patrol in Black-majority neighborhoods in the city. The Greater Detroit Board of Commerce is encouraging employers to hire Black candidates. A committee known as “New Detroit” has been formed that encourages dialogue between community members, politicians, and business leaders. [2]

Governor Romney attributes Detroit’s calm to fair housing initiatives he himself supported. Despite initial opposition from both parties, the housing measure passed with the support of the governor. These initiatives include important relocation, tenants' rights and code enforcement legislation that are aimed at integrating a very racially segregated city. To win over skeptical legislators, the governor warned that if the bill were not passed, "it will accelerate the recruitment of revolutionary insurrectionists." [2]

Despite this optimism, not all is well in Detroit. While Downtown Detroit is five miles away from the northern edge of the evacuation zone, the city streets are increasingly empty. Blight is increasing as homes and businesses are abandoned, becoming havens for the criminal element. Rumors of a spike in cancer cases has many concerned for their health. These fears, combined with anxiety over increasing crime and social unrest, have caused many Detroiters to leave for the suburbs north and west of the city. These fears have also led to the formation of White radical groups like "Breakthrough”, which encourages its members to arm themselves, ostensibly against future riots. [2]

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] The last day of the Detroit riot in OTL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Detroit_riot

[2] As OTL after the riots: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1967_Detroit_riot#Aftermath

So, will this programs actually prevent Detroit's decline, or will they delay the inevitable?

 

[49ersFootball]

So, will this programs actually prevent Detroit's decline, or will they delay the inevitable?

Likely delaying the inevitable, which will impact the upcoming Detroit, MI Mayoral election.

 

[dartingfog]

Likely delaying the inevitable, which will impact the upcoming Detroit, MI Mayoral election.

Yes, these programs won't prevent Detroit's decline, which in the long run will be even worse than OTL due to health hazards from fallout (covered in future posts). But right now things are looking pretty good for Detroit.

 

[dartingfog]

August 31, 1967

Romney embarks on 3-week tour of Europe [1]

After several weeks on the campaign trail, Michigan Governor George Romney is headed off on a trip to Europe. However, this is no sight-seeing tour, insists Romney’s chief strategist Leonard W. Hall. The fact-finding trip is intended to shore up Romney’s foreign policy credentials. Romney first plans to visit England, France and West Germany, and will then cross the Iron Curtain to visit Warsaw and Moscow. [2]

But the trip won’t be all business. During his visit, Romney will visit his son Mitt, who is currently doing missionary work in France. For the past year, the younger Romney has been on a mission to convert the people of France to the Mormon faith. [3]

Some are questioning the wisdom of the governor’s timing, as recent polls show the governor falling behind his chief rival, former Vice President Richard Nixon. Despite this, there are reasons to believe that Romney still has a chance of winning the Republican nomination. Not all is well with the Nixon campaign. The recent resignation of Nixon’s national chairman, Dr. Gaylord Parkinson, has created an element of instability in the campaign. While the reason why Parkinson resigned was to take care of his ill wife, there are rumors of strained relations between Nixon and his personal staff. [4]

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] On this date in OTL, Romney's interview with Detroit-based pundit Lou Gordon was taped on this date. It was during this interview that Romney made his infamous “brainwashing” gaffe

[2] In OTL, Romney was supposed to go to Europe in September 1967, but his campaign manager persuaded him to delay his trip to November. No Detroit riot likely means no inner-city tour, and also no “brainwashing”: https://www.nytimes.com/1967/08/29/...d-to-tour-us-slums-romney-to-visit-slums.html

[3] http://archive.boston.com/news/politics/2008/specials/romney/articles/part2_main/?page=full

[4] As OTL: “More Politicking Seen for Romney”, Detroit News, Aug. 30, 1967 and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon_1968_presidential_campaign#Early_stages

 

[Unknown]

Might we see President or Vice-President Romney ITTL?

 

[Unknown]

I half-expect Michael Moore's first big documentary to be about the Fermi disaster and its aftermath; say what you will about Moore being his own worst enemy at times, but the man knows how to do a documentary...

 

[Bookmark1995]

I half-expect Michael Moore's first big documentary to be about the Fermi disaster and its aftermath; say what you will about Moore being his own worst enemy at times, but the man knows how to do a documentary...

The problem is that Moore has gotten way too political in his movies. "Roger and Me" was good because it was more...down to Earth in a way. He wasn't trying to frontload his views. He was just showing off the struggles of a city that lost its major industry.

 

[Unknown]

"Roger and Me" was good because it was more...down to Earth in a way. He wasn't trying to frontload his views. He was just showing off the struggles of a city that lost its major industry.

If he does his Fermi disaster documentary like that, he'll have a hit...

