Still, even in OTL, with the Protestant-Catholic west considering the Orthodox east a backwater, all nations in Europe still saw Islamic forces (the Andalusians, the Ottomans, etc) as threats. The fact that there were so many diverse and varied religions in the OTL Mongol Empire, with the ruling khans not enforcing their Tengrist practices, was one of the reasons for its dissolution. An upper class closely tied to a universalizing religion could possibly mean stricter law codes and a call for greater unity.
Collaborative timeline: Dunes of the Desert, a Timeline without Islam
- Thread starter Tomislav Addai
- Start date
Well, I know that it's still WAY too early to make any reasonable estimates, but I'm still curious if some equivalent of Protestantism or a reformation of some kind will pop up down the line? Given the existence of various gnostic faiths in both OTL and TTL and how they had at least some influence on the later Protestant branches in the early modern era, theologically or otherwise. Then there's the factor of how powerful the catholic church is in this timeline, in ours, its power fluctuated throughout the 1000 years following Italy's fall. So I suppose it has to be seen in the next coming centuries if religious strife within western Europe will outweigh conflict with the east and south.
I am inclined to think that in a world without islam, you have more energy to have theological arguments (see Byzantium). On the other hand, the Church as well will most likely be more powerful, so should there be any tensions, the resulting conflict is likely to be of a higher intensity
Chapter 94: Roshblani Manicheism in Multan
The Indian Subcontinent was shielded by the Himalayas and other natural barriers from the Naiman invasions. Moreover, the Subcontinent itself was culturally and more importantly, climatically distinct, which was also one of the reasons why the Naimans did not invade the area.
Similarly to what was happening elsewhere in Eurasian, the Indian Subcontinet itself saw also some political consolidation. This has not resulted in the full unification of the entire Subcontinent, but powerful regional empires did emerge.
Political map of India
Especially powerful was the Shahdom of Hind, the political heirs of the Mandeshi dynasty, who have established their grip over the Indo-Gangetic plain. The concentration of such power saw a renewal in India´s urban civilization. [1] Previously, the centre of power had been Pataliputra in the lower half of the Gangetic plains, however the Mandeshis have shifted the capital to the Upper Ganges, not far from the Indus valley either. Until now, India was experiencing medieval period very similarly to Europe, with the local power residing in the hands of the military aristocracy; such conditions have been favourable to Hinduism; however under the Shahdom of Hind, which has united much of northern India, power again came to be concentrated and cities attract more and more people from the countryside. Buddhism has become the religion of the city-folk, as well as the religion of the military elites. While a considerable number of the nobility could trace their descent from Mandesh and Zabulistan and other regions of the eastern Iranian plateau, they have adopted the Indian culture relatively fast, leaving few traces of their Persianate heritage[2]. While the Iranian languages of the conquerors did leave behind them some linguistic heritage, the few Pakhtun loanwords were mostly related to military terminology.
The conquerors relied on the light cavalry, which held the empire together, greatly reducing the number of polities and autonomous rulers which had existed in the place before. Effective and centralized administration has allowed the maintenance of monasteries, and Buddhism was again gaining ground in the Ganges valley at the expense of Hinduism. In the rural areas and backwaters, of course the population remained largely unaffected and continued to practice a form of folk devoutness, which can be labelled as Hinduism.
However, in the west, in the region of Multan, it remained Manicheism, which was the popular religion.
The Manichean faith, as it has established a foothold in Multan, it adapted to the local customs, as the Manicheans have been doing anywhere they went. Contact with Samarqand, the seat of the Denawar denomination in Central Asia has weakened; and in the region known to Greeks as Pentapotamia or Pantzab, a new denomination called Roshblani[3]. The Roshblani sect of Manichaeism has incorporated a number of elements from Hindu and Buddhist practices[4]. The original Gnostic nature of the faith appears to be rediscovered, as the Manichean religion has entered the caste-based society of the Subcontinent. Some early Manichean texts have never made into Pantzab, and as a result the Roshblani denomination has partially diverged from the remaining Manichean denominations[5], although Mazouni merchants travelling the Indus River upstream did recognize the religion as Manichean.
Religion in India. Notice the Roshblani Mancheism in Pantzab
As for the writing systems used in India, we may mention a handful of them. The scripts employed in the Indian subcontinent are descendants of Brahmic, which itself descended from Aramaic. The Brahmic script was later adapted to the individual languages of India, and by the 12th century there are numerous abugidas. Firstly there was the Gupta script, from which the Sharadi[6] script of northern India and Kashmir descended, itself being the ancestor of the Landa script used in the region of Punjab. In the east, in the Brahmaputra and Lower Ganges, the Siddham script developed[7]. Most of northern India would be writing in the Nagari script, however.
Writing systems used in India
The western coast of India was in close contact with Mazoun and Arabia, and trade existed between the Konkani and Malabar Coasts and southern Arabia, resulting in the development of a stronger, more confident merchant class, perhaps a small bourgeoisie in the western coast, where cultures and religions met. While caste distinctions remained in this region as well, they were not as pronounced as in the rest of the Subcontinent.
The northeastern edges of the Deccan Plateau have remained still largely tribal; the Tamil regions in the south of the Subcontinent were the second centre of civilization in India, still maintaining ties to Southeast Asia. In fact, the Tamil regions continued to extend a degree of influence across the *Bay of Bengal*.
With Buddhism rooted in the Gangetic plain, the Indian Subcontinent remains the heart of the Buddhist world, maintaining ties with Tibet and the Khmer regions and Nusantara, as well as the highland regions of the eastern Iranian plateau, being part of the Greater Indosphere.
[1] Buddhism will remain the religion of this urban elite of the Gangetic state. Unlike islam in OTL, Buddhism is not going to be perceived as foreign to the same degree as was islam considered in OTL. Moreover, there will be a considerably higher number of native Indian converts to Buddhism again.
[2] Without islam as the religion of the conquerors, it is much more likely that they would adapt to Indian customs, as the Indian civilization appears to be way more civilized that the highlands of Afghanistan. Of course, some cultural aspects from Afghanistan will be introduced, but not that many as in OTL.
href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title="">style='mso-special-character:footnote'>class=MsoFootnoteReference>font-family:"Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:
SK;mso-fareast-language:SK;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[3] style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-ascii-theme-font:major-bidi;
mso-hansi-theme-font:major-bidi;mso-bidi-theme-font:major-bidi'>From the Punjabi „Rōśanī bhālaṇa vālē“, meaning light-seekers.
[4] Interestingly enough, the Roshblani are located in the same geographic area as the Sikhs would emerge a few centuries later in OTL. I can imagine this Manichean group to survive in the long-term. You may also consider the fact that as Sikhism was actually intentionally created as a syncretic religion, combining the elements of Islam and Hinduism; Manicheism could also be considered a syncretic religion accpeting the authority of Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
[5] I was going to write „mainstream Manicheism“, but I realized there remains no such thing. Out of the original three denominations „Msadeqi of Middle East, Denawar of Central Asia and Toxoxian of the Uyghurs, only Denwar remains vibrant. Remaining Msadeqi communities of the Gulf have merged with the Mazdakis of Oman, and have diverged significantly as well (and as the Mazdakis are sometimes corrupted to Msadeqi, the confusion has grown. Anyhow, Mazdaki remains the sole Manichean denomination in the Gulf region). And lastly, the Toxoxian faith has submerged into Buddhism.
