Collaborative timeline: Dunes of the Desert, a Timeline without Islam
- Thread starter Tomislav Addai
- Start date
Chapter 73: Buddhism is Back, Even in India
Hello folks so time has come for another update. Today I am going to talk again about the Indosphere, that is more precisely, about Southeast Asia, Tibet and Southern Asia.
Forms of government. Notice that something happened to India
Perhaps I should start in insular Southeast Asia. The Greater Molluccas (1) are home to handful of states, the most famous being the Kingdom of Tondo. Further south we observe the Ma-i, which was apparently in contact with China and Buddhism, although its layer was mostly superficial. Another polity on the island was Madhya-as, also known as Visayans, which existed on the island of Panai, apparently exiled elites from Sumatra, who have brought the local mi of mainly Hinduism, but partly also Buddhism with them. Ultimately, in the south of the archipelago, we have the Rajas of Butuan, who also affirmed an Indic culture.
These polities existent on the Greater Moluccas are often described as barangay states; the term barangay means a house on land or a boat on water; and the barangays could be described as an early phase of city-states or smaller political units. Some of these became larger and larger as time went on, and they have been mentioned before in the text. Society in the barangays is divided into three classes: the maginoo (ruling class), freemen (consisting of timawa= farmers and maharlika=warriors) and alipin= slaves.
What we were waiting for is the political map, right?
While Ma-i appears to have been under Chinese influence, a larger part of the Archipelago could have been found in the greater Indosphere; although Indian culture reached the area from the islands of Borneo, Java and Sumatra.
The island of Borneo remains home to two major polities: Kutai on the eastern coast and Brunei on the north-western (2). The entire coastal areas have been effectively Indianized, with Hinduism being the major religion. On the other hand, the inland regions remain rather barbaric so to speak, covered in dense tropical jungles and rainforests.
The insular world further east – be it Moluccas, Lesser Sunda islands, Papua and Polynesia remais far apart, and not yet greatly connected to the global civilization.
Bali remains home a Hindu civilization, remaining in one socio-cultural whole with the island of Java, which is split into two polities, Sunda in the west and Kediri in the east.
The island of Sumatra continues to be dominated by the league of Srivijaya, commanding a maritime empire, while the western coast was held by Pagarruyung. Contrary to the islands of Borneo and Java, Sumatra is mostly Buddhist, belonging to the Vajrayana tradition.
The northwestern tip of Sumatra, known as Pasai, has come into increasingly frequent contact with Mazdaki merchants from Mazoun, who have begun to spread a new faith in the region altogether; Mazdaki Manicheism (3). The spread was rather gradual, with new communities being found by merchants and their local partners, with the new religion gradually spreading from village to village, without major interference from the nobility or government.
The Malay Peninsula was culturally very much like the island of Sumatra during the twelth century, with few differences. Indeed, the Straits of Malacca acted as corridor rather than a barrier, and it was due to them that Srivijaya has risen to its power and wealth, controlling the major trade route between India and China.
Contuining northwards, we enter the peninsular part of Southeast Asia; the isthmus of Malaya was held by a mysterious polity called Ligor; further nor we can see the Lavo Kingdom (4), originally inhabited by the Mon people, who called the area Dvaravati. By the end of the 12th century, despite discontinued rule by the neighbouring Khmer, the inhabitants were culturally assimilated into the Hindu Khmer.
The area was witnessing a wave of migration from the highlands of Zomia. The incomers were scattered hillmen people from the south of China, who called themselves Tai; to the settled civilized peoples of Southeast Asia, they were a barbaric people; however they have adopted Theravada Buddhism as their religion in Hariphunchai, and their new alphabet was effectively a mix between the Mon and the Khmer scripts.
Linguisticall,y no major major changes. Except the Thai migration southwards
The hegemon in the Mekong basin was still the Khmer Empire, builders of the impressive Angkor Wat complex. The Khmers were mostly patrons of Shaivite Hinduism, and while Buddhism in the realm was also a thing, some of the kings of the Khmer openly persecuted it.
