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The 18th century, the second golden age of the Dutch Republic.

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The second age of true freedom, as the Republicans called it, began, after hindsight with the Peace of Utrecht at the summer of 1711.

In 1708 Louis XIV sought serious peace but, even after he offered very reasonable terms in May that year, the Allies refused and came with more demands.
The campaign season started late in 1709 and for the front in the Spanish Netherlands, and it was a difficult campaign. It cumulated in the unexpected long siege of Tournai which finally fell after a siege of 70 days. Since it was late in the year Marlborough, the commander of the Allied troops in the North and Prince Eugene hesitated between besieging Ypres in the marshy West or Mons in the higher and dryer East.
They, reluctant turned West and laid siege of Ypres. Villars, the very competent commander of the French forces, now get the order of his king to prevent another successful siege. Despite a well-chosen, defensive position, Marlborough and Eugene, reacted faster than anticipated and advanced with a large portion of their troops to the French positions. The Battle of Meesen was a crushing defeat for the French in which Villars was killed and Boffleurs, seriously wounded. The turning point was a bold, but bloody third attack of the Dutch Blue guard on the French right under command of the young and eager John William Friso, son of Henry Casimir II stadholder of Frisia and Groningen. At the same moment the French centre was under high pressure. When the French cavalry repulsed, the French lines broke and were forced to retreat. The French retreat turned in a root, in which the Allied cavalry destroyed French last hope of a favourable negotiating position. Later Marlborough gave the young John William Frisso and the Dutch troops much credit of their attacks and enveloping of the entrenched French right flank.

Earlier in 1710 when the peace negotiations led to nothing, William III had quickly allied the new Emperor Charles VI and convinced him with other terms, which roughly included the return of boundaries of the Spanish Netherlands before 1652 minus Gelre, Limbourg and the cities around the river Yser, Dunkirk, Gravelines, Broekburg and Yper who would go to the Dutch Republic. Even he was still more interested in Bavaria he accepted this new war aim.
William III was persuaded by his cousin Hendrik Casimir II van Nassau-Dietz, to enlarge the territory of the Republic in order to with stand future wars with France or any other opponent. William in turn convinced state pensioner Anthonie Hensius, head of state of the United Provinces [1] of the necessity to enlarge the Republic even this could diminish the influence and power of Holland and Amsterdam.
William III and his cousin Hendrik Casimir II van Nassau-Dietz [2], were on speaking terms after a reconciliation meeting in march 1702 at Kensington Palace.

William III and Hensius realized that the war, which lasted now almost 8 year, should come to an end, and now the positions of the Allies were better than ever, this very favourable position could not last longer, only decline.
Without informing English Parliament and the Dutch States General and the other Allies, only informing them after the overture, they offered the French the terms for peace, which were now not only a string of Barrier Cities and favourable trade agreements but contained also territory.
To add more pressure to Louis XIV, Graveline was taken by a coup de main in the during the winter at the end of 1709. And even peace negotiations were on-going, the campaign of 1710 was fought on French soil. France denied of an experienced army and commanders suffered a defeat with the capture of Douai. The allies were now free to march on Arras, a key-point of the third and final French line of fortifications (the 'ne plus ultra lines'). Arriving at this line they found an about equally sized French army). In a bold attack the Allies capture breach this lines and opened the Siege of Arras 30 September which fell 1st of November.

Louis XIV, confronted with a terrible financial state, famine due to failed harvests of the last two years, and enemy troops foraging (looting) the North of France, and an army which was by now soundly defeated, was willing to accept almost everything, even terms which would harm the Spanish.
When the Whigs agreed to come to terms with their king William III, the Peace of Utrecht became not only favourable for the Dutch but for the English as well and for the Whigs in particular since they won the next elections which they probably would lose if they pressed to continue the war.




The treaty comprised the following[3]:
By the treaties' provisions, Louis XIV's grandson Philip, Duke of Anjou was recognized as King of Spain (as Philip V), thus confirming the succession as stipulated in the will of the late King Charles II. However, Philip was compelled to renounce for himself and his descendants any right to the French throne, despite some doubts as to the lawfulness of such an act. In similar fashion various French princelings, including most notably the Duke of Berry (Louis XIV's youngest grandson) and the Duke of Orléans (Louis's nephew), renounced for themselves and their descendants any claim to the Spanish throne.