Yeah, he has gotten too political; I remember his speech after winning the Oscars where he ranted about Bush being a fictitious president leading us into a fictional war (the Second Gulf War had just started (1)), which caused him to be booed. In Hollywood (which isn't pro-Republican, in spite of some of the actors there being such).

Though I did like the joke that Steve Martin made afterwards about the Teamsters helping Michael Moore into the trunk of his car...

(1) Ironically, Moore turned out to be right about the fictitious part of the Iraq War, not that it helped him; he'd badly damaged his own reputation by that point...

 

[dartingfog]

I half-expect Michael Moore's first big documentary to be about the Fermi disaster and its aftermath; say what you will about Moore being his own worst enemy at times, but the man knows how to do a documentary...

Considering Moore was living in Flint at the time (not too far from Fermi), I imagine he might make a documentary on it when he gets older. In fact, I'll be mentioning Flint in an upcoming post.

 

[dartingfog]

October 5, 1967

One year anniversary of the Fermi disaster

A year ago, few people had ever heard of the Fermi atomic power plant, near Detroit, Michigan. Today, one year after history’s worst nuclear accident, the name has become synonymous with death, radiation sickness, the fear of cancer, and genetic damage. [1]

The meltdown of Fermi has changed the area irrevocably. The nearby town of Monroe has become a ghost town. It remains closed off from all but military and cleanup personnel; even former residents are not allowed to return. Street upon street of houses sit abandoned, looking much as they did one year ago, though noticeably overgrown. Cars left behind by their owners rust away in fenced-off parking lots. Near the plant, stands of pines have turned a sickly reddish-brown, killed by radioactivity. [2]

The Fermi site itself remains quite busy. Workers have hauled away many thousands of tons of radioactive soil from the area, and the containment structure that surrounds what remains of the Fermi plant is now complete. [2] The concrete barrier between the plant and Lake Erie is reportedly still under construction.

The disaster has had a toll on those living near and downwind of it. While most of those displaced in Michigan and Ontario have found permanent housing, many still struggle to make ends meet. Contamination of livestock and crops grown in Ontario has led to the ruin of many Canadian farmers, and many Canadians believe that Canada was not fairly compensated by the American government. Across the Great Lakes region, people fear for their health and that of their children.

However, a recently published study suggests the risk of cancer from Fermi may be less than originally feared. Recently completed by the Atomic Energy Commission, the study concluded that radioactivity from the Fermi disaster would cause about 1,000 extra cancer deaths within the United States between now and the year 2017. For comparison, about 30 million Americans will likely succumb to “natural cancers” in the same time period. [3] However, this study did not include Canada, which is believed to have received most of the fallout.

Across Europe, nuclear plants are closing and plans for new plants are being scrapped. Important political parties have turned against nuclear power, while governments assure their citizens that they are doing everything in their power to maximize plant safety. However, the catastrophe’s impact on public opinion has been less than many had predicted. Opinion polls in many countries show that public opposition to nuclear power has already receded to pre-Fermi levels. The disaster has brought no major overhaul in nuclear plant technology, and large nuclear programs continue to grow without major protest. [4]

Despite the global wave of opposition, atomic power programs continue in many countries. A few days ago, Japan established the Power Reactor and Nuclear Fuel Development Corporation [5] to conduct atomic research. While atomic energy is controversial with the Japanese public (having survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 22 years ago), the government believes that nuclear power is the only viable option to support a booming economy in a resource-poor nation. In the Soviet Union, construction of new plants continues unabated under the belief in the superiority of the designs of their plants.

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] “Chernobyl legacy one year later: fear and lessons”, Detroit News, April 26, 1987

[2] https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-06-16-mn-7710-story.html

[3] Based on a similar study conducted in OTL in Europe, which only included the European Community: http://aei.pitt.edu/35710/1/A1962.pdf

[4] As OTL, one year after Chernobyl: https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1987-04-30-mn-2839-story.html

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_Reactor_and_Nuclear_Fuel_Development_Corporation

 

[dartingfog]

October 29, 1967

Michigan considers controversial abortion bill

This week, the Michigan State Senate will vote on a bill that would decriminalize abortion in Michigan. The proposed bill would overturn a 1931 law that made abortion illegal in the state. The sponsor of the bill, State Senator John McCauley (D-Wyandotte), first introduced the measure in March. [1] Despite strong opposition from Catholic organizations, the bill has considerable bipartisan support. The bill permits abortion in the case of rape or incest, as well as pregnancies that would result in severe mental or physical defects. If passed, Michigan would become the fourth state legalizing abortion, joining Colorado, North Carolina, and California. [2] There has been no word from Governor Romney on whether he would veto the bill in the event it passes in the state legislature.