[6] Used in Kashmir. Today, mostly displaced by Perso-Arabic script.
[7] Used in modern day to write Assamese and Bengali
Similarly to what was happening elsewhere in Eurasian, the Indian Subcontinet itself saw also some political consolidation. This has not resulted in the full unification of the entire Subcontinent, but powerful regional empires did emerge.
Political map of India
Especially powerful was the Shahdom of Hind, the political heirs of the Mandeshi dynasty, who have established their grip over the Indo-Gangetic plain. The concentration of such power saw a renewal in India´s urban civilization. [1] Previously, the centre of power had been Pataliputra in the lower half of the Gangetic plains, however the Mandeshis have shifted the capital to the Upper Ganges, not far from the Indus valley either. Until now, India was experiencing medieval period very similarly to Europe, with the local power residing in the hands of the military aristocracy; such conditions have been favourable to Hinduism; however under the Shahdom of Hind, which has united much of northern India, power again came to be concentrated and cities attract more and more people from the countryside. Buddhism has become the religion of the city-folk, as well as the religion of the military elites. While a considerable number of the nobility could trace their descent from Mandesh and Zabulistan and other regions of the eastern Iranian plateau, they have adopted the Indian culture relatively fast, leaving few traces of their Persianate heritage[2]. While the Iranian languages of the conquerors did leave behind them some linguistic heritage, the few Pakhtun loanwords were mostly related to military terminology.
The conquerors relied on the light cavalry, which held the empire together, greatly reducing the number of polities and autonomous rulers which had existed in the place before. Effective and centralized administration has allowed the maintenance of monasteries, and Buddhism was again gaining ground in the Ganges valley at the expense of Hinduism. In the rural areas and backwaters, of course the population remained largely unaffected and continued to practice a form of folk devoutness, which can be labelled as Hinduism.
However, in the west, in the region of Multan, it remained Manicheism, which was the popular religion.
The Manichean faith, as it has established a foothold in Multan, it adapted to the local customs, as the Manicheans have been doing anywhere they went. Contact with Samarqand, the seat of the Denawar denomination in Central Asia has weakened; and in the region known to Greeks as Pentapotamia or Pantzab, a new denomination called Roshblani[3]. The Roshblani sect of Manichaeism has incorporated a number of elements from Hindu and Buddhist practices[4]. The original Gnostic nature of the faith appears to be rediscovered, as the Manichean religion has entered the caste-based society of the Subcontinent. Some early Manichean texts have never made into Pantzab, and as a result the Roshblani denomination has partially diverged from the remaining Manichean denominations[5], although Mazouni merchants travelling the Indus River upstream did recognize the religion as Manichean.
Religion in India. Notice the Roshblani Mancheism in Pantzab
As for the writing systems used in India, we may mention a handful of them. The scripts employed in the Indian subcontinent are descendants of Brahmic, which itself descended from Aramaic. The Brahmic script was later adapted to the individual languages of India, and by the 12th century there are numerous abugidas. Firstly there was the Gupta script, from which the Sharadi[6] script of northern India and Kashmir descended, itself being the ancestor of the Landa script used in the region of Punjab. In the east, in the Brahmaputra and Lower Ganges, the Siddham script developed[7]. Most of northern India would be writing in the Nagari script, however.
Writing systems used in India
The western coast of India was in close contact with Mazoun and Arabia, and trade existed between the Konkani and Malabar Coasts and southern Arabia, resulting in the development of a stronger, more confident merchant class, perhaps a small bourgeoisie in the western coast, where cultures and religions met. While caste distinctions remained in this region as well, they were not as pronounced as in the rest of the Subcontinent.
The northeastern edges of the Deccan Plateau have remained still largely tribal; the Tamil regions in the south of the Subcontinent were the second centre of civilization in India, still maintaining ties to Southeast Asia. In fact, the Tamil regions continued to extend a degree of influence across the *Bay of Bengal*.
With Buddhism rooted in the Gangetic plain, the Indian Subcontinent remains the heart of the Buddhist world, maintaining ties with Tibet and the Khmer regions and Nusantara, as well as the highland regions of the eastern Iranian plateau, being part of the Greater Indosphere.
[1] Buddhism will remain the religion of this urban elite of the Gangetic state. Unlike islam in OTL, Buddhism is not going to be perceived as foreign to the same degree as was islam considered in OTL. Moreover, there will be a considerably higher number of native Indian converts to Buddhism again.
[2] Without islam as the religion of the conquerors, it is much more likely that they would adapt to Indian customs, as the Indian civilization appears to be way more civilized that the highlands of Afghanistan. Of course, some cultural aspects from Afghanistan will be introduced, but not that many as in OTL.
href="#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" title="">style='mso-special-character:footnote'>class=MsoFootnoteReference>font-family:"Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";mso-ansi-language:
SK;mso-fareast-language:SK;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA'>[3] style='font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;mso-ascii-theme-font:major-bidi;
mso-hansi-theme-font:major-bidi;mso-bidi-theme-font:major-bidi'>From the Punjabi „Rōśanī bhālaṇa vālē“, meaning light-seekers.
[4] Interestingly enough, the Roshblani are located in the same geographic area as the Sikhs would emerge a few centuries later in OTL. I can imagine this Manichean group to survive in the long-term. You may also consider the fact that as Sikhism was actually intentionally created as a syncretic religion, combining the elements of Islam and Hinduism; Manicheism could also be considered a syncretic religion accpeting the authority of Christianity, Buddhism and Zoroastrianism.
[5] I was going to write „mainstream Manicheism“, but I realized there remains no such thing. Out of the original three denominations „Msadeqi of Middle East, Denawar of Central Asia and Toxoxian of the Uyghurs, only Denwar remains vibrant. Remaining Msadeqi communities of the Gulf have merged with the Mazdakis of Oman, and have diverged significantly as well (and as the Mazdakis are sometimes corrupted to Msadeqi, the confusion has grown. Anyhow, Mazdaki remains the sole Manichean denomination in the Gulf region). And lastly, the Toxoxian faith has submerged into Buddhism.
[6] Used in Kashmir. Today, mostly displaced by Perso-Arabic script.
[7] Used in modern day to write Assamese and Bengali
Attachments
I've noticed that the footnote links in a lot of your updates appear to be broken, which is a shame. Regardless the situation in India is really interesting so I need to read up on the rest of this timeline so I can actually understand what's going on.
Chapter 95: Mazdaki Merchants in Mazoun
We are taking a look again at the realm of Mazoun to be found at the southern tip of Arabia. During the previous century, Mazoun itself has has been overshadowed by the city-state of Ormus, which controlled the strait of the same name, as well as lands on both the Persian and Arabic shore of the strait. The wealth of Ormus came from its dominance over the trade between India and Mesopotamia, and more frequently than not not have Ormusi merchants resorted to piracy.
Ormus and surrounding realms
The city of Ormus, shielded by its insular localtion, has acknowledged the authority of the Ilkhan, paying a yearly tribute. Despite the tribute, the city still maintains much of its wealth, and has become a place of luxury and lavishness. Indeed, the city has earned a reputation of being one of the morally most corrupt cities on the planet, where the existence of any moral code was largely ignored, be it Christians, Mandeans or Manicheans.
Nominally the majority of Ormusian citizens were of the Msadiqiyya (Mazdaki) Manichean denomination, speaking the Ormusi dialect of Aramaic. Ormus itslef was howeverhome also to a significant number of Baloch descended serfs and a great number of slaves. In fact, the total slave population of the city was estimated to be around twice the number of the free men - and slaves were either bought along the East African coast or were the captured crew of enemy ships.