Ultimately, along the eastern coast we have the Cham city-states and the kingdom of Dai Viet. Not much has changed in Dai Viet. The Cham, on the other hand as mentioned in the previous update, under the influence of Mazouni traders have embraced the Mazdaki religion, which began to spread at first into the largest cities: Vijaya, Kauthara and Panduranga. The very first to convert were the urban townsfolk, with the nobility and peasants not so much; thus for quite some time, the urban-rural divide was matched also with the religious divide.
As for the Iravadi valley, most of it has been unified under the banner of Bagan. The people of Bagan were not pagans, rather they were among the first staunch Theravada Buddhists in Southeast Asia. The highland fringes – the Wa, the Hsenwi and the Pong largely preserved their independence, as did Arakan in the coastal strip. Not much further is said to describe the area.
Moving upstream we reach the region of the so-called Roof of Asia, where we still see the kingdom of Dali in the easternmost part (5), while the Tibetan Highland has seen a period of consolidation. No longer fragmented into half a dozen of competing polities, Tibet is now composed of three major polities, with U-Tsang dominating the central part of Tibet around Lhasa, MdoKhma in the east and Guge in the west.
So yes, this was it speaking of southeastern Asia and Tibet, now let us take a look at the Indian Subcontinent, shall we?
Starting down south, we have the island of Ceylon under the rule of the Lambakannas, with no major changes since we last visited the island. At the tip of the Subcontinent, the Tamil Chola dynasty has declined, and the Pandyas have carved their own little realm in the south of their territory. In Kerala, we the Nestorian Christian Cera dynasty rule the southern coast, while further northwards, we have the Hoysala realm. Ultimately, the Telugu region is ruled by the Kakatiya dynasty.
For some reason, we can notice a steep decline of Jainism in western India, mainly due to Hinduism being more able to accommodate feudal structures. On the other hand, many coastal communities, especially in Kathiawar or Gujarat have embraced Mazdakism (6)
The decline of Buddhism in India was stopped. In fact,some areas actually became Buddhist again. While Denawari Manicheism is certainly on the retreat, you can see Mazdaki expansion, here and there
The decline of Buddhism (7) in northern India is somewhat halted; and Buddhism remains mostly confined again to the Gangetic plain, especially the lower and central parts. The former heartland of the Pala Empire (8) gets ruled by a Hindu Sena dynasty; nevertheless Buddhism remains the religion of the majority of the population in the realm.
The Manichean Jagudid dynasty, which had been ruling over much of the Indus Valley and the adjacent areas of Zabulistan and Kabulistan has, to a significant extent, entrenched Manichean practices in the Punjab region. However, in 1186 the Jagudids were overthrown by Sicandar of Mandesh (9), a Buddhist governor in the mountain regions of the Hindukush. Equipped with an army of hillmen and fine cavalry experts, Sicandar manages to secure the mountainous regions without major obstacles and revenge his poisoned uncle. After conquering the city of Jaguda (10), the city is razed and sacked.
The Mandeshi campaigns continue in the route of Alexander, seizing the Indus Valley and subsequently, also marching into the upper Gangetic plain. Ultimately, Mandeshi control extended as far eastwards as to the borders of Nepal; and Sicandar brought with him a resurgence of Buddhism into the region, with royal patronage for monasteries. The new rulers again attacked the Manicheans, whom they found as corrupting the true message of Buddha.
Mandeshi policies against the Manicheans were perhaps driven by hatred, perhaps by hatred and sought to stop this teaching, which showed many faces depending on whom they spoke to (11). Mandeshi demanded especially in the region of Gandhara, that the people return back to the religion of their ancestors. While some in fact do, the majority does not.
(1) Philippines
(2) The part that today belongs to Brunei and Malaysia
(3) For some reason, I tend to think that this could be a good religion for maritime traders. I mean, Mazoun was a parallel to the United Provinces, so maybe Mazdakism and Calvinism being a thing?
(4) In the area of modern central Thailand
(5) Today known as the province of Yunnan
(6) Yes, Mazdakism most certainly is the religion that is being spread by the Indian Ocean trade
(7) Does not take as dramatic a shape as it did in OTL.
(8) Speaking of Bengal
(9) ATL Muhammad of Ghor. Yes, Sicandar is a reference to the Man Who Would Be King
(10)Ghazni
(11)It has been noted, that especially Buddhists were angry with Manicheans, for the Manicheans often pretended to be Buddhists; therefore in the time of Genghis Khan, there was great enmity between the two religions.
