French Hegemony, or the age of Louis XIV

France in the Age of the Sun King, 1681-1685
The first half of the 1680s see at least a general period of peace on the continent, albeit an uneasy one. In France, King Louis XIV begins consolidating his recent conquests. Parlements are established at Besançon and Brussels, Conseils souverains are established at Luxembourg and Tournai, and a string of well garrisoned forts are set up along the borders of the newly conquered Low Countries and Rhineland territories. In Strasbourg, the king also establishes a Conseil Souverain for Alsace, though he does not formally annex it to the kingdom of France as his other territories, instead maintaining the landgraviate as a personal imperial fief. It is the long-term goal of he and his ministers to use this new territory in the Empire to qualify the French king (and by extension, his descendants) for future imperial candidacy.

Further, internal reforms ensure that the Sun King’s own power is solidified to an even greater degree than that of his predecessors. The Declaration of the Clergy, issued in 1681, champions the cause of Gallicanism and grants many new liberties to the Church in France, not to mention a higher degree of independence from papal power to the ‘eldest daughter of the Church’. The aristocracy are also finally subdued, being domesticated and essentially forced to reside at the royal court at Versailles, mostly out of necessity and dependence on royal favor. The early years of the decade also see the implementation of the king’s final reforms concerning the regional parlements, particularly the Parlement of Paris, which finds itself stripped of its power of remonstrance; from this point onward, the court must first register all royal edicts issued by the king, and only afterwards offer its remonstrances as non-binding judicial advice.

The death of Queen Maria Theresa of Spain in 1683 essentially changes the makeup of court factions. The following year, King Louis secretly weds his mistress, Françoise d’Aubigné (b. 1635), Marquise de Maintenon. While the new, morganatic wife is given no official recognition, she soon manages to solidify her great influence over the king, her secret husband. The rise of Madame de Maintenon also ensures that the king begins to show increasing favor to his numerous royal bastards—formerly the charges of his new wife—and all having been legitimated by royal decree at this point, granting them official status directly after the princes of the blood; particular favoritism is shown to his sons by his former mistress the Marquise de Montespan, Louis-Auguste de Bourbon (b. 1670), duc du Maine, and his brother, Louis-Alexandre de Bourbon (b. 1678), Comte de Toulouse.

The French economy also prospers with the addition of the Low Countries, as they yield much in the way of taxation, increasing the royal treasury. Further, the addition of the Dutch colonial possessions in the West Indies and India allow for a rapid growth in trade, not only in France, but also in her other colonies in the Americas. This also serves to increase the wealth of the king, and ensure that royal coffers remain full. Further, the king’s great popularity with his people due to his many military successes, and thus the expansion of the realm and its foreign prestige and power, serve to ensure that even in periods of heavy taxation, there is little discontent at this time.

Thus, by the fall of 1685, France is now Europe’s most powerful state, with few to truly equal her as rivals.
 
War on the Turkish front, 1685-1688
The death of King Charles II at Whitehall Palace in London on February 6, 1685 ushers in the succession of his brother, the Catholic Prince James, Duke of York. As he lays dying, the fifty-four year old monarch is received into the Roman Catholic faith, in accordance with his last wishes and the promises he made to the French. The new King James II of England thus finds himself in a precarious position. Neither his religious beliefs nor the extensive prerogative of his position sit well with the more devout Protestant lords. Thus, the new king opts not to summon Parliament for as long as possible, relying instead on the profits from the colonies, and his pension from the French king, now renewed on account of King James’s own religious beliefs, in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Dover.

Meanwhile, determined to regain his wife’s possessions in Austria, Emperor Maximilian III begins preparations for a Hungarian campaign in early 1686. That same year, at the Emperor’s instigation, the Treaty of Innsbruck is signed, forming the ‘Holy League’ for the said purpose which consists of Elector Johann George III of Saxony and King Jan III Sobieski of Poland. The League likens itself to a modern crusade, and even receives the blessing of Pope Innocent XI in Rome. Initially, however, the League is unsuccessful, and King Michael I Apafi manages to thwart them from gaining the upper hand in Styria for the time being.

This trend is reversed in the spring of 1687, when the League manages to successfully occupy the whole of the duchy of Styria. This is secured by Emperor Maximilian and King Jan Sobieski, who together strike a master blow and route King Michael Apafi and his Turkish reinforcements at the Battle of Graz on June 30, 1687. While the League meets with some degree of success in Carniola that summer, unfavorable weather conditions the following winter in 1688, along with additional Turkish forces leant by Sultan Mehmed to the King of Hungary to maintain his position, all contribute to halting any advance east by the League, and forcing the Emperor and his allies to retreat back into Styria for at least the time being.

That same year, Elector Friedrich Wilhelm of Brandenburg dies at his capital in Berlin. He is succeeded by his son, the ambitious Elector Friedrich I (b. 1657).
 