Slaves were usually employed in doing the manual labour - also in vessels as rowmen and doing all sorts of tasks. As for the soldiers, Ormus employed mainly Baloch tribesmen, ready to fight for a nice sum of money.
Apart from slaves, another very valuable commodity was spices. Ormus commanded most of the spice trade with India.
Linguistic map: the Persian coast of the Ormusi realm has seen the area crowded by fleeing refugees from the rest of Persia, changing linguistic border.
Both Ormus and its rival, Mazoun have welcomed many Persian scholars, fleeing the plunder and havock caused by the ravaging hordes. Although many of them first arrive in Ormus, they were rather disgusted by the state of morale that was omnipresent in the city, as well as by the fact that the city was a liberatarian plutocracy. Many found much better conditions within the realm of Mazoun, where the Dapir created the Grand Academy of Wisdom, and personally funded all scholars. The result was that both Ormus and Mazoun to an even larger degree become centers of innovation
Forms of government in South Arabia
Ormus was ruling over the Emirate of Magan, which was very sparsely populated. The Maganese were also resorting to piracy for livelyhood, however after attacking a few Mazouni vessels, Magan was defeated by Ormus in a swift campaign. Ormus went to war also with Beth Qatriye, where they take over the peninsular and insular regions; the rump realm of Hasa remains independent for the time being. Meanwhile , the Sarlimian schism with Nestorians has ended, as many Sarlimians in the north return under the fold of the Church of the East. Further south, however they embrace Msadeqi Manicheism.
The realm of Mazoun has come under the shadow of Ormus, but still it was a nest of piracy, a base to attack the western coast of India ( although some profit of course came from honest trade). Compared to Ormus, Mazounis appear as "virtuous pirates", where with the doctrine of moderacy and generally the more conservative nature of the Mazouni society at this point makes Mazoun to be viewed as a good arrangement of the society.
The power of the Dapir remains rather strong, with the other institutions being mearly appendices or consultative organs of the Dapir, Therefore, Mazoun is regarded as a monarchy.
The spread of the Msadeqiyya religion
As mentioned, the Msadeqiyya religion has become already widespread in the Indian Ocean trade network - from Mazoun, to the coast of Makrat and Gujarat, also on the islands of Lakshawdeep and Maldives, and making inroads also into Sumatra and Champa. Quite naturally, the Msadeqiyya sect of Manicheism has made inroads also into parts of the African Continent, around the city of Berbera and the Azanian coast. With this said, Msadeqiyya has become the most widespread sect of Manicheism, although heavily divergent.
Mazoun has slightly altered the East Syriac script to better suit their South Arabic language.
Ormus and surrounding realms
The city of Ormus, shielded by its insular localtion, has acknowledged the authority of the Ilkhan, paying a yearly tribute. Despite the tribute, the city still maintains much of its wealth, and has become a place of luxury and lavishness. Indeed, the city has earned a reputation of being one of the morally most corrupt cities on the planet, where the existence of any moral code was largely ignored, be it Christians, Mandeans or Manicheans.
Nominally the majority of Ormusian citizens were of the Msadiqiyya (Mazdaki) Manichean denomination, speaking the Ormusi dialect of Aramaic. Ormus itslef was howeverhome also to a significant number of Baloch descended serfs and a great number of slaves. In fact, the total slave population of the city was estimated to be around twice the number of the free men - and slaves were either bought along the East African coast or were the captured crew of enemy ships.
Slaves were usually employed in doing the manual labour - also in vessels as rowmen and doing all sorts of tasks. As for the soldiers, Ormus employed mainly Baloch tribesmen, ready to fight for a nice sum of money.
Apart from slaves, another very valuable commodity was spices. Ormus commanded most of the spice trade with India.
Linguistic map: the Persian coast of the Ormusi realm has seen the area crowded by fleeing refugees from the rest of Persia, changing linguistic border.
Both Ormus and its rival, Mazoun have welcomed many Persian scholars, fleeing the plunder and havock caused by the ravaging hordes. Although many of them first arrive in Ormus, they were rather disgusted by the state of morale that was omnipresent in the city, as well as by the fact that the city was a liberatarian plutocracy. Many found much better conditions within the realm of Mazoun, where the Dapir created the Grand Academy of Wisdom, and personally funded all scholars. The result was that both Ormus and Mazoun to an even larger degree become centers of innovation
Forms of government in South Arabia
Ormus was ruling over the Emirate of Magan, which was very sparsely populated. The Maganese were also resorting to piracy for livelyhood, however after attacking a few Mazouni vessels, Magan was defeated by Ormus in a swift campaign. Ormus went to war also with Beth Qatriye, where they take over the peninsular and insular regions; the rump realm of Hasa remains independent for the time being. Meanwhile , the Sarlimian schism with Nestorians has ended, as many Sarlimians in the north return under the fold of the Church of the East. Further south, however they embrace Msadeqi Manicheism.
The realm of Mazoun has come under the shadow of Ormus, but still it was a nest of piracy, a base to attack the western coast of India ( although some profit of course came from honest trade). Compared to Ormus, Mazounis appear as "virtuous pirates", where with the doctrine of moderacy and generally the more conservative nature of the Mazouni society at this point makes Mazoun to be viewed as a good arrangement of the society.
The power of the Dapir remains rather strong, with the other institutions being mearly appendices or consultative organs of the Dapir, Therefore, Mazoun is regarded as a monarchy.
The spread of the Msadeqiyya religion
As mentioned, the Msadeqiyya religion has become already widespread in the Indian Ocean trade network - from Mazoun, to the coast of Makrat and Gujarat, also on the islands of Lakshawdeep and Maldives, and making inroads also into Sumatra and Champa. Quite naturally, the Msadeqiyya sect of Manicheism has made inroads also into parts of the African Continent, around the city of Berbera and the Azanian coast. With this said, Msadeqiyya has become the most widespread sect of Manicheism, although heavily divergent.
Mazoun has slightly altered the East Syriac script to better suit their South Arabic language.
Attachments
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As for China and Indo-China, any ideas? Apart from China getting conquered by Naimans?
Chapter 96: First Global Empire
The Naimans have managed to do what yet has not been achieved in world history. They have created the world´s largest contiguous empire, larger than the Roman Empire controlling the entire Mediterranean Basin, larger than the Tang empire at its hayday or the empire of Alexander the Great. By conquering the Cuman, Bolghar and Bashkir realms in the northwest, the Naimans took over the Pontic-Caspian Steppe; in the east they conquer the kingdom of Dali and the southern Song dynasty of China as well as Korea. Even mountainous Tibet submits to the Naiman rule, as well as the hill-tribes of the Caucasus (Imereti becomes a tributary as well).
The Naiman Empire stretches from Danube to Korea
In the west, the border is set at the Gorge of the Danube near Vidin. The Rhomaic Empire itself feels threatened and sought peace with the invading horsemen. The Rhomaic forces are defeated at the Battle of Kelezene (1), resulting in the Naimans conquering much of the inland Anatolian plateau, as well as the Syrian interior. The coastal strip in Anatolia and Syria however remains under Rhomaic control, as they can be supplied from the sea (as the Rhomaic fleet is unmatched for the Naimans lack a fleet in the Mediterranean basin).