Spain's European empire was also divided: Savoy received Sicily and parts of the Duchy of Milan, while Charles VI ( who become the Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria the next year), received the Spanish Netherlands including the part of Flanders and the county of Arras which was conquered by France in the previous century, the Kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, and the bulk of the Duchy of Milan. Portugal had its sovereignty recognised over the lands between the Amazon and Oyapock rivers, in Brazil. In 1715, the Portuguese also recovered Colonia del Sacramento, taken by Spain in Uruguay.

In addition, Spain ceded Gibraltar and Minorca to Great Britain and agreed to give to the British the Asiento, a valuable monopoly slave-trading contract. In North America, France ceded to Great Britain its claims to the Hudson's Bay Company territories in Rupert's Land, Newfoundland and Acadia. The formerly partitioned island of Saint Kitts was also ceded in its entirety to Britain. France was required to recognize British suzerainty over the Iroquois and commerce with the Far Indians was to be open to traders of all nations. France retained its other pre-war North American possessions, including Île-Saint-Jean (now Prince Edward Island) as well as Île Royale (now Cape Breton Island), on which it erected the Fortress of Louisbourg.

Spain ceded the salt fields of the peninsula Punta de Araya, the land around Cumaná and the islands Margarita and Trinidad to the Dutch Republic and France ceded the plantation island Tobago to the Dutch, which the Dutch WIC conquered some years before.
Further the Dutch received next to the Barrier cities in the former Spanish Netherlands as it demanded, the whole county of Limburg and the Fortress cities of Dunkirk and Gravelines and Broekburg and their surroundings.
The earlier to Prussia promised former Spanish Gelre was ceded completely to the Dutch Republic as well. The last was an agreement made in secret by William III and Emperor Charles VI, since the elector of Brandenburg was awarded already considerably with the title King in Prussia, as it was regarded by the Emperor.

William III died unfortunately two years after the peace was signed after lengthy period of illness. During his last days he clearly made his will that his cousin Hendrik Casimir II, would succeed him in all his tittles and lands. Never the less an argument raised who should inherit the title of the Prince of Orange which was now contested by the King of Prussia and Louis XIV and the possessions of Lingen were also contested by the King in Prussia
The death of William III without a legit heir made abruptly an end of the personal union between the Dutch Republic and England and Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht, Gelre and Overijsel did not want another Stadholder.

This result of the war gave Hensius a huge increase of his already large prestige [4]. He needed this prestige since it was clear something had to change with the structure of the confederation which the United Provinces were. This war and the previous nine years war made the state debt enormous and it was clear that with the current amalgam of tax systems in each Province the income of the state would be not enough to meet even the interested.
The Treasurer of the Republic, Simon van Slingelandt, was well aware of this and noted his view and ideas of reforming the tax collection and later the structure of how the Republic should be ruled.

The opportunity to start with this reforms presented itself when the States of the Province Overijsel asked for a big meeting of all the States of the republic. Key point, for Overijsel, was to reform the constitution of the Republic who was de facto a very loose Confederation and to achieve more influence in state affairs form the other Provinces only than Holland [5].
It was soon called the Second Big Meeting, since it was considered as important of the meeting of 1651.
Simon van Slingelandt backed by Hensius, took the opportunity to present his ideas for reforms. The proposals of van Slinglandt comprised a reform of collecting taxes, an increase of the influence of a central government and a drastic decrease of power of the individual States. The Counsel of States would evolve in the central, real, government, and would be controlled by the State General. Most important would be that the members of both institutions had to operate without counselling their own states. This practice was time consuming, confusing and very often used as method of delay.
It was due to the political skill of Hensius that several fundamental proposals by van Slingelandt were accepted. Other proposals like a central State army, one Admiralty materialized, during the following years as well.

The following years Hensius intermediate as well between Hendrik Casimir II and the King in Prussia over the will of late William III, most important issues were the claim of the title Prince of Orange, the county of Lingen and the distributing of other possession and debts. In 1717 an agreement was made, Hendrik Casimir II would keep Lingen. The title Prince of Orange was less satisfying the title was divided between Hendrik Casimir II, the Prussian King and Louis XIV.
The debt and payment was an secret arrangement between the State Pensioner and Prince Hendrik Casimir II, in which the county of Lingen will be part of the Republic when payments by Hendrik Casimir or his heirs were not fulfilled.