Dr. Albert E. Heustis, Michigan’s top public health officer, endorsed the principle of the Senate bill to legalize abortions. “[If] there is a reasonable chance the child will be deformed, the general feeling as that if she felt unable to face such a situation, relief should be sought.” [3]

Abortion advocates and anti-nuclear activists alike have used the possibility of an increase in birth defects as a result of the Fermi meltdown as a reason to push for their respective causes. They warn of a “generation of mutants” worse than the recent thalidomide crisis, where children are commonly born with hideous deformities, missing limbs, and other genetic abnormalities. [4] They point to examples like a baby boy named James, who was recently born without a right hand. [5] Although James was born 75 miles away from the Fermi plant in Flint, his mother spent six months during her pregnancy living with relatives in the Detroit suburb of Bloomfield Township, only 40 miles north of the site of the meltdown. [6] Some believe that James’ birth defect is a direct result of the Fermi meltdown a year ago.

Developments abroad point toward a global shift in public opinion on the issue. Two days ago, the British Parliament passed the Abortion Act, which allows doctors to legally perform abortions, under certain conditions. A similar bill has been proposed in Canada by Minister of Justice Pierre Trudeau. [7] Fears about the effects of radiation exposure on fetuses, particularly in southern Ontario, has been part of the motivation to liberalize the country’s abortion laws.

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] Such a bill was introduced by Senator McCauley to the state Senate in OTL March 1967. As spoiler, it won't pass in ATL (just like OTL). See Detroit News, Aug. 29, 1967

[2] As OTL: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_1967#April_25,_1967_(Tuesday)

[3] Detroit News, Mar. 19, 1967

[4] Whether Chernobyl actually caused an increase in birth defects is controversial https://www.reuters.com/article/us-...-seen-in-chernobyl-area-idUSTRE62N4L820100324, but what is known is that an estimated 200,000 abortions took place because of fears over birth defects. For the record, I am STRONGLY pro-choice, but even I wonder how many of these abortions could have been prevented: https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/...women-ended-their-pregnancies-after-chernobyl and https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-06-15-mn-11236-story.html

[5] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Abbott See also: https://www.express.co.uk/news/uk/4...spite-being-different-says-Chernobyl-boy-Igor

[6] Imperfect: An Improbable Life, pp. 36

[7] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criminal_Law_Amendment_Act,_1968–69

 

[Kaiser Kolovos]

I wonder if this radiophobia trend will affect the day to day lives of Americans (and other people).

I can just imagine a resurgence of leaded or lead-lined materials like blankets or the continued use of lead paint for building exteriors. Maybe more people end up moving to the National Radio Quiet Zone.

Glad I caught this story, hope to read more

 

[dartingfog]

February 8, 1968

George Wallace announces third-party bid for Presidency

Former Alabama Governor George Wallace has formally declared that he will run as a third-party candidate in the 1968 Presidential race. This news comes less than a week after former Vice President Richard Nixon tossed his hat into the ring. [1]

Wallace pulled no punches in his announcement speech, attacking both Republicans and Democrats. He promised an end to lawlessness and “crime running rampant in every city in the nation”. Wallace said that he would punish “treasonable acts” that aid the nation’s enemies. He called for a return to constitutional government and a halt to what he described as government interference, creating a “nation wherein our states are able to run their affairs without receiving directions from Washington.” [2]

Wallace enters a field that is already quite crowded. On the Republican side, former Vice President Richard Nixon, Michigan Governor Mitt Romney, and California Governor Ronald Reagan have all announced that they will compete for that party’s nomination. On the Democratic side, President Lyndon Johnson will face a challenge from Senator Eugene McCarthy, known for his strongly antiwar stance. The first primary for both parties will be March 12 in New Hampshire. [3]

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] https://features.apmreports.org/arw/campaign68/timeline.html . Note that in both OTL and ATL, Kennedy, Rockefeller, and Humphrey had yet to enter the race.

[2] “Wallace to Make 3rd-Party Run for President”, Flint Journal, Feb. 8, 1968

[3] This is the same as OTL. I’m not that interested in the “horse race”, but there will be a few updates on the primaries.

 

[Bookmark1995]

If he does his Fermi disaster documentary like that, he'll have a hit...

Yeah, he has gotten too political; I remember his speech after winning the Oscars where he ranted about Bush being a fictitious president leading us into a fictional war (the Second Gulf War had just started (1)), which caused him to be booed. In Hollywood (which isn't pro-Republican, in spite of some of the actors there being such).

Though I did like the joke that Steve Martin made afterwards about the Teamsters helping Michael Moore into the trunk of his car...

(1) Ironically, Moore turned out to be right about the fictitious part of the Iraq War, not that it helped him; he'd badly damaged his own reputation by that point...