The sole fact that the entire length of the Silk Road has found itself within the borders of one state, meaning the unification of over a half of the Eurasian landmass (the exceptions being Europe, India, Indochina and the frozen barrens of Siberia) means a connection yet unprecedented. Apart from armies, also merchants and ideas travel from one end of Eurasia to another - with the high progress made in sciences such as astronomy, mathematics and chemistry in Persia and Mesopotamia reaching China; Chinese invention of gunpowder on the other hand revolutionizes the way wars are to be fought across Eurasia. Ironically, it was the widespread dispersal of gunpowder by the Naimans , that would prevent the steppe riders to ever pose such a threat to civilized sedentary realms, as the nomadic steppe tribes lack the technology needed to build canons.
In administering such a vast empire, with many subject peoples, the Naimans needed the empire to be connected and roads to be safe. The Yassa or Great Law greatly punishes banditry and theft; allowing caravans and long-distance trade to prosper. Ports such as Kaffa or Tanais on the Black Sea offered silk and spices to the Europeans, who came to be accustomed to such exotic products. The safety of the trade allowed also that these luxury goods be affordable to larger ammount of people. The Naiman administration inspired itself by the Nestorian Church - and similarly to the already established network of Nestorian monasteries, the Naiman empire established their own network of karavanserays, a functioning postal service called yam. Each station had a sufficient number of horses and riders; and messengers would only ride with a message from one station to the next, with a fresh horse and giving the name of the destination where the letter was supposed to be sent. The messenger would then be given a good meal, a bed and wait for another message to be sent.
One could argue that the Naimans were the first to attempt to establish a form of civic nationalism, as the Naimans army itself was multiethnic and ope to subject peoples from all corners of the empire, organized by a decimal system. While the vast majority of the peoples were Nestorian Christians, the Naiman state was religiously tolerant and allowed for all creeds to exist within the empire , although their preference for Nestorianism was difficult to hide. With almost all Nestorians inside the borders of the Empire, the struggle between Church and State again comes to power. For its part, the Church of the East used to supplement many functions of the state in the Inner Asia regions, especially as the realms in the area were rather weak. With the establishment of such a large empire, the Naimans sought to get the Catholicos of Qtespon under their control, and use to their advantage the already widespread network of monasteries, libraries and hospitals.
One must however not forget the cost, at which the whole continent was unified. The invading armies left many millions dead. It has been written that the conquest of Central Asia and Persia was particularly bloody; the Southern Song dynasty offered heavy resistance (due to the terrain, with many mountain ranges and valleys), which resulted in a very high death toll. But most importantly, the interconnected world meant it easy for the Black Death, originating somewhere in southern China, to ravage the entire Eurasia and Africa. The high death toll in many communities meant that the societies would need start anew, this time allowing for a different mode of societal organization. In the case of Western Europe and Mazoun, it meant higher individualization of the society - as there were relatively fewer men to work, they were now in the position to demand their conditions.
The depopulation also meant that the agricultural area was reduced, allowing for wildlife to return to many parts of both Europe and China. Moreover, the destruction of many ricefields as well as the retreat of European fields results in climate change in the form of global cooling, having the side effects of the Norse in Vinland moving southwards and the rise of North Africa and the Middle East back to prominence...
(1) OTL Erzincan, Turkey
The Naiman Empire stretches from Danube to Korea
In the west, the border is set at the Gorge of the Danube near Vidin. The Rhomaic Empire itself feels threatened and sought peace with the invading horsemen. The Rhomaic forces are defeated at the Battle of Kelezene (1), resulting in the Naimans conquering much of the inland Anatolian plateau, as well as the Syrian interior. The coastal strip in Anatolia and Syria however remains under Rhomaic control, as they can be supplied from the sea (as the Rhomaic fleet is unmatched for the Naimans lack a fleet in the Mediterranean basin).
The sole fact that the entire length of the Silk Road has found itself within the borders of one state, meaning the unification of over a half of the Eurasian landmass (the exceptions being Europe, India, Indochina and the frozen barrens of Siberia) means a connection yet unprecedented. Apart from armies, also merchants and ideas travel from one end of Eurasia to another - with the high progress made in sciences such as astronomy, mathematics and chemistry in Persia and Mesopotamia reaching China; Chinese invention of gunpowder on the other hand revolutionizes the way wars are to be fought across Eurasia. Ironically, it was the widespread dispersal of gunpowder by the Naimans , that would prevent the steppe riders to ever pose such a threat to civilized sedentary realms, as the nomadic steppe tribes lack the technology needed to build canons.
In administering such a vast empire, with many subject peoples, the Naimans needed the empire to be connected and roads to be safe. The Yassa or Great Law greatly punishes banditry and theft; allowing caravans and long-distance trade to prosper. Ports such as Kaffa or Tanais on the Black Sea offered silk and spices to the Europeans, who came to be accustomed to such exotic products. The safety of the trade allowed also that these luxury goods be affordable to larger ammount of people. The Naiman administration inspired itself by the Nestorian Church - and similarly to the already established network of Nestorian monasteries, the Naiman empire established their own network of karavanserays, a functioning postal service called yam. Each station had a sufficient number of horses and riders; and messengers would only ride with a message from one station to the next, with a fresh horse and giving the name of the destination where the letter was supposed to be sent. The messenger would then be given a good meal, a bed and wait for another message to be sent.
One could argue that the Naimans were the first to attempt to establish a form of civic nationalism, as the Naimans army itself was multiethnic and ope to subject peoples from all corners of the empire, organized by a decimal system. While the vast majority of the peoples were Nestorian Christians, the Naiman state was religiously tolerant and allowed for all creeds to exist within the empire , although their preference for Nestorianism was difficult to hide. With almost all Nestorians inside the borders of the Empire, the struggle between Church and State again comes to power. For its part, the Church of the East used to supplement many functions of the state in the Inner Asia regions, especially as the realms in the area were rather weak. With the establishment of such a large empire, the Naimans sought to get the Catholicos of Qtespon under their control, and use to their advantage the already widespread network of monasteries, libraries and hospitals.
One must however not forget the cost, at which the whole continent was unified. The invading armies left many millions dead. It has been written that the conquest of Central Asia and Persia was particularly bloody; the Southern Song dynasty offered heavy resistance (due to the terrain, with many mountain ranges and valleys), which resulted in a very high death toll. But most importantly, the interconnected world meant it easy for the Black Death, originating somewhere in southern China, to ravage the entire Eurasia and Africa. The high death toll in many communities meant that the societies would need start anew, this time allowing for a different mode of societal organization. In the case of Western Europe and Mazoun, it meant higher individualization of the society - as there were relatively fewer men to work, they were now in the position to demand their conditions.
The depopulation also meant that the agricultural area was reduced, allowing for wildlife to return to many parts of both Europe and China. Moreover, the destruction of many ricefields as well as the retreat of European fields results in climate change in the form of global cooling, having the side effects of the Norse in Vinland moving southwards and the rise of North Africa and the Middle East back to prominence...
(1) OTL Erzincan, Turkey
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Scholars disagree on what language OTL Naimans spoke, whether it was a Turkic one or Mongolic. The script used is practically the OTL Mongol script.
As for the ethnic makeup, more info will follow up
Chapter 97: Divisions of the Empire and the Yuan Dynasty
However, the long-term existence of such a vast empire was not sustainble- the empire was simply far to large to continue existing as a stable realm, and the major population centres were far apart from each other both geographically and culturally. Therefore, it is not a surprise that eventually the empire will be partitioned amongst the heirs of the Great Khan. The cores around which the successor realms are to emerge are based upon pre-existant centres of civilization (1).
