The Social Wars and the Second Roman War.
Hannibal, much like his father, used his tenure as Governor-General of Gaul to great personal effect. Where his father had gained economic clout and influence from exploiting the natural resources of Spain, Hannibal intended to gain as much grace and favour from his campaigns in Gaul as possible. He used a Gallic raid upon a Carthaginian grain depot on the Rhone River as an excuse for war against the local Gallic tribes. He led his relatively small force into a number of battles which were all crushing Carthaginian victories. Chief after chief, king after king was forced to give away his dynastic prerogatives to Hannibal as he burnt a swathe from the Rhone Valley westwards. Over a seven year period he made treaties with dozens of kingdoms and reforged them as loose confederacies with a pro-Carthaginian High King in charge. Once the military work was done, Hannibal let his brother Mago step in. Outbidding all other comers in the public sale of tax rights (every five years there would be a general auction held by the government over who should have the tax rights for a province. The winner would be the one who could claim to be able to get the most tax revenue from the province.) he opened the Rhone Valley up to Carthaginian commerce. He traded iron, gold, timber, wheat and slaves with the Gauls in return for wine, olive oil and luxury goods. The family business grew rapidly, and Massila effectively became another Kartbarka. Its city magistrates were all Barcid supporters and most of the ships docking there were owned by the Barca family.
Hannibal’s campaigns in Gaul did much to increase his popularity in Carthage-he came to be seen as something other than his father’s son, and he far outshone other public figures-including his brother. The Carthaginian political system, meanwhile, was in a state of turmoil. Carthage’s population was ballooning due to the land around the city being bought up by plutocrat aristocrats who were then using cheap Gallic slaves as labourers, and clearing thousands of locals off their land. They came to Carthage seeking a better life yet found only tenement blocks and begging waiting for them. Riots broke out across the city, and huge crowds descended on the Senate Chamber demanding better conditions. Fearing the crowds descending upon them, the Elders and Suffets fled to the Byrsa, the walled citadel that loomed over the city. Here they and the city wardens waited and formulated plans to try and quiet the people. Few radical ideas were heard; land-reform was un-thought of. Better provisions for the poor were accepted, as were the clearing of slums to make space for new, safe houses.
These ideas, when presented to the people, proved enough to placate them. However, it would not last. For Hasdrubal Barca, being his father’s son, could not help but stir up the mob. He called on the Elders to curtail the powers of the Suffets and for the creation of a representative office for the common man. his opponents conducted a smear campaign, comparing his proposals to those of the Roman constitution, calling him a Roman sympathiser, saying that he wished to make Carthage Rome, or that he sacrificed not to Ba’al but to Jupiter. Such were the lies directed at the man that some began to doubt his worth. However, when he spoke about his brother or about his father, as he was oft to do, they would once again remember his family name and follow him to the hilt. Finally, in 218 BC the Elders voted to create twelve magistrates who would hold office for twelve months. They could attend Council meetings but not vote in them and could introduce topics for debate and take part in these debates yet they did not form part of the Executive. One of the first twelve of these men was Hanno, a man of meek origins who had received Hasdrubal’s patronage. He introduced motions such as one for the creation of a fire service or for the construction of aqueducts. He became a popular politician in his own right, yet remained firmly in the Barcid camp.
In 216 BC, Hanno proposed legislation that would give the Council of Twelve powers to elect one of the six suffets, who would have control over the state finance. The motion was defeated three times, yet finally Hanno took it to the people, and when Hasdrubal appeared alongside him the suffets knew they had lost. Faced with the threat of revolution, they caved in. in return, Hasdrubal backed a rather conservative Councillor as Elected Suffet, who was voted in unanimously and who toed a fairly meek political line.
Rome’s control over Italy was enforced by a string of colonies which stretched from Tarentum in the north to Pompeii in the south. These were predominantly settled by the poorest members of Roman society. The city of Rome was starting to grow beyond was what economical; unemployment was high and tenement blocks were beginning to creep their way towards the skies. However, the Italian colonies provided a release valve for these social pressures. Most colonies had populations of around 2,000 and were built in the fashion of a military camp. They had walls and were garrisoned by a militia; the majority of those unemployed were young men of military age.