Yeah. He turned his award ceremony into something overtly political. And his work has largely gone in that direction.

His strength came NOT from that, but from more sly bite he gave to his political enemies.

My favorite scene in Roger in Me was the scene where Roger Smith gives a speech about how Christmas brings out the warmth of human beings: alongside this tender speech is footage of a Flint family being bitterly evicted from their home. That scene is good, because is says more about the vapidity of corporate sentimentality (these greedy jerks couldn't care less about you) then any statistic ever could.

I wonder if this radiophobia trend will affect the day to day lives of Americans (and other people).

I can just imagine a resurgence of leaded or lead-lined materials like blankets or the continued use of lead paint for building exteriors. Maybe more people end up moving to the National Radio Quiet Zone.

Glad I caught this story, hope to read more

Probably more atomic bunkers being built, especially in areas near nuclear plants.

Considering Moore was living in Flint at the time (not too far from Fermi), I imagine he might make a documentary on it when he gets older. In fact, I'll be mentioning Flint in an upcoming post.

I can already picture a movie made by Moore about the incident. He'll probably call it How I Learned to Love the Atom.

It would probably feature a scene where Governor Romney talks about the need to stay calm, while showing a panicking family unsure of what to do. To show just how utterly unprepared the authorities were.

 

[dartingfog]

February 26, 1968

New Map Shows Radioactive Fallout from Fermi Accident

A recent study shows that contamination from the Fermi accident may be more severe and widespread than originally thought. Soil samples were taken across more than 100 locations in the United States and Canada. Scientists determined the severity of radioactive contamination by measuring the amount of Cesium-137 collected at each site. Cesium-137 is a radioactive element that was released as a result of the explosion of the Fermi plant.

These data were used to create the map below. [1] The map shows that the area of radioactive contamination in excess of 1 Curie per square kilometer (the conventional minimum threshold for significant contamination) [2] covers a roughly oval-shaped region across the Great Lakes, extending from Flint, Michigan in the northwest, to Toronto, Ontario in the northeast, to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania in the southeast, to Bowling Green, Ohio in the southwest. This is an area of about 45,000 sq. mi (117,000 sq. km.). [3]

Within this zone, the most severe contamination fell on the regions closest to the plant: southwestern Ontario and southeastern Michigan. About 2,300 sq. mi. (5,900 sq. km.) of land and water received more than 15 Curies per square kilometer, which coincided closely with the evacuation zone. Another 6,100 sq. mi. (15,800 sq. km.) of land and water between Toledo, Ohio and London, Ontario received a lesser (but still concerning) amount, between 5 and 15 Curies per square kilometer.

The map shows a secondary area of heavy contamination to the east. Heavy rainfall [4] on October 9, 1966, four days after the accident, is believed to have caused heavy deposition of radioactive particles in a belt between Buffalo, New York and Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Further east, there are islands of significant contamination in the higher elevations of the Northeast: The Poconos and Alleghany Plateau of Pennsylvania; the Adirondacks and Catskills of New York; the White Mountains of New Hampshire and Maine; the Green Mountains of Vermont and Massachusetts; and the Laurentian Mountains of Quebec.

The wind direction was a major factor in determining the severity of contamination. For instance, the map shows that Toronto (250 miles to the northeast of Fermi) received more fallout than the town of Adrian, Michigan (40 miles to the west of Fermi). This pattern was due to the southwesterly winds in the days following the accident, which carried radioactive particles far to the east and northeast.

Spoiler: NOTES

[1] The map is the result of some educated guesswork as to distribution of fallout (I’m no graphic artist, but I tried my best to make it look authentic to the period). The three main factors on determining contamination levels are distance (closer = more contamination), direction (east/northeast from the plant), and elevation (higher = more contamination). Compare with this OTL map: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_Exclusion_Zone#/media/File:Chernobyl_radiation_map_1996.svg

The map was based on: https://www.alternatehistory.com/wiki/lib/exe/detail.php?id=blank_map_directory:united_states&media=blank_map_directory:midwest.png

[2] The Curie was the proper unit of measurement at the time. It was replaced by the Becquerel in 1975. For reference, 37 kBq/m^2 equals 1 Ci/km^2. https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1239_web.pdf

[3] The approximate size of Pennsylvania. Fuller mentions in his book that as a result of an accident at Fermi, “$7 billion in damage could occur and an area the size of Pennsylvania could be contaminated.” (See WALD, pp.2) For comparison, Chernobyl significantly contaminated about 192,000 km^2 of land, nearly twice the size of Pennsylvania.

[4] The weather in the days after the accident is another important factor (for example rain 3 days after the Chernobyl accident caused heavy contamination in eastern Belarus, even 200 km from the plant). Compare the fallout map with this precipitation map: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3519970/figure/F2/