Forms of government. Notice that something happened to India
Perhaps I should start in insular Southeast Asia. The Greater Molluccas (1) are home to handful of states, the most famous being the Kingdom of Tondo. Further south we observe the Ma-i, which was apparently in contact with China and Buddhism, although its layer was mostly superficial. Another polity on the island was Madhya-as, also known as Visayans, which existed on the island of Panai, apparently exiled elites from Sumatra, who have brought the local mi of mainly Hinduism, but partly also Buddhism with them. Ultimately, in the south of the archipelago, we have the Rajas of Butuan, who also affirmed an Indic culture.
These polities existent on the Greater Moluccas are often described as barangay states; the term barangay means a house on land or a boat on water; and the barangays could be described as an early phase of city-states or smaller political units. Some of these became larger and larger as time went on, and they have been mentioned before in the text. Society in the barangays is divided into three classes: the maginoo (ruling class), freemen (consisting of timawa= farmers and maharlika=warriors) and alipin= slaves.
What we were waiting for is the political map, right?
While Ma-i appears to have been under Chinese influence, a larger part of the Archipelago could have been found in the greater Indosphere; although Indian culture reached the area from the islands of Borneo, Java and Sumatra.
The island of Borneo remains home to two major polities: Kutai on the eastern coast and Brunei on the north-western (2). The entire coastal areas have been effectively Indianized, with Hinduism being the major religion. On the other hand, the inland regions remain rather barbaric so to speak, covered in dense tropical jungles and rainforests.
The insular world further east – be it Moluccas, Lesser Sunda islands, Papua and Polynesia remais far apart, and not yet greatly connected to the global civilization.
Bali remains home a Hindu civilization, remaining in one socio-cultural whole with the island of Java, which is split into two polities, Sunda in the west and Kediri in the east.
The island of Sumatra continues to be dominated by the league of Srivijaya, commanding a maritime empire, while the western coast was held by Pagarruyung. Contrary to the islands of Borneo and Java, Sumatra is mostly Buddhist, belonging to the Vajrayana tradition.
The northwestern tip of Sumatra, known as Pasai, has come into increasingly frequent contact with Mazdaki merchants from Mazoun, who have begun to spread a new faith in the region altogether; Mazdaki Manicheism (3). The spread was rather gradual, with new communities being found by merchants and their local partners, with the new religion gradually spreading from village to village, without major interference from the nobility or government.
The Malay Peninsula was culturally very much like the island of Sumatra during the twelth century, with few differences. Indeed, the Straits of Malacca acted as corridor rather than a barrier, and it was due to them that Srivijaya has risen to its power and wealth, controlling the major trade route between India and China.
Contuining northwards, we enter the peninsular part of Southeast Asia; the isthmus of Malaya was held by a mysterious polity called Ligor; further nor we can see the Lavo Kingdom (4), originally inhabited by the Mon people, who called the area Dvaravati. By the end of the 12th century, despite discontinued rule by the neighbouring Khmer, the inhabitants were culturally assimilated into the Hindu Khmer.
The area was witnessing a wave of migration from the highlands of Zomia. The incomers were scattered hillmen people from the south of China, who called themselves Tai; to the settled civilized peoples of Southeast Asia, they were a barbaric people; however they have adopted Theravada Buddhism as their religion in Hariphunchai, and their new alphabet was effectively a mix between the Mon and the Khmer scripts.
Linguisticall,y no major major changes. Except the Thai migration southwards
The hegemon in the Mekong basin was still the Khmer Empire, builders of the impressive Angkor Wat complex. The Khmers were mostly patrons of Shaivite Hinduism, and while Buddhism in the realm was also a thing, some of the kings of the Khmer openly persecuted it.
Ultimately, along the eastern coast we have the Cham city-states and the kingdom of Dai Viet. Not much has changed in Dai Viet. The Cham, on the other hand as mentioned in the previous update, under the influence of Mazouni traders have embraced the Mazdaki religion, which began to spread at first into the largest cities: Vijaya, Kauthara and Panduranga. The very first to convert were the urban townsfolk, with the nobility and peasants not so much; thus for quite some time, the urban-rural divide was matched also with the religious divide.