These settlements were, however, surrounded by hostile Italians, most notably the Samnites and the Greeks. Samnium in Central Italy was a hilly and rather unforgiving country; the Samnites worshiped ancient gods rather than the Olympians and were prone to barbaric customs. They had been defeated by Rome a century and a half ago, yet they retained a great deal of autonomy. In the late 3rd century BC their rage at having been denied the rights they felt they were owed by the Republic was reaching a boiling point.
Meanwhile, on the plains, the mainly Greek-speaking population of the old colonies of Magna Graecia missed their days of political autonomy and of living by their own customs and their own political systems. The larger cities had been destroyed or colonised, yet many of the smaller ones remained intact. The Romans had forgotten to cauterise this wound and it began to fester. The city leaders began publicly praying for a second Pyrrhus, or some foreigner to come and remove the intolerable Romans. Several entreaties were made to Carthage, yet every time the Council of Elders turned them down, citing their treaty with Rome.
In 215 BC the Roman colony of Samnis was founded in Samium. The Samnite peoples, disgusted by this violation of their sovereignty, formed a Confederation under one war leader, a Roman citizen named Lucius Bibillus Cryanus, who assumed dictatorial powers and raised an army of 80,000 men to besiege Samium. The city’s walls were not yet completed by the time the army arrived, yet the fighting was fierce. The Roman colonists never stood a chance, however, and they were slaughtered to the last. There were no Roman survivors, or at least none returned to Rome, for the Senate did not hear of the calamity for weeks. Rather, they obtained word via their Latin allies, who were informed by the Campanians. For the Samnites had sent the bloodied arms of fallen Romans, bent and blunted by battle to the downtrodden Italian cities. By mid 215 all of southern Italy was raised in revolt. Word was sent to the Latin cities around Rome; that this was their chance to rise up against Rome, yet they refused. They cited their long standing friendship with the people of Rome, and that their unity proved mutually profitable. They then informed the Senate of what had befallen, and in return the Senate voted to bestow Roman citizenship on all Latins once the revolt was put down.
This would be easier said than done, as Bibillus was a true leader of men, and he had already come down from the highlands with his men into the Campanian lowlands. His first target was New Capua, the much hated Roman colony founded on the ashes of the old city. The city was not ready, and being in the middle of a plain it was susceptible to a rush. Bibillus knew that if he could raze New Capua he would have not shortage of allies. After eight hours’ fighting the city fell and some 4,000 inhabitants were slaughtered. With Capua a torch against Roman oppression, the wavering Italians rose up against Roman dominance. Colonies were massacred, armies gathered and embassies sent to foreign courts. Most heavily courted were the Greek Leagues; the Aetolians and the Achaeans who, it was hoped, would remember the past glories of the Hellenes.
To the Consuls Quintus Porcius Rufus and Cornelius Manlius Pulcher, it seemed as if all of Italy had just collapsed beneath their feet. Porcius went into shock, and old man with a weak heart. Manlius, on the other hand, sprang into action and raised two legions to fight the Italians. He collected the forces of Rome’s Latin allies, who were keen to prove their loyalty. However, he did not trust their guidance, and despite the fact that they knew the land better than anyone else, he refused to let them scout ahead lest they prepare an ambush.
Quite the opposite was to happen, for the legions were indeed ambushed in Samnium by a force four times their size and strength. Manlius was killed, as were 7,000 Romans. Bibillus, who had masterminded the ambush, gloated that he was halfway to beating Rome. He had severely underestimated Rome’s strength, for as soon as they heard of the calamity, the Senate decided that desperate times called for desperate measures. In March 214 BC they declared Gaius Galba Cathegorus Dictator for six months. He in turn nominated Marcus Lentulus Paetus his master of horse. Galba immediately ordered the levee of six legions and also the conscription of all of Rome’s remaining allies to fight. All told, Rome mobilised 70,000 men in 214 BC, the largest number they had yet raised.