In 1715 Hensius could persuade the State General to buy the County of Julich from the Elector of the Palatinate in order to reduce his enormous debts. The deal started a crises after the death of the Elector in 1716, which involved the Emperor at the end as well since the late Elector forgot to inform his heirs of the deal. Furthermore the State General did not find it necessary to continue with the payment of the agreed sum to the new Elector of the Palatinate. With this land purchase the Republic was at once more enlarged. Reasons were two fold, it would create a larger buffer zone for the South East, connecting Limburg and Upper Gelre with the rest of the United Provinces and second it would increase the number of tax payers. Since the majority of the inhabitants was Catholic Holland only agreed if Julich or Gullik as it was also known became a Generality land. This meant it was governed by the Counsel of States without representation by the County itself. [6]

1717 Reform of all Provincial debt and tax incomes which would now be controlled by the Council of States. The tax scheme would be unified and the Provinces receiving an annual budget for their expenses and expected need. This now national debt would be controlled by the Bank of Amsterdam which would be transformed into the Bank of the United Provinces.

1720 Anhonie Hensius died and is succeeded by Simon van Slingelandt.[7]
Van Slingelandt used his power and influence to serious reduce the debt of the Republic and get the finances of the Republic on order. He further continued with the reform of the Republic and tried to incorporate more of his ideas. As part of his ideas was to come to a single currency and tax reforms. The changes made after the big meeting laid a sound fundament but more reforms were needed. If nothing changed the Republic would become the poorest state with the wheal ties citizen of Europe.
One his minor accomplishments were the purchase of the Fief Vianen, Vrije Heerlijkheid Vianen ,of the family Von Lippe for 898.000 guilders. The small city state was up till then a refuge place for crooks and bankrupts.
1723 After lengthy debate the United Provinces agreed on one single currency, the Guilder.

The burden of a standing army the Dutch could not keep, since the size of standing armies now were closer to 100.000 men rather than to 50.000 men. Also many cities and Provinces were wary to have the command of the State army with the Stadholder. There for they rather saw a return of the “waargelders”. This city militias did return however in another form which were called exercise clubs. In order to make this various militia clubs in one army the Counsel of States accepted the bill of conscription. The standing army was fixed on 30.000 men under command of the Stadholder, but the bulk would be formed by conscripted men in time of crises and war. The system was loosely based on the Swedish and Prussian system of cantons and in 1730 should raise an army of 80.000 conscripted men.

1728 Tax reform, introduction of the progressive income tax, after initial problems and a resistance, it increased the revenues of the Dutch Republic considerable, and combined with a decent financial regime reduced the still large debt.


Simon van Slingelandt, State Pensioner since 1720, continued to strengthen and enlarging the functions, of the Counsel of States, and reforming and improving the financial state of the Republic. His foreign policy was determined to be allied with the British. The Dutch fleet, now centralized under one Admiralty and since then steadily reformed and improved, was still the second of the British fleet, and in order to safe guard trade, and thus income, an alliance with the British was the own solution for survival of the Republic. On the other hand he and some others realised the core of the Dutch Republic, Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht And Gelre and Overijsel need better protection from invading forces. This was also, in the end, recognized by his predecessor Hensius and William III.

To the South the situation was relatively secured, at the moment, with the Barrier cities and forts in the Austrian Netherlands and the cities of Dunkirk , Gravelines and Broekburg with new defences, under direct control of the Counsel of States. Dunkirk almost eclipsed the naval port of Helevoetsluis in naval infrastructure.

To the East there were more possibilities. The county of Gulik was already purchased and in 1725 the Count of Bentheim, Louis Francis, came to an agreement with the Counsel of States, which tied the County to the United Provinces further. Due to the first of many loans from the Republic to the Count were the County would come under direct Dutch rule if the loans could not returned back.