As for the Iravadi valley, most of it has been unified under the banner of Bagan. The people of Bagan were not pagans, rather they were among the first staunch Theravada Buddhists in Southeast Asia. The highland fringes – the Wa, the Hsenwi and the Pong largely preserved their independence, as did Arakan in the coastal strip. Not much further is said to describe the area.
Moving upstream we reach the region of the so-called Roof of Asia, where we still see the kingdom of Dali in the easternmost part (5), while the Tibetan Highland has seen a period of consolidation. No longer fragmented into half a dozen of competing polities, Tibet is now composed of three major polities, with U-Tsang dominating the central part of Tibet around Lhasa, MdoKhma in the east and Guge in the west.
So yes, this was it speaking of southeastern Asia and Tibet, now let us take a look at the Indian Subcontinent, shall we?
Starting down south, we have the island of Ceylon under the rule of the Lambakannas, with no major changes since we last visited the island. At the tip of the Subcontinent, the Tamil Chola dynasty has declined, and the Pandyas have carved their own little realm in the south of their territory. In Kerala, we the Nestorian Christian Cera dynasty rule the southern coast, while further northwards, we have the Hoysala realm. Ultimately, the Telugu region is ruled by the Kakatiya dynasty.
For some reason, we can notice a steep decline of Jainism in western India, mainly due to Hinduism being more able to accommodate feudal structures. On the other hand, many coastal communities, especially in Kathiawar or Gujarat have embraced Mazdakism (6)
The decline of Buddhism in India was stopped. In fact,some areas actually became Buddhist again. While Denawari Manicheism is certainly on the retreat, you can see Mazdaki expansion, here and there
The decline of Buddhism (7) in northern India is somewhat halted; and Buddhism remains mostly confined again to the Gangetic plain, especially the lower and central parts. The former heartland of the Pala Empire (8) gets ruled by a Hindu Sena dynasty; nevertheless Buddhism remains the religion of the majority of the population in the realm.
The Manichean Jagudid dynasty, which had been ruling over much of the Indus Valley and the adjacent areas of Zabulistan and Kabulistan has, to a significant extent, entrenched Manichean practices in the Punjab region. However, in 1186 the Jagudids were overthrown by Sicandar of Mandesh (9), a Buddhist governor in the mountain regions of the Hindukush. Equipped with an army of hillmen and fine cavalry experts, Sicandar manages to secure the mountainous regions without major obstacles and revenge his poisoned uncle. After conquering the city of Jaguda (10), the city is razed and sacked.
The Mandeshi campaigns continue in the route of Alexander, seizing the Indus Valley and subsequently, also marching into the upper Gangetic plain. Ultimately, Mandeshi control extended as far eastwards as to the borders of Nepal; and Sicandar brought with him a resurgence of Buddhism into the region, with royal patronage for monasteries. The new rulers again attacked the Manicheans, whom they found as corrupting the true message of Buddha.
Mandeshi policies against the Manicheans were perhaps driven by hatred, perhaps by hatred and sought to stop this teaching, which showed many faces depending on whom they spoke to (11). Mandeshi demanded especially in the region of Gandhara, that the people return back to the religion of their ancestors. While some in fact do, the majority does not.
(1) Philippines
(2) The part that today belongs to Brunei and Malaysia
(3) For some reason, I tend to think that this could be a good religion for maritime traders. I mean, Mazoun was a parallel to the United Provinces, so maybe Mazdakism and Calvinism being a thing?
(4) In the area of modern central Thailand
(5) Today known as the province of Yunnan
(6) Yes, Mazdakism most certainly is the religion that is being spread by the Indian Ocean trade
(7) Does not take as dramatic a shape as it did in OTL.
(8) Speaking of Bengal
(9) ATL Muhammad of Ghor. Yes, Sicandar is a reference to the Man Who Would Be King
(10)Ghazni
(11)It has been noted, that especially Buddhists were angry with Manicheans, for the Manicheans often pretended to be Buddhists; therefore in the time of Genghis Khan, there was great enmity between the two religions.
Besides future Turkic - Mongol invaders stirring the pot- seems like Nestorianism/ Church of the East has been fairly heresy free for a long period for such a significant polity.