In Carthage, news of the Second Italian War split the city. Some wanted to let the Italians fight, hoping that they would tire themselves out with war and then prove an easy picking for Carthaginian intervention. Others, however, saw this as an ideal opportunity to crush Rome in the bud. This latter view was the one held fiercely by Hasdrubal Barca, who campaigned for public office solely upon it. he was duly elected in a landslide, and he was made the year’s Popular Suffet. He led a twenty man commission to oversee the city’s expenditure on all matters, and he could assign finance to any project he wished, so long as his nineteen colleagues agreed. Fortunately, he could hand-pick his colleagues.
As soon as he and his colleagues took their seats, however, two pieces of news arrived. The first was that a Roman legion under the Master of Horse Marcus Lentulus Paetus had been destroyed in Samnium; the commander lived yet he had been stripped of office, a replacement had yet to be named. The second piece of news was that Rome was demanding tribute from Segesta, the Carthaginian colony in Liguria. Hasdrubal immediately sprang up and, sensing the jingoistic mood in the Senate Chamber, moved for war with Rome. The vote was held, and narrowly beaten. Hasdrubal sat back down, yet did not stop his war mongering machinations. He knew that his brother agreed with him on the need for war with Rome. His brother also had a reputation for ignoring the Senate. He therefore passed through a motion that the funding for his brother’s Gallic army be more than quadrupled. He also wrote to Hannibal saying that if he took his army into Liguria, the Council would vote for war.
Hannibal’s army of 30,000 men crossed into Liguria via the coastal road in Autumn 214 BC, just before the Alpine passes shut. There was no going back for most of his men, if they failed, only a handful could ever hope to be rescued by boat. Hannibal reassured them that this was not the case, that there would be no rescue and that if there was, every man would have an equal chance of being rescued, even himself.
They arrived in Segesta to jubilation from the populace, who welcomed them almost as liberators. Hannibal then surveyed Northern Italy and began sending bribes to the Gallic chieftains asking if they wished to join in a war against Rome.
Hannibal’s crossing into Liguria was seen as a provocation by Rome, and the Roman ambassador to Carthage haughtily asked them whether this meant war. Hasdrubal curtly replied which one the Senate preferred. The ambassador replied war, and then returned to Rome. The Senate voted to make war on Carthage as soon as he reported back to them. War with Carthage was probably the last thing they needed, as Italy was already aflame. One of the legions was already shattered by 213, and two more were badly mauled. However, the legions were making headway in the lowlands. Whenever they ventured into Samnium, however, they would meet with disaster.
A policy of containment was therefore enacted. The Consuls for 213 split their forces and stormed through southern Italy, bypassing points of major resistance. The Italians lost battle after battle, and Bibillus was trapped in Samnium; their lines of communication were cut and the coalition seemed to be withering away. It was in this moment of triumph that Rome managed to produce defeat. In 212 Marcus Atilius Flaccus was elected Consul. A particularly block-headed, chauvinistic and typically patrician politician, he regarded all non-Romans with disdain if not outright hatred. He made the fateful decision to order the garrisoning of the Latin cities. When the Latin deputies duly arrived in Rome asking why their loyalty was in doubt, Flaccus replied that they were not Roman, and should therefore be treated as possible enemy sympathisers. When the Latins asked, then, if they would get their citizenship after the war, they were ejected from the city. Thus the Latins were pushed into the Italian camp.
Pushed too far, they joined the Italians en masse and slaughtered their garrisons. Bibillus led an army of 60,000 Samnites down into Latium and received substantial reinforcements. For a moment, all seemed lost for Rome. Her armies were in the South and the North, yet her enemies were mere miles away from the city. However, it was then that internal discord began to show within the coalition. The Samnites began to kill and pillage at will. The Latins, seeing this happen on their land, tried to intervene. Bibillus, however, refused to discipline the Samnites, and so civil war broke out within the coalition. Eventually, the two blocs slept in separate camps. It was then that Flaccus made his move. Patrician snob he may have been, but he knew when to attack an enemy. He struck the Samnites first and routed them, forcing them back into the hills. The Latins, seeing that they were surrounded, asked for terms. Flaccus offered them a coin for the ferryman. With that ringing in their ears, they went to battle. The Battle of Velitrae was a Roman victory, with the Latins being forced to surrender shortly afterwards. Latium was occupied, and their city walls torn down.