Another opportunity for increase in territory came in 1727 with the annexation of East Frisia, making the United Seven Provinces to the United Eight Provinces. Earlier that year Dutch forces, they were garrisoned in many towns since decades, intervened in the ‘Appellkrieg’[8] in favour of the Frisian Parliament, the Ostfreesk Landschaft.
The violent conflict was a struggle of authority between the Frisian Estates and the Prince, Enno Rudolph Brenneysen. The Prince wanted to increase his power at the expense of the Estates. Initially the Princely party was successful but when the Dutch intervened at the request of the East Frisian Estates, with support of the Emperor the Estates party won. John William Friso commanded the Dutch troops and played an important role to persuade the East Frisian Estates to join the Dutch Republic and to manipulate the Estate General to accept this request. In order to end the ever returning power conflict the Estates of East Frisian requested to join the Dutch Republic. This was granted and in 1728 East Frisian representatives were welcomed under loud applaud when they entered the Court of Holland in the Hague to take part in the meeting of the Estates General.

[1] Anthonie Hensius, head of state of the United Provinces Anthonie Heinsius - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[2] William III William III of England - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia and his cousin Hendrik Casimir II van Nassau Hendrik Casimir II van Nassau-Dietz - Wikipedia died respectively in 1702 and 1697. Hendrik Casimir died most likely due to a trauma from an accident during the Battle of… I let him fal of his horse but just with a broken arm. He lives longer and meet his cousin at a time he should take a flew after an horse riding accident.
[3] Peace treaty of Utrecht most of it as in OTL(1713) except Prussia does not get Spanish Gelre and the Dutch Republic is granted with considerable territory and sugar flint colonies in the Caribbean.
[4] In real the United Provinces were the big loser of the war and the result made Hensius a broken man
[5]Big meeting happened in ral only a decade later without any result, contributing to the decline of the Dutch Republic
[6] Johan Wilhelm Elector of the Palatinate enjoyed an lavish life and as a real aristocrat did not bother how to pay his way of life. Selling of large real estates did occur Johann Wilhelm, Elector Palatine - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
[7] Simon Van Slingelandt was chosen as Grand Pensioner only in 1736 and only after he promised not to reform the state.
[8] Appelkrieg, apple war, war between the land lord of East Frisia and the Frisian Estates ( Patricians) Appeal War - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia



Overseas possessions and the nucleus of true colonialism and empire.

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Already in the first decade of the 18th century the West Indian Company erected other companies or Societies as the called in which the WIC participated with shares. The Society of Suriname was one the first with this kind of constructions. This was so far successful that the WIC started more of this Societies in which it participated with a various participation of shares. Due to the increase of their possession in the West Indies and the lack of capital to develop this new possession it increased this practice, not only for existing plantations but soon also for new enterprises. Within two decades the WIC had transformed itself into a holding company but with the responsibility of ensuring the defence and security of this companies.
In 1723 the WIC and the Counsel of States came to an agreement that in return of various taxes and tariffs the defence and part of the governing administration would be taken over by the United Provinces. This made most of the WIC possession in South America real colonies, directly ruled form the Netherlands and not any more the possession of a private enterprise. In this way the WIC was relieved of the cost of garrisoning their forts.

The WIC transformed to a trading company which need to compete with ever increasing trading companies. It remained one of the few trading companies who trade in slaves. Other companies emerged, with their own, plantation, colonies, among the South American rivers, like the Society Suriname, Company Berbice, Orinoco Enterprise, Essequibo, Araya company and many Plantations on the Islands of Tobago, Trinidad, Curacao and other smaller Caribbean islands.

The conquest of Ceylon by the VOC
The complete rule over Ceylon by the Dutch was mainly the act of Baron Gustaaf Wilhelm. Van Imhoff was born into an East Frisian aristocratic family. His father, Wilhelm Heinrich Freiherr von Imhoff, came from the town of Leer in north-western Germany, a few kilometers from the Dutch border.
Van Imhoff's tenure as governor of Ceylon put an end to the chaos that had pervaded the previous administration. He established constructive relations with the king of Kandy, Vira Narendra Sinha.