Also- should be some animist tribes migrating north to tussle with the Nubian Kings/Axum.
Also- should be some animist tribes migrating north to tussle with the Nubian Kings/Axum.
It seems that TTL’s Middle East is ripe for a Mongol like invasion from the steppe. With the eastern steppe being mostly Nestorian in faith, a splinter group could arise via an ambitious child of a clan chief coupled with a heretical sect.
The origins of this heresy (similar to either the Cathars or Messalian) could be traced to a mystic preaching a so-called purer version of the faith. This heresy would attract the support of a ambitious daughter of a local clan chief. When the aforementioned clan chief dies, the daughter and her followers lose out in the succession struggle and sets out west as a new tribe to establish their own domain. From there they become TTL’s version of the Mongols.
The origins of this heresy (similar to either the Cathars or Messalian) could be traced to a mystic preaching a so-called purer version of the faith. This heresy would attract the support of a ambitious daughter of a local clan chief. When the aforementioned clan chief dies, the daughter and her followers lose out in the succession struggle and sets out west as a new tribe to establish their own domain. From there they become TTL’s version of the Mongols.
Chapter 74: Persianate Marriages and the Council of Kashkar
Now we are going to take a look further west, into the realm of the Seljuk Shahanshahs. While ruling over most of Persia and Sogdia, the new Turkic Emperors of Persia have already lost grip over the lands to the west of Qtēspōn by 1100s.
Their system of government by feudal appanages meant a further weakening of the crown. Loyalty of the atabegs or governors in the provinces- with powerful vassals in Khorasan, Kerman, Pars, Adarbaigan and Dailam – often depended upon the personal relations with the Shahanshah himself than any possible coercion mechanism. Furthermore, the tribes in the hilly Zagros were left to be be governed by themselves, while Sawat and Khozestan were considered to be the real golden eggs of the realm and placed under the most trusted administrators of the Shahanshah.
While Persian has become the language of court, of literature, science, philosophy and poetry, the newcomers often treated local Persians as second-class citizens, parcelling the land among themselves as spoils of war and extorting whatever resources they could. This was particularly the case of the Turkmen clans in the region of Pars (1) and the tribes in Kerman. The ancient regions of Media and Adarbaigan, but also Khorasan, on the other hand, experienced a significant influx of Turkic nomads into their lands, resulting in a general cultural shift.
As mentioned, the local Persians were generally given little influence and say under the Seljuks; especially if they remained Zoroastrian. Being Manichean was not better either, and both were encouraged to convert to Nestorianism. This was more successful in the more cosmopolitan regions along the Silk Road, where you could often meet merchants and monks from Mesopotamia or Sogdia. Taberestan and the southeastern regions of Iran, such as Yazd and Kerman remained much more conservative and Kerman was the site of a major Zoroastrian revolt against the undisciplined and few Turkic nomads stationed there.
Essentially, after the local Beg began extorting taxes in an exceptionally dry year and failed to receive the demanded sum, he sacked the local Fire Temple. This provoked a popular uprising, which resulted in him being and his garrison being lynched by the angry crowd.
The Shahanshah indeed acknowledged, that his vassal behaved in an unacceptable manner and chose “a man from amongst them, a man whom he fully trusted, for he was his loyal friend and courtier.Magi by faith, Persian by blood, Darius from the city of Semnan”. Thus Kerman received a Zoroastrian Satrap, who was to govern as to not provoke further revolts. Darius was one of the few Zoroastrians, who rose to prominence under the Seljuks.
In Dailam and the Zagros Mountains, the Shahanshah relied on local chiefs and satraps – who, as Seljuk authority waned, quietly reasserted their independence, without any such formal declaration, with their best protection being the mere inaccessibility of the mountain ranges, as well as the disunity and quarrelling among the Turks.
The major decision-makers in the realm were thus the Turks and the Assyrians – with the Turks being mostly the military and the nobility, while Assyrians dominate as clergymen and townsfolk. Assyrians were the ones giving the Turks the values to protect and the Turks were the ones ready to protect them; such an arrangement has been called the “pact of the priest and the knight” (2).