This should not, however, be seen as a long term Roman victory. Their precious manpower was still tied up in Latium when it was desperately needed in Magna Graecia, and so the war dragged on. Meanwhile, in 211 BC Hannibal plunged south, with 80,000 men behind him. he marched so quickly south that the Romans didn’t have time to counter him properly. Every army sent against him was swatted aside almost contemptuously. Finally, he reached Arretium and forced it to surrender. The city was a Roman colony, and he sacked it mercilessly. He let it be known that all Italian property would be spared, whereas all Romans would be killed on site. A Consular army under Flaccus’s colleague Gnaeus Servilus Tucca was dispatched north. It marched into a carefully laid ambush on the Etrurian Road. He enveloped them and then forced them to fight between his Gallic allies and a steep ravine. The battle killed 6,000 Romans and 700 Carthaginians and their allies. Servilus himself was killed during the fighting, and his head sent to Rome.
News of the slaughter reached the Italians just as their spirits were flagging, and they were emboldened. They gathered their forces together and decided to attack the Bay of Naples. Such a rich target would give them a valuable bargaining chip, as well as plentiful plunder. They besieged Pompeii and stormed Baiae, killing thousands of well-off Romans. Pompeii fell after three days after the aqueducts were destroyed. The city was sacked ruthlessly, and the Italians plundered the countryside. The Romans, however, were busy. Flaccus was appointed Dictator and he levied 30,000 men to attack the Italians. He surrounded them in the Bay of Naples and cut their forces off. After a month long operation, they were forced to surrender. The prisoners were decimated and then enslaved. Flaccus then led his army south, and razed many Greek colonies. For two years he waged a campaign of terror against the Italians, and every year he was voted more power by the Senate. Finally, in 209 BC he was recalled to face a far larger problem.
Hannibal had been turned aside from attacking Rome directly due to its high walls, yet had devastated Latium thoroughly. Several Latin cities had risen in revolt and joined him. However, by Autumn 209 BC he intended to move into Samnium, link up with Bibillus, defeat Flaccus and then crush Rome. As he moved south, however, Flaccus moved north. He took the plunge and attacked Samnium. He was careful not to make the mistakes made by his forebears, or indeed himself, in not trusting his scouts. He thus detected a large ambush and slaughtered the Samnites. Bibillus was killed and his head thrown over Hannibal’s camp gate.
This put all of Hannibal’s plans in ruin, and for a week he pondered what to do. He finally decided to march north to take Ancona, the Roman naval base. He hoped that if he threatened this he would entice Flaccus to come out and fight. By the time he reached Ancona it was winter, and the Apennines were cold. He lost many men in the campaign, yet he besieged Ancona. The Romans, however, were quite content to let him besiege Ancona. They could resupply it by sea and the winter would kill his men more effectively than the legions could. Slowly but surely, Hannibal’s allies deserted him.
The winter of 209 was the hardest Hannibal’s men had ever faced. Stuck outside Ancona in the cold, frostbite and malnutrition killed more than the Romans could ever dream of getting at. When the frosts lifted, Hannibal decided to slink away as quietly as possible. He hoped to get back to Liguria and then Segesta. Resupply and remain were his watchwords.
This would do him little good, however, as his reception became ever frostier the further north he went. He had promised so much yet delivered nothing but Roman corpses. A nice gift, perhaps, and it made good material for his brother’s speeches, yet not exactly a war winner, as Flaccus had proved. Hannibal limped into Segesta in Summer 208 BC with only 40,000 men. the others had either deserted or died over the winter. He let his men recover, and during this many more deserted. He sent a message to his brother asking for more men and, most of all, more time.
When the Elders received this offer, they were intrigued. However, they had received a better one. The expense of maintaining Hannibal’s army was enormous, and there had been no definite victories. Furthermore, the Roman navy had been doggedly fighting them at sea. Carthage had been defeated several time, albeit they had won far more often. Nonetheless, the war was fast spinning out of control. Therefore, the offer made by the Romans was an even more interesting one. They offered peace with Carthage with one condition: that they cut Hannibal loose and let Rome deal with him as they would. The Elders voted and, despite Hasdrubal’s furious objections, Hannibal was outlawed.