The Castilians began the campaign by marching east. Once again, as they had in the war with Portugal, the speed with which the Castilian knights took to the field provided them a key strategic advantage. Over the course of the first eighteen months of the war, there was a litany of victorious sieges; Zaragosa, Huesca, Valencia and Alicante were each taken. Despite numerous attempt to progress further, King Henry found himself using ever greater numbers of troops attempting to maintain order and suppress rebellion in the newly-occupied territories.
As the numbers became stretched, King Henry increased taxes on his people and drove large numbers of men into servitude, having a devastating affect on his economy. The effect was worsened when, in 1412, the Portuguese army moved into Andalusia, headed up by their King consort, Louis of Orleans. In a vicious battle outside Seville, a ragtag group of new Castilian conscripts was annihilated and a long siege of the city began. In the north, King Richard II of England landed in Cantabria with a force of twelve thousand, laying hold of the city of Santander, and deploying small forces to harass Galicia and Asturias.
In 1413, confident French troops crossed the Pyrenees into Catalunya. Having failed to prevent English landings, the French regent, John the Fearless decided to relieve the threat to Castile in the east. By cutting off Barcelona, John expected to be able to end supply to the forces harassing Castile and force James of Urgell to surrender his claim. Any French expectations were shattered when a well-aimed arrow terminated the earthly existence of their Regent on 11 November. His son, Philip the Good, was much less committed to the interests of the main Valois line and, while maintaining a naval blockade of Aragonese harbours, failed to contribute significantly to the war thereafter. A greater contribution was made by Ladislas of Naples and the Doge of Genoa, Tomaso di Campofregoso, who occupied the outlying portions of the Kingdom of Aragon. When the Pope complained, Ladislas occupied Rome and made off with a treasury of ducats before the aging Benedict XIII agreed to recognise his claim. By the end of the war, Genoan troops had occupied Corsica and Naples had swallowed most of Aragon's peninsular holding in Italy.
By mid-1414, recognising the threat to his reign from the combined forces of England and Portugal, King Henry was much more open to compromise with the Count of Urgell. Meeting in Valencia on 13 April, 1414, they reached an agreement that ended the eastern theatre of war. Both sides would agree to a truce under the current order would be perpetuated; in effect, a partition of the Kingdom of Aragon took place. James became the first Duke of Catalunya, while the throne of Aragon (minus its Sicilian possessions) would pass to Alfonso, the brother of King Henry. James' eldest daughter, the seven-year-old Isabel, was betrothed to the new king, even though he was nineteen years her senior, and the Duke's newborn son, Philip, would wed the six-year-old Infanta Maria of Castile.
The Treaty of Valencia enable King Henry to effectively respond to Portugal and England. Battles were engaged across the south, relieving the sieges of Corboda and Cadiz. Outside Cadiz, Henry engaged directly with the Portugese consort, with the battle resulting in the death of the latter in October, 1414. Queen Beatrice of Portugal persisted with her claims until mid-1415, by which time the English king believed her cause futile as Castilian troops rampaged through her southern lands. He convinced her to withdraw her claim in return for both receiving suitable reparations after Henry, Duke of Hereford (son of John of Gaunt and Castilian claimant) passed away.
Effects of the War
The failure of France in the early days of the war convinced King Henry that his key ally was no longer particularly useful. Most of the key figures who had overseen the founding of the relationship were long departed and thus the personal basis for the alliance had significantly dissipated. Over the years remaining to Henry of Castile, relations with France were cooled and cooperation was kept to a minimum.
Portugal had suffered heavy damage to her north during its succession war and now much of her south have been ravaged. At the end of the conflict, Queen Beatrice had a state that was financially unstable and a crown whose reputation was much diminished by the mismanagement of her unbalanced and ambitious husband. Her own nobility rose against her, and her forced purchase of their loyalty negated any benefit which may have been achieved from the reparations achieved in the peace deal with Castile. Queen Beatrice passed away in 1417, leaving the throne to her son, King John I.