Troubles in England, 1689-1694
Tragedy once again strikes the Habsburg line, when in October, 1689, Empress Maria Antonia dies six days after giving birth to a son, Joseph Ferdinand, at the Residenz Palace in Munich, aged only twenty. As the infant archduke is the only surviving child of the Empress (her two earlier sons having died hours after birth), he immediately inherits his mother’s Duchies of Styria and Carinthia, and the County of Tyrol (along with her claims to Austria and Carniola), becoming ‘Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria’. In accordance with the wishes of his mother, Emperor Maximilian III assumes the regency for his son, thus securing Wittelsbach control of the late Empress’s domains for at least another generation.

The following year, King Michael I Apafi of Hungary dies of old age at Pressburg. He is succeeded by his son, King Michael II Apafi, already having been elected as junior king by the Hungarian nobles in 1684. Unlike his father, the new king is much more independently minded, and does not wish to remain a vassal of the Turks for long. With his popularity in Hungary as it is, begins opening secret negotiations with the new Elector Friedrich I of Brandenburg, wishing to gain the prince’s support and friendship against the Turks, in exchange for a mutual anti-Wittelsbach policy. The two will sign a secret pact at Ostrava in 1693.

In London, at Whitehall Palace, Queen Mary of England, the wife of King James II, finally gives birth to a healthy son in 1688, christened James Francis Edward, Prince of Wales. While this is immensely unpopular with many in England, the discontent stops short of open rebellion. This is mainly due to the fact that there are still few who desire a repetition of the events of the Civil War nearly forty years ago, and also because the threat of French intervention is enough to keep the English aristocracy in check. By this point King Louis XIV has grown very accustom to the Anglo-French alliance, and is willing to use force to ensure that it continues indefinitely.

For his part, King James II declines to summon Parliament (having neglected to do so now for the duration of his reign), unwilling to deal with the repercussions of any unpopularity. This of course places the English Crown under increasing fiscal reliance on the profits of its colonies, levying customs and tariffs, and, most importantly, the good will of the French. The lack of any blatant despotism from the English king towards his people, and the generally benevolent tone of his policies also at least secure domestic tranquility for the time being.

This situation will be complicated in 1694, when the Princess Mary dies of smallpox, aged only thirty-two. As she and her husband the Danish Duke of Cumberland are childless, this essentially removes any Protestant factor in the succession—as both the husband and son of Princess Anne are Catholic. Their last hopes of an eventual Protestant succession dashed, a group of discontent nobles from the extreme Protestant faction at court, namely the earls of Danby and Devonshire, and the Bishop of London, all conspire to depose King James II and instead place Duke William of Holland (as a grandson of King Charles I through the female line) upon the throne. They gamble heavily on the religious element of the king’s policies, along with hopes of reviving memories of former ‘Stuart tyrants’.

By this time, however, Parliament has not been summoned for nearly twelve years, and King James II is firmly established on his throne. Further, while the conspirators manage to contact the Duke of Holland, before they can proceeded with the plot, the Duke of Norfolk, an ally of the king, manages to discover them and inform the king. With the lack of any organized center of discontent (i.e. a sitting Parliament), not to mention a strong monarch who enjoys foreign support abroad, the plot falls apart. The conspirators are arrested, including Danby and Devonshire who are found guilty by a panel of (mostly Catholic) peers and beheaded, while the Bishop of London is himself hanged at Tyburn.

Next, King James II turns his sights on the Duke of Holland, whom he immediately accuses of attempting to usurp his throne. While Duke William denies all involvement, the King of England does not trust him, and, in punishment, raises tariffs on Dutch merchants and increases his garrisons in Zeeland and those ports under English rule in Holland (including Rotterdam and the Hague).

In his efforts, King James is supported by King Louis XIV, who still sees Holland as a potential threat, due to its network of alliances with Brandenburg and Brunswick-Luneburg. Indeed, of all things, he sees the power of the northern protestant princes as dangerous, and something to be watched. It is in this that he is finally able to win over Emperor Maximilian III. While the Emperor has been wary of the growing power of France, he is nevertheless equally, if not more so, unsettled by the growth of Brandenburg, and its new alliances. While he is not as pro-French as his father, the Emperor realizes that the French do have their purpose, and that an alliance with King Louis could be of great use to him in securing dominance in Germany. Thus, by the secret Treaty of Strasbourg, the two monarchs pledge themselves to mutual defense in the event of a war against Brandenburg.
 
The Fall of the House of Habsburg, 1695-1700
The death of the Archduke Joseph Ferdinand of Austria in 1695, aged only six, from smallpox (now termed ‘the bane of royalty and peasantry alike’) causes a great deal of problems. Legally, the Wittelsbachs have essentially lost their control of the Habsburg lands in Austria. The closest heir to the lands (i.e. the duchies of Styria and Carinthia, the county of Tyrol, and the Swabian principalities) is now Archduchess Eleonora-Maria-Josepha (b. 1653), first cousin of the late Archduchess Maria Antonia and wife of Duke Charles V of Lorraine. Emperor Maximilian, however, also has a claim to the duchies through his grandmother, Archduchess Maria Anna (1610-1665), the daughter of Emperor Ferdinand II. Further, the Emperor is not prepared to part with the territories of his late wife and son, which he has grown comfortable with possessing, especially after all the efforts he has expended in recovering and defending them from the Turks.