The empire has thus come to be divided into four parts: firstly, the Empire of the Great Khan, in Chinese sources known as the Yuan dynasty, is to cover much of Eastern Asia, spanning from Yunnan to Korea and the Mongol steppes, as far north as Lake Baikal. Then the central parts of Eurasia, based around ancient Sogdia, sometimes known as Neymenistan, to span on both sides of the Tengri mountains. Thirdly, the Ilkhanate, centred upon ancient Persia, including Khorasan (Parthia) and Mesopotamia. and lastly, the Qipchak in the northwest, to include the Cuman and Bolghar realms of old.
In terms of population, the Empire of the Great Khan was clearly the most populous, with the largest part of the population being ethnic Chinese (Han). Other important groups included the Koreans, the Tibetans and the Mongols. (2) The nomadic conquerors were however heavily outnumbered by the ethnic Chinese; the relatively small number of Mongols, and had to hold together should they manage to rule over such a vast number of people - the total population of the Empire could be around 80 million.
The Emperors of the Yuan dynasty had to find a way to accomodate to the Chinese culture, whilst still retaining their nomadic heritage as well. This was not as demanding as one may think it be, as the Mongolian (Naiman) sciety was far less sophisticated, and concepts or ways of dealing with situations that did not exist in the steppe could be just adopted straightforward from the Chinese.
The Emperor on a hunting expedition
The Yuan dynasty has chosen white as its imperial colour and metal as its dynastic metal. Metal succeeds, according to Chinese philosophy the element of earth, which had been chosen by the Jin dynasty of northern China (supposing that their rightful predecessors were the Jurchen conqerors, not the Song of the south). In comparison to the largely feudal Tang dynasty and the more meritocratic Song dynasty, the period of Yuan rule can be described as a time of "opening" of China to the world, a time of globalization. While keeping in place traditional imperial examinations, the Yuan dynasty recruited mainly the so-called Semu people in the administration. The Semu were not an ethnic group per se, rather they would be best described as a caste in the Yuan system.
There would be four castes:
The adoption of a phonetically based script also meant a shift from Classical to vernacular Chinese (called Baihua)
The Semu have brought with them skills in cartography, astronomy, medicine and also plants such as carrots, turnips, sugar or cotton, as well as lemons arrive to Eastern Asia. Western medicine, such as humorist therapy, as well as Assyrian classics have been translated to Chinjese and Nestorian monks have opened hospitals in a number of Chinese cities.
The Church of the East has established four new metropolitan provinces in China: Shaanxi, Sechuan, Henan and Hebei, corresponding with the administriative divisions of the Yuan Empire. The Beth Tuptaye province (blue) was renamed to to Gansu
As for religion, at first it appears, that the Yuan Emperors were favoring all religions, which they labelled as "western" - Buddhism, Nestorianism and Manicheism; while favouring Nestorian Christianity the most. Christianity at this point in time would flourish particularly in the northwest, especially in the Gansu province; and Manicheism in China was concentrated primarily in the coastal areas of the Jiangzho province. However, the gross majority of Chinese maintained a mix of folk, Confucian and Daoist beliefs. Buddhism was present in two forms: Mahayana, a predominantly Chinese form and Vajrayana, favoured in Tibet and Dongbei (4).
Administrative division of Yuan China
Ultimately, however, the later Yuan Emperors took up Buddhism as the state religion, as it already had a large number of adherents, and has been in close contact with the Chinese for a couple of centuries. The Emperors have however chosen the Tibetan variant, and Tibet itself was set aside under the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs; as were all the monasteries; Tibet was thus established as a de facto theocracy. Given the established model of institutional hierarchy present in both Manicheism and Christianity, and the functioning bureaucratic apparatus of China, it has become rather implicit that should the Yuan declare a state church, it will copy the hierarchical precedent of Christianity. With imperial favour going to Buddhism, they have antagonized the Semu communities (5); with the Nestorians being a solid majority in the army and commerce, practically controlling much of the Silk Road trade, and the Manicheans, who have had a long history of bad relations with Buddhists, due to the chameleon nature of Manichean preachers; and Manicheans (controlling most of the maritime trade) have already high unrest...
(1) And yes, it is the same as in OTL, with a Yuan dynasty and *Chagatai realm, the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde
(2) While the Turkic speaking peoples generally migrated westwards to the other successor realms, it was the Khamag Mongol, the Buryats and the other linguistically related tribes of the east to come and rule over the vast regions of China
(3) Historically, this may be the reason of the rise of Marco Polo to such a prominent position OTL.
(4) Manchuria
(5) Who will develop a specific identity based upon their religion, like the Hui OZL
The empire has thus come to be divided into four parts: firstly, the Empire of the Great Khan, in Chinese sources known as the Yuan dynasty, is to cover much of Eastern Asia, spanning from Yunnan to Korea and the Mongol steppes, as far north as Lake Baikal. Then the central parts of Eurasia, based around ancient Sogdia, sometimes known as Neymenistan, to span on both sides of the Tengri mountains. Thirdly, the Ilkhanate, centred upon ancient Persia, including Khorasan (Parthia) and Mesopotamia. and lastly, the Qipchak in the northwest, to include the Cuman and Bolghar realms of old.
In terms of population, the Empire of the Great Khan was clearly the most populous, with the largest part of the population being ethnic Chinese (Han). Other important groups included the Koreans, the Tibetans and the Mongols. (2) The nomadic conquerors were however heavily outnumbered by the ethnic Chinese; the relatively small number of Mongols, and had to hold together should they manage to rule over such a vast number of people - the total population of the Empire could be around 80 million.
The Emperors of the Yuan dynasty had to find a way to accomodate to the Chinese culture, whilst still retaining their nomadic heritage as well. This was not as demanding as one may think it be, as the Mongolian (Naiman) sciety was far less sophisticated, and concepts or ways of dealing with situations that did not exist in the steppe could be just adopted straightforward from the Chinese.
The Emperor on a hunting expedition
The Yuan dynasty has chosen white as its imperial colour and metal as its dynastic metal. Metal succeeds, according to Chinese philosophy the element of earth, which had been chosen by the Jin dynasty of northern China (supposing that their rightful predecessors were the Jurchen conqerors, not the Song of the south). In comparison to the largely feudal Tang dynasty and the more meritocratic Song dynasty, the period of Yuan rule can be described as a time of "opening" of China to the world, a time of globalization. While keeping in place traditional imperial examinations, the Yuan dynasty recruited mainly the so-called Semu people in the administration. The Semu were not an ethnic group per se, rather they would be best described as a caste in the Yuan system.
There would be four castes:
- Naimans and Mongols (peoples from the Eastern Steppe, the core of the Naiman Empire)
- Semu (foreigners and people from western and central Asia; mostly Nestorian, to a lesser extent also Buddhist and Manichean)
- Han (not in an ethnic sense, but relating to all subjects of the later Jin Empire, including Jurchen and Koreans)
- Manzi (to decribe all subject peoples of the Song empire in Southern China).
The adoption of a phonetically based script also meant a shift from Classical to vernacular Chinese (called Baihua)
The Semu have brought with them skills in cartography, astronomy, medicine and also plants such as carrots, turnips, sugar or cotton, as well as lemons arrive to Eastern Asia. Western medicine, such as humorist therapy, as well as Assyrian classics have been translated to Chinjese and Nestorian monks have opened hospitals in a number of Chinese cities.