King Narendra was married to a Tamil princess of Madurai (Tamil Nadu, India), and their child, Sri Vijaya Rajasinha who succeeded him after Narendra's death on May 24, 1739, was seen to be more Tamil than Sinhalese (the majority ethnic group in Ceylon). Imhoff was concerned about this succession because closer contact between the Tamils of Ceylon, under Sri Vijaya Rajasinha, and the Tamils of south India might endanger the Dutch East India Company's commercial monopoly. In his letters, Van Imhoff expressed his surprise that the Sinhalese people had accepted such a king, considering their haughty attitude towards the Tamils of India. However, Van Imhoff saw an interesting opportunity in this turn of events. He proposed to the Lords Seventeen (Heeren XVII, the directors of the VOC) that the kingdom of Ceylon be divided in two, Even this could led to a war they saw the opportunity to control the whole island. It turned out to be a costly war which lasted until 1743 but it was worth the investment.

En route to Amsterdam to explain in person his plan for the conquest of Ceylon and to ask for more troops, Imhoff visited the Dutch colony in Cape Town. In the Cape Colony, where he discovered that the citizens were penetrating farther and farther into the interior and were losing contact with the VOC. Imhoff proposed to improve education and the work of the Protestant Church in the colony.

During his visit he outlined his plan to increase productivity and profit, by inviting entrepreneurs to set up plantations who should produce tea, coffee, tabaco, sugar and other export goods. Although they rejected Imhoff introduced the plan several years later, and this time, in order to get their money lost during the wars agreed. Imhoff succeeded in attracting entrepreneurs who were willing the start plantations on Ceylon. The plantations were participations in which the VOC had a minority interest.

The whole scheme turned out to be extremely profitable for all parties and turned Ceylon in the most valuable asset of the VOC.
In 1746 Imhoff returned to Amsterdam to take seat in the counsel of XVII.

It was Imhoff who was the driving factor in reforming the VOC and to reduce the cost of maintaining and guarding overseas possessions.
Due to his efforts the VOC was willing to cede the rule of the Cape colony to the Dutch Republic. In 1748 a governor was appointed now by the Council of States. One of the first request of this new governor was to send missionary in order to improve the many rooming people at the fringes of the colony education and the work of the Protestant Church.
To increase the population of the colony a fund was created to fund the journey of colonist which could not afford the voyage and it was decided that paupers, pity thief’s, prostitutes would be forced to the Cape.
The Cape, now also a real colony, was open for all other entrepreneurs and within a few years a private enterprise purchased land from the Xhosa nearby the bay were the VOC bought land in 1689, and erected the colony Stavenisse.
Another enterprise was the re-establishment of Fort Leijdzaamheid on Delagoa bay only now more closer to the river mouth in order to secure fresh water. This fort was a short lived enterprise by the VOC who abandon it in 1724.

Since the Cape was now under direct control of the Estates General, the restricting rules and regulations imposed by the VOC were relieved. The effect was visible within a few year, trade increased, living standard improved, and the influx of immigrants increased, not shocking much but never the less a significant improvement. The Counsel of States helped as well by forced immigration as an crime penalty to the Cape, several places on the outer fringes of the colony were designated as colonies for these forced immigrants among them the barren trade fort Leijdzaamheid on the Delagoa bay.
In 1752, one hundred years after the founding of the Cape colony Cape town was granted city rights and the whole colony was granted to be ruled by a counsel.
For the VOC it turned out to be a profitable deal, they still had a refreshing station and due to increased supply the supplying of the ships became cheaper. A similar agreement was made with the trade forts of Ceylon, though in this deal the Estate General turned out to be mere a participant in the enterprise.
In 1734 a Dutch trading company virtually took the Mpinda trading post, at the river Congo, over from the Portuguese.

In 1736 Van Slingelandt died, leaving the Dutch Republic with a strong basis for a more Federal central government with a sound financial base, a State ruled navy and army with a good reputation.
During the reign of Van Slingelandt the tax burden of the population of the United Province was considerably reduced, due to improvement of the progressive income tax and other taxations, but most of all due to the dismantling of the system of tax collectors. Tax collectors leased the assignment of collecting the taxes for the governments, not surprising they increased their own wealth. Due to financial problems of the VOC and WIC the monopoly positions of these enterprises reduced or for the WIC disappeared completely, giving other trade and shipping companies opportunity to start enterprises.
The 2nd WIC ceded mostly all of their possessions and forts to the Dutch Republic which in return for various taxes provided garrisons for the fortresses which turned private owned trade post and plantation colonies in true colonies under the responsibility of the government in the Netherlands.
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