While the French declare their support for his cause, pressure from the Reichstag (especially from the princes in the north), forces him to back down. In spring of 1696, Duke Charles V and his wife finally arrive at Innsbruck, where they are installed as archduke and archduchess of Austria.

Meanwhile, the inevitable collapse of the Spanish empire now looms large over Europe. With King Charles II of Spain being severely mentally handicapped and unable to produce an heir, and his health now slowly failing him, the problem of the Habsburg inheritance threatens war. With the death of Joseph Ferdinand, there is no longer an immediate Habsburg heir (as his mother was legal heiress). King Louis XIV immediately seizes his chance and presents the claims of his grandson, Philippe (b. 1683), Duc d’Anjou. The young prince is the second son of King Louis’s only legitimate child, the Dauphin, Louis (b. 1661), and thus considered a fair candidate (i.e. removed from the direct line of succession to the French throne).

Nevertheless, the choice meets with great opposition from the rest of Europe, as a Bourbon inheriting the whole of the Spanish state is far too much most to stomach—French power already being great enough as it is. Indeed, even King Louis’s allies are wary of any further increase to Bourbon power. However, the lack of any other viable candidates necessitates at least some form of agreement to be made on the matter. Thus, in late June, 1697, a conference is held secretly at Calais, with ambassadors from England, France, Bavaria, Lorraine, and Savoy being present, while Spain is noticeably absent, along with any of the Imperial princes of northern Germany, such as the Duke of Brunswick-Luneburg or the Electors of Saxony or Brandenburg.

After months of argument, the major powers finally manage to hammer out terms that all can agree upon: the Duc d’Anjou will receive Castile and the Spanish colonies; the Duc d’Anjou’s father, the Dauphin, in exchange for renouncing his own claims to Spain, will receive the duchy of Milan and the kingdoms of Aragon and Navarra, to be merged to the French Crown upon his succession; the Duke of Savoy, in recognition of his own claims (his great-grandmother having been a daughter of King Philip II), will receive Sicily; the Duke of Lorraine will get the kingdom of Naples and Sardinia, and in exchange, he promises to cede his Austrian lands back to Emperor Maximilian (the price of any Bavarian agreement to the treaty), while France will receive the duchies of Lorraine and Bar proper. The partition agreement, known forever after as the ‘Treaty of Calais’ is signed soon after in early 1698.

The royal government in Madrid immediately voices its protests at the treaty, calling it ‘an abomination and an attack on Spanish sovereignty’, with King Charles II refusing to agree to any of its terms, and insisting on naming his own successor. Indeed, the general reaction in Spain is that the Habsburg lands cannot be divided or partitioned, and must pass united to whomever the king decides upon in his will. The Elector of Brandenburg and his allies, are also furious, and threaten to declare war if the document is put into effect, as they by now fear an increase in Bavarian power in Germany.

For their part, the allies simply ignore the criticisms and protests, content with the agreement and their respective gains. By this point, Duke Victor Amadeus II of Savoy is willing to support the French, his daughter, Marie-Adélaïde (b. 1685) having wed her cousin, the Duke of Burgundy (eldest son of the Dauphin, b. 1682) the year before in 1697 to seal a mutual alliance between the two realms. Meanwhile, to further ensure unity in the face of conflict, King Louis XIV’s niece, Elisabeth-Charlotte d’Orléans (b. 1676) is wed to Emperor Maximilian III in late 1698.

In early 1700, aged only thirty-eight, the ruined King Charles II of Spain dies, after suffering years of mental and physical deformity. With this, the House of Habsburg is finally no more.
 
excellent timeline! consider me subscribed :cool:

though i've got to ask, what's with all the update reposts?
 
excellent timeline! consider me subscribed :cool:

though i've got to ask, what's with all the update reposts?

I edited the former piece and broke it into smaller, revised parts. Experience has taught me that smaller sections gain more readers :p

Also, as far as the objections over the lack of a Palatinate War of Succession, I see the large gains of France in the Low Countries as essentially butterflying away the conflict--after all, IMO, if Louis XIV was already successful in gaining the his wife's inheritance in the Spanish Netherlands, and busy consolidating his new lands, I think he would have less of a desire to advance the (tenuous) claims of his sister-in-law.
 
I edited the former piece and broke it into smaller, revised parts. Experience has taught me that smaller sections gain more readers :p

Also, as far as the objections over the lack of a Palatinate War of Succession, I see the large gains of France in the Low Countries as essentially butterflying away the conflict--after all, IMO, if Louis XIV was already successful in gaining the his wife's inheritance in the Spanish Netherlands, and busy consolidating his new lands, I think he would have less of a desire to advance the (tenuous) claims of his sister-in-law.

Ok, I think you are right, now that he has Southern Netherlands the Palatinate isn't so important (if you can keep Louis XIV not interested in conquering new territories :p).

I'm curious to see what will happen in England. It seems that a lot of trouble will come with a Catholic king and heir. BTW, what happened with the Edict of Nantes? Is it still revocated?
 
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