The Church of the East has established four new metropolitan provinces in China: Shaanxi, Sechuan, Henan and Hebei, corresponding with the administriative divisions of the Yuan Empire. The Beth Tuptaye province (blue) was renamed to to Gansu
As for religion, at first it appears, that the Yuan Emperors were favoring all religions, which they labelled as "western" - Buddhism, Nestorianism and Manicheism; while favouring Nestorian Christianity the most. Christianity at this point in time would flourish particularly in the northwest, especially in the Gansu province; and Manicheism in China was concentrated primarily in the coastal areas of the Jiangzho province. However, the gross majority of Chinese maintained a mix of folk, Confucian and Daoist beliefs. Buddhism was present in two forms: Mahayana, a predominantly Chinese form and Vajrayana, favoured in Tibet and Dongbei (4).
Administrative division of Yuan China
Ultimately, however, the later Yuan Emperors took up Buddhism as the state religion, as it already had a large number of adherents, and has been in close contact with the Chinese for a couple of centuries. The Emperors have however chosen the Tibetan variant, and Tibet itself was set aside under the Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs; as were all the monasteries; Tibet was thus established as a de facto theocracy. Given the established model of institutional hierarchy present in both Manicheism and Christianity, and the functioning bureaucratic apparatus of China, it has become rather implicit that should the Yuan declare a state church, it will copy the hierarchical precedent of Christianity. With imperial favour going to Buddhism, they have antagonized the Semu communities (5); with the Nestorians being a solid majority in the army and commerce, practically controlling much of the Silk Road trade, and the Manicheans, who have had a long history of bad relations with Buddhists, due to the chameleon nature of Manichean preachers; and Manicheans (controlling most of the maritime trade) have already high unrest...
(1) And yes, it is the same as in OTL, with a Yuan dynasty and *Chagatai realm, the Ilkhanate and the Golden Horde
(2) While the Turkic speaking peoples generally migrated westwards to the other successor realms, it was the Khamag Mongol, the Buryats and the other linguistically related tribes of the east to come and rule over the vast regions of China
(3) Historically, this may be the reason of the rise of Marco Polo to such a prominent position OTL.
(4) Manchuria
(5) Who will develop a specific identity based upon their religion, like the Hui OZL
Attachments
The Khitans? Although they are still around as an ethnic group, they are not in position of power anymore.
got confused with the naimans even thought the khitans also have the same system, and well i liked your atl mongol empire
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Chapter 98: Majapahit, The Hegemon of the Islands of the Sea
The Straits of Melacca, the narrow passage between the Golden Chersonesos (1) and the island of Sumatra had become of strategic importance. It is one of those geopolitical chokepoints, which is worth controlling. At its narrowest, it is less than two miles (2) across, thus any naval traffic can be effectively monitored and tolled. The Straits have gained crucial importance, as they happen to connect the Ilkhanate in Persian with the Yuan in China. True, you could still walk or ride along the Silk Road, through allied territory, should you wish to overcome deserts and mountains.
These straits have come to be controlled by the Majapahit, a realm based originally in eastern Java, who have become the new powerhouse in the region after the downfall of the Melayu Kingdom. While Melayu was based in eastern Sumatra, in places vulnerable to flooding, the Majapahit , as stated had their base in the eastern Java. Originally it appeared that another realm, the Singhasari of eastern Java would arise to dominance, however they have made a strategic mistake by refusing to pay the Naimans tribute. This greatly angered the Yuan who have sent a large naval expedition to deal with them, however they had to retreat. Their conquest of most of Sumatra, except the western coast and the northernmost extremities was surprisingly quick.
Majapahit has thus become the hegemonic power in Maritime Southeast Asia, dominating the Spice trade and naval traffic.
An example of Majapahit architecture in Trowulan, its capital
Majapahit lacked a professional army – their soldiers were mainly mobilized peasants, equipped with bows and arrows, bamboo spears and short blades. After the Yuan expedition, however the Majapahit have learnt how to use gunpowder, which gave them a technological advantage over their neighbours – therefore he Majapahit are going to be on the offensive for quite some time (3).
There were five levels of administrative divisions of the Majapahit realm. The entire realm (bhumi) was divided into provinces (nagara), which were ruled by the rajya,natha (lord), bhre (duke). The second level of divisions were the regencies (watek), administered by wiyasas. The district (kuwu) was the third level, held by a lurah. The individual villages (wanua) were ruled over by a thani. The hamlets (kabuyutan) were then the ultimate division. For the most part, however all territories outside the island of Java were administered as tributary states inside the mandala system. The core areas were administered by members of the royal family, under a system of appanages, so that the area could be described as feudal.
Governments in Souheast Asia around 1300 AD
An example of Kawi script
In terms of culture, one can make the statement that the Majapahit Empire can be credited for spreading the Kawi script throughout the Malay Archipelago, and bringing about a sense common identity in the area. In terms of religion, the Majapahit accept both Hinduism and Buddhism. In contrast to Mainland Southeast Asia, the Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia consisted of the more syncretic Mahayana form, which could be found also in China and the northern parts of India. The Majapahit state administration did regulate both religions: there was a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan, who was the kingdom´s highest Hindu priest of Shiva, and a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan, regulating Buddhist practices within the realm.
Religion in Southeast Asia. Sumatra is Mahayana, as is Vietnam. Theravad Buddhism is practiced in Burma and the Thai, Hinduism prevails in the Mekon Delta, on Java and Borneo. Msadeqiyya has been embraced in Aceh, Champa. Chinese Manicheism ( Mingjiao) found in Fujian province is a different denomination
At the western tip of the island of Sumatra, however there a realm practicing a religion rather novel to Maritime Southeast Asia: Pasai. In the previous century, Msadeqi Manichaeism has established itself at the northernmost tip of the island, and the religion has been spreading southwards. The religion could make significant inroads into the area, due to the fact that it appeals to an urban maritime society. After all, Mazoun, where Msadeqism emerged was just that, as was Maritime Southeast Asia. Manichean requirements of vegetarianism can be easily met- after all, Hinduism already prohibits eating cow´s meat and Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as well. Moreover, if you live in an archipelago, the abundance of fish actually solves the problem pretty easily.
The Langkasuka kingdom, spanning from Kedah to Ligor on the Malay isthmus has also accepted the Msadeqi religion. While not spreading much outside of the port of Kedah, Msadeqiyya has established itself a base in the area.
The polities of Southeast Asia
Along the western coast of Sumatra lay the kingdom of Pagarruyung; other states in the region include the Hindu kingdom of Brunei on the western coast of Borneo and Kutai on its eastern shore. The southern coast of the island has come under influence of Majapahit; however the interior is still tribal, as it is largely inaccessible, as boats and ships are the main means of transport; the tropical rainforest has deterred major exploration of the interior.
In the Greater Moluccas, we can see the establishment of the Cebu and Maguindanao realms, other than that, business as usual. The Tondo kingdom is in frequent contact with China, especially with the port at Qunazhou; and in case of Yuan repression it is likely going to be the target of Manichean refugees fleeing persecution. The Greater Molluccas have also developed their own writing systems, from Kawi. Mainly the Baybyin script in the Tondo kingdom,the Badlit script in Cebu, and the Buhid script in the west.