The intermarriages created by the Treaty of Valencia ensured, despite the intentions of its authors, that the Crown of Aragon would be reunified under the Trastamara after the twenty years of the so-called "Urgell Interregnum".
As the numbers became stretched, King Henry increased taxes on his people and drove large numbers of men into servitude, having a devastating affect on his economy. The effect was worsened when, in 1412, the Portuguese army moved into Andalusia, headed up by their King consort, Louis of Orleans. In a vicious battle outside Seville, a ragtag group of new Castilian conscripts was annihilated and a long siege of the city began. In the north, King Richard II of England landed in Cantabria with a force of twelve thousand, laying hold of the city of Santander, and deploying small forces to harass Galicia and Asturias.
In 1413, confident French troops crossed the Pyrenees into Catalunya. Having failed to prevent English landings, the French regent, John the Fearless decided to relieve the threat to Castile in the east. By cutting off Barcelona, John expected to be able to end supply to the forces harassing Castile and force James of Urgell to surrender his claim. Any French expectations were shattered when a well-aimed arrow terminated the earthly existence of their Regent on 11 November. His son, Philip the Good, was much less committed to the interests of the main Valois line and, while maintaining a naval blockade of Aragonese harbours, failed to contribute significantly to the war thereafter. A greater contribution was made by Ladislas of Naples and the Doge of Genoa, Tomaso di Campofregoso, who occupied the outlying portions of the Kingdom of Aragon. When the Pope complained, Ladislas occupied Rome and made off with a treasury of ducats before the aging Benedict XIII agreed to recognise his claim. By the end of the war, Genoan troops had occupied Corsica and Naples had swallowed most of Aragon's peninsular holding in Italy.
By mid-1414, recognising the threat to his reign from the combined forces of England and Portugal, King Henry was much more open to compromise with the Count of Urgell. Meeting in Valencia on 13 April, 1414, they reached an agreement that ended the eastern theatre of war. Both sides would agree to a truce under the current order would be perpetuated; in effect, a partition of the Kingdom of Aragon took place. James became the first Duke of Catalunya, while the throne of Aragon (minus its Sicilian possessions) would pass to Alfonso, the brother of King Henry. James' eldest daughter, the seven-year-old Isabel, was betrothed to the new king, even though he was nineteen years her senior, and the Duke's newborn son, Philip, would wed the six-year-old Infanta Maria of Castile.
The Treaty of Valencia enable King Henry to effectively respond to Portugal and England. Battles were engaged across the south, relieving the sieges of Corboda and Cadiz. Outside Cadiz, Henry engaged directly with the Portugese consort, with the battle resulting in the death of the latter in October, 1414. Queen Beatrice of Portugal persisted with her claims until mid-1415, by which time the English king believed her cause futile as Castilian troops rampaged through her southern lands. He convinced her to withdraw her claim in return for both receiving suitable reparations after Henry, Duke of Hereford (son of John of Gaunt and Castilian claimant) passed away.
Effects of the War
The failure of France in the early days of the war convinced King Henry that his key ally was no longer particularly useful. Most of the key figures who had overseen the founding of the relationship were long departed and thus the personal basis for the alliance had significantly dissipated. Over the years remaining to Henry of Castile, relations with France were cooled and cooperation was kept to a minimum.
Portugal had suffered heavy damage to her north during its succession war and now much of her south have been ravaged. At the end of the conflict, Queen Beatrice had a state that was financially unstable and a crown whose reputation was much diminished by the mismanagement of her unbalanced and ambitious husband. Her own nobility rose against her, and her forced purchase of their loyalty negated any benefit which may have been achieved from the reparations achieved in the peace deal with Castile. Queen Beatrice passed away in 1417, leaving the throne to her son, King John I.
The intermarriages created by the Treaty of Valencia ensured, despite the intentions of its authors, that the Crown of Aragon would be reunified under the Trastamara after the twenty years of the so-called "Urgell Interregnum".
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