The writing systems of Southeast Asia
Within the Chinese sphere is also Vietnam, which is now a tributary of Yuan. Champa has experienced also a slow spread of Msadeqism, although restricted to the coastal strip. The Chams have made contact also with the Manicheans of China , who called their own religion Mingjiao (Religion of Light), and have reocgnized each other as being Manicheans, although the differences between them were quite large(4) .The Mekong Delta is possibly the sole part of the region that has remained Hindu, as the Khmer Empire and Sukhothai have both converted to Theravada Buddhism. The Sukhothai kingdom is an ethnically Thai kingdom, and the Thais have entered the lowlands of the Gulf of Thailand, replacing the previously dominant Mon-Khmer peoples in the area.
The Thais have established themselves in the central part of Mainland SE Asia
As for the Pagan kingdom in Burma, after Naiman attacks it collapses and two successor realms emerge: Pegu in the south, in the Iravadi delta, and Myinsaing in the Upper Burma region.
These straits have come to be controlled by the Majapahit, a realm based originally in eastern Java, who have become the new powerhouse in the region after the downfall of the Melayu Kingdom. While Melayu was based in eastern Sumatra, in places vulnerable to flooding, the Majapahit , as stated had their base in the eastern Java. Originally it appeared that another realm, the Singhasari of eastern Java would arise to dominance, however they have made a strategic mistake by refusing to pay the Naimans tribute. This greatly angered the Yuan who have sent a large naval expedition to deal with them, however they had to retreat. Their conquest of most of Sumatra, except the western coast and the northernmost extremities was surprisingly quick.
Majapahit has thus become the hegemonic power in Maritime Southeast Asia, dominating the Spice trade and naval traffic.
An example of Majapahit architecture in Trowulan, its capital
Majapahit lacked a professional army – their soldiers were mainly mobilized peasants, equipped with bows and arrows, bamboo spears and short blades. After the Yuan expedition, however the Majapahit have learnt how to use gunpowder, which gave them a technological advantage over their neighbours – therefore he Majapahit are going to be on the offensive for quite some time (3).
There were five levels of administrative divisions of the Majapahit realm. The entire realm (bhumi) was divided into provinces (nagara), which were ruled by the rajya,natha (lord), bhre (duke). The second level of divisions were the regencies (watek), administered by wiyasas. The district (kuwu) was the third level, held by a lurah. The individual villages (wanua) were ruled over by a thani. The hamlets (kabuyutan) were then the ultimate division. For the most part, however all territories outside the island of Java were administered as tributary states inside the mandala system. The core areas were administered by members of the royal family, under a system of appanages, so that the area could be described as feudal.
Governments in Souheast Asia around 1300 AD
An example of Kawi script
In terms of culture, one can make the statement that the Majapahit Empire can be credited for spreading the Kawi script throughout the Malay Archipelago, and bringing about a sense common identity in the area. In terms of religion, the Majapahit accept both Hinduism and Buddhism. In contrast to Mainland Southeast Asia, the Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia consisted of the more syncretic Mahayana form, which could be found also in China and the northern parts of India. The Majapahit state administration did regulate both religions: there was a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan, who was the kingdom´s highest Hindu priest of Shiva, and a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan, regulating Buddhist practices within the realm.
Religion in Southeast Asia. Sumatra is Mahayana, as is Vietnam. Theravad Buddhism is practiced in Burma and the Thai, Hinduism prevails in the Mekon Delta, on Java and Borneo. Msadeqiyya has been embraced in Aceh, Champa. Chinese Manicheism ( Mingjiao) found in Fujian province is a different denomination
At the western tip of the island of Sumatra, however there a realm practicing a religion rather novel to Maritime Southeast Asia: Pasai. In the previous century, Msadeqi Manichaeism has established itself at the northernmost tip of the island, and the religion has been spreading southwards. The religion could make significant inroads into the area, due to the fact that it appeals to an urban maritime society. After all, Mazoun, where Msadeqism emerged was just that, as was Maritime Southeast Asia. Manichean requirements of vegetarianism can be easily met- after all, Hinduism already prohibits eating cow´s meat and Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as well. Moreover, if you live in an archipelago, the abundance of fish actually solves the problem pretty easily.
The Langkasuka kingdom, spanning from Kedah to Ligor on the Malay isthmus has also accepted the Msadeqi religion. While not spreading much outside of the port of Kedah, Msadeqiyya has established itself a base in the area.
The polities of Southeast Asia
Along the western coast of Sumatra lay the kingdom of Pagarruyung; other states in the region include the Hindu kingdom of Brunei on the western coast of Borneo and Kutai on its eastern shore. The southern coast of the island has come under influence of Majapahit; however the interior is still tribal, as it is largely inaccessible, as boats and ships are the main means of transport; the tropical rainforest has deterred major exploration of the interior.
In the Greater Moluccas, we can see the establishment of the Cebu and Maguindanao realms, other than that, business as usual. The Tondo kingdom is in frequent contact with China, especially with the port at Qunazhou; and in case of Yuan repression it is likely going to be the target of Manichean refugees fleeing persecution. The Greater Molluccas have also developed their own writing systems, from Kawi. Mainly the Baybyin script in the Tondo kingdom,the Badlit script in Cebu, and the Buhid script in the west.
The writing systems of Southeast Asia
Within the Chinese sphere is also Vietnam, which is now a tributary of Yuan. Champa has experienced also a slow spread of Msadeqism, although restricted to the coastal strip. The Chams have made contact also with the Manicheans of China , who called their own religion Mingjiao (Religion of Light), and have reocgnized each other as being Manicheans, although the differences between them were quite large(4) .The Mekong Delta is possibly the sole part of the region that has remained Hindu, as the Khmer Empire and Sukhothai have both converted to Theravada Buddhism. The Sukhothai kingdom is an ethnically Thai kingdom, and the Thais have entered the lowlands of the Gulf of Thailand, replacing the previously dominant Mon-Khmer peoples in the area.
The Thais have established themselves in the central part of Mainland SE Asia
As for the Pagan kingdom in Burma, after Naiman attacks it collapses and two successor realms emerge: Pegu in the south, in the Iravadi delta, and Myinsaing in the Upper Burma region.
- As it had been known to the Greeks, referring to the Malay Peninsula
- Or three kilometres
- Perhaps we may speak about the Roman Empire of Nusantara?
- Although not as large as if they were to be contacted by Mazounis
Chapter 99: Demographics of the Abaqid Khanate
A map of the Abaqid Khanate
The Abaqid Khanate(1) (Abaqaina Khaanat ulus) is the geopolitical heir of the Kara-Khitai khanate, located in Central Asia. It encompasses the regions of Khorasmia, Sogdia, Tukharistan, Ferghana, up to Lake Balkash. In the east, it stretched across the Tengri (2) Mountains into the the Tarim Basin. The realm thus includes within its borders several deserts: the Karakum, the Kyzilkum and the Taklamakan.
A document written in Uyghur script. Uyghur script is written in a vertical manner, due to influence from China
The Abaqid khanate, also sometimes labelled as Sughd (Sogdia) deeply divided both religiously and linguistically. The major linguistic divide happens to be on a north-south axis. In the north, the majority of the people speak a Turkic language – Karluk in the west and Uyghur in the Tarim Basin. In the south, Iranian languages are spoken – mainly Sogdian in the central regions, but also Tukhari remains spoken. In the Tarim Basin, there is still the Saka language spoken in its western end.
A linguistic map of the Abaqid Khanate
The standard Karluk language (3), spoken at Almaliq has become elevated to an official language – at first becoming the language of the military, later also becoming the language in which laws and official orders are distributed, and also becoming a literary language. After all, the Abaqid khanate has a Turkic upper class of conquerors, who at court are consumers of higher culture. Sogdian itself is hardly understood by the average Abaqid nobleman. The Karluk language is being written using the Uyghur alphabet, derived from Sogdian, but better suited to the sound intricacies of a Turkic language.
A map of the scripts used in Central Asia. Sogdian is dark blue, Uyghur is light blue extending from the Aral Sea to Turfan, Kharoshti is blue-greyish
The linguistic borders of the Sogdian language have retreated considerably southwards, with the city of Tashkent now mainly Turkic. Sogdian nevertheless remains a vibrant language, a lingua franca of the Silk Road, spoken by merchants, but also a liturgical language among the followers of the Church of the East in Central Asia (4). Sogdian was considered a classical language, and thus if a nobleman in the Abaqid khanate wanted to sound educated or rich, he would drop a phrase or two in Sogdian.
A text written in Sogdian script
The Khorasmian language on the other hand has almost completely fallen out of everyday use, and could be heard mainly among the more isolated pockets of Denawar Manicheans living in the valley of the Lower Oxus (5). It could be heard as a liturgical language, or among the “elect” of the Manicheans. But even in the Lower Oxus Basin, without knowledge of either Sogdian or Karluk, you would find yourself easily lost.
The Tukhari language, spoken on the Upper Oxus valley (6) has survived among the highlander population in the area. The language has been historically written using the Greek alphabet, however, contemporarily, it is usually written with Sogdian in the lower parts and Kharoshti script (7) in the upper parts, and for religious texts.
In terms of religion, the realm is divided in a west-east manner. The Karluks and the population of Ferghana and Sogdia are mostly Christians. Buddhism is prevalent in Khotan, Qocho and Tukharistan. Furthermore, there still remains a sizeable Manichean population of Denawar denomination in the west and Toxoxian in the region of Qocho.
The metropolitan province of the Church of the East in Central Asia
The Church of the East within the Abaqid khanate consisted at first of the metropolitan provinces based in Samarqand, Ferghana, Navekath and Khotan. Two new metropolitan provinces have been stablished during the reign of Naimans: Almaliq has been elevated to an archbishopric, as it had become the capital of the realm, and Bukharah, which became detatched from Samarqand. Ultimately, Tashkent (Shash) has come to detatched from Ferghana and made its own province. Thus the number of archdioceses in the realm has risen from four to seven.
Buddhism in the realm, as stated in an affair mostly in the eastern parts of the realm. Both the Saka and the Tukhari are Iranian-speaking peoples, using the Kharoshti script, and belonging to the Mahayana tradition. The Uyghurs in the Qocho region mixed the Buddhist religion of the pseudo-Tocharian (Arsian) peoples they had encountered in the Tarim basin with their own Manichaean beliefs of their own Toxoxian branch (8). The demographic balance between the two is roughly equal (9).
Religion in the Abaqid Khanate
Ultimately, there is a third religion in the house. Denawar Manichaeism. The Denawar in 1000AD almost fully dominant in the Central Steppe, have now been reduced to a number of isolated communities: the Yenisei Kirghiz in the north, the Bolghars on the Middle Volga, the Pakhtun of Zabulistan and Segestan and of course the Sogdians and Khorasmian, who are now in a central position in regards to all of the mentioned communities.
As for Manicheans in Sogdia proper, they are not completely extinguished, rather they maintain a small presence (10), comparable to that of the Jews in Europe. However, given the region´s mercantile traditions, the business and trade very likely to remain in the hands of Christian merchants, who, with their network of monastery checkpoints can outcompete any Manichean out of the market. The small Manichean minority (+/- 10-15%) in Sogdia would specialize themselves to artisans, artists and money-lenders to some extent as well.
The first khans have openly identified with Christianity – Abaqa khan himself however a rather tolerant ruler, who allowed for all religions to coexist in peace.
His heir, Baraq has however become a Christian zealot, staunchly opposed to Buddhists, whom he declared to be “demon worshippers”. The open persecution of one religion or another by a khan had been unheard of – for centuries has this region been a tolerant place, harbouring Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Manicheans, Christians, Jews and Tengrists. Even some of the Nestorian bishops have protested against this move.
On Baraq´s command, it had become prohibited to establish a new monastery, and Buddhist monasteries were no longer supported by the state. Furthermore, it had become required that all governors become Christians, and a specific poll tax was decried upon the Buddhists
One of the most direct results of the persecution of Buddhism has been the destruction of the cathedral at Khotan, burnt down by enraged Buddhists. The Tukhari people have risen in revolt. Ultimately, Baraq was murdered by his nephew Kaidu, who has annulled all anti-Buddhist decrees. He reembraced the traditional policy of religious tolerance in the region, and has declared royal patronage over the Church of the East, the Holy Church of the Denawar of Mar Manni as well as Buddhism of the Mahayana school. In fact, Mar Ammo, the Yagma (11) of Samarqand has become a very close friend of Kaidu.
The Manichean faith will see this time as a time of renewal and consolidation, and the Manicheans are now sending many preachers again to the Uyghurs, whose autonomous church organization had collapsed and have mostly merged into Buddhism. (12)
Kaidu has sought to bring about internal stability, because his aim was to be found southwards, in he still unconquered Subcontinent named India. Controlling Kabulistan meant that he already had a strategic base for his invasion of India, although controlling Zabulistan would also be helpful. Anyhow, Kaidu was prepared to follow the footsteps of the Kushans to unite India, Sogdia and the Tarim Basin. Will he succeed?
- Named after Abaqa, which is just one of the Mongol names that came to my mind. If the Chagatai khanate was named after Chagatai, well why not this alternate khanate be named after someone else?
- Tianshan
- Something like the OTL Chagatai language
- Similar to the role of Latin in Medieval Europe
- A region similar to Karakapalkastan and the former OTL Khanate of Khiva
- In the region of Bactria, or if you prefer modern terminology, then most of Tajikistan and adjacent NE parts of Afghanistan
- Kharoshti is a script originating in NW Pakistan (Khyber Pashtunwa), and has spread also as far as the Tarim Basin. Therefore, I deem it logical for a Buddhist population to maintain its connection to India using a writing system originating in India.
- Manichaeism in China (Mingjian) has descended from the Toxoxian branch practiced by the Uyghurs, rather than from the Msadeqi of Mazoun.
- While one may contend, that Sogdia and Ferghana are going to be more densely populated, it ought to be reminded that the region suffered much more devastation during the conquest than the Tarim Basin or the Tukharistan Valleys – the former subdued itself willingly to the Naimans, the latter was too much a backwater to be sieged down properly.
- The Manicheans have suffered relatively more than the Nestorians, as they were more urbanized than their Christian neighbours.
- Highest religious title in the Manichean Church organization, analogous to the office of a Christian patriarch
- I do not know to what extent this will succeed. But Mahayana in OTL has proven to be easily susceptible to become displaced by other religions, be it in Northern Indian, Central Asia or China, perhaps because it can be described as a syncretic faith? The Manicheans are perhaps the world´s best organized syncretic Gnostic religion, and could make advantage of it, perhaps even displacing the Mahayana within the Abaqid khanate to a significant extent.