A little inferior, but also in places of influence were local Persian Christians. Some of them were actually descendants of Assyrian merchants in Persia who had assimilated into Persian culture, while preserving their faith. Others were Persians converted centuries ago, and ultimately there are also the most recent converts. You could find them mostly in the cities and towns, especially in the region between Hulwan and Semnan, where they could be found also in the villages along the Silk Road. Their major cultural centre was the city of Reyy, which was the seat of the metropolitan province of the Church of the East.
Many values ingrained in Persian culture were quite naturally upheld by the Christians as well. We are not talking merely about the ceremonial politeness or the celebrations of Nowruz. More problematic was the Persian custom of polygamy, as Persian nobles had enjoyed multiple wives for centuries. Marital ties have often held the realm together, as the lesser nobility sought to marry their daughters well. True, often they were junior wives, but fair and beautiful, giving birth to the most talented of the Persian nobility.
With many Persians now being Christian, there arose a problem. Polygamy as such is forbidden. However a solution has presented itself, by Farbokht, the private confessor of the king (5) suggests marrying them to eunuchs. After all, each man will be husband to one wife, and the harems will not grow too large, for one would need to feed as many eunuchs as one wishes to have extra wives.
The practice of these of “Persianate marriages” was at first largely ignored by the local Persian bishops and priests. After all, their aim was to gain as many converts as possible, not to ban them everything. Only after the Visitor of the Order of Mar Addai reports the case to the Patriarch Ishoyahb V (1149-1175), has the Church begun making a controversy of the whole thing.
Religion in Persia. Note the rise of Nestorianism in central Persia
Patriarch Ishoyahb has called a Council, with was to meet in Kashkar, in Lower Mesopotamia and discuss the whole issue. Politically speaking, Ishoyahb did not wish tear the Church apart. He saw what was going on in the Mediterranean, how endless disputes kept dividing the Church, after kicking a group of heretics out. Not here. In the East, the Holy Spirit kept the faithful together, despite their differences, despite the fact that it was stretched from Jerusalem to the steppes of the Naimans.
Therefore, the Council aimed to come up with a position which could be described as a consensus, yet still within the truth of the Church´s teaching. The general atmosphere was not offensive and hostile; rather the clergymen sought to speak of the phenomenon and why it is wrong. The Assyrians took a more principal stance, condemning the practice as sin and fornification; the Persian bishops however took a much more moderate attitude, citing examples from the Scripture, where Jesus remained in company of the sinners and would not stand the pride of the self-righteous. The bishops from the exterior provinces beyond Persia did not have any strong opinion in favour or against, and took sides upon basis of their zeal (or almost lack thereof).
In general, even the Persians understood that the practice was outside the limits of Christian ethics, yet they lacked the courage to act against it. Ultimately it was decided that the practice is contrary to Christian doctrine and therefore it shall not be practiced in the future; yet those who remain in such unions ought to seek penance and shall be forgiven, while still being allowed to stay in such a state. The Church did not seek a confrontation with the Seljuks, for the Seljuks actually depended on the Church and the Church depended on them greatly as well.
The Seljuks were indeed great patrons of the Church of the East, and helped build monasteries as caravanserais in almost regular intervals along the entirety of the length of the Silk Road in their territory. The travellers would often use the inns as their most commonly used function, but the hospitals, the schools and the libraries were beneficial mostly to those living in their close proximity. It was actually this network of monasteries that resulted in the conversion to Christianity in the area.
Persian Christians were thus offered the lower posts in the administration and bureaucracy, but without them the entire state could barely work. These people were the ones, who reintroduced the old Persian model of governance and the satrapies. However, implementing it into a country divided amongst the clans of the conquerors (3). And bringing back the Kurds, the Lurs and the Dailamites under control would be another.
Thus in the mid-twelth century, Shahanshah Petrus II. (4) decreed an administrative reform, subject to which was to be almost the entire country, save “Chartered Lands Under Exclusive Authority of Tribal Clans”. In other words, the land left to unruly tribes for it was not worth fighting them.
Administration in Persia
Implementing said reform was easiest in Sawat and Khuzestan and along the Silk Road, as well as in the royal demesne around Ispahan. More difficult, but not impossible was Kerman and Pars; Khorasan and Adarbaigan would have to wait.
Khorasan, whose language was already under heavy Turkic influence was one of the first parts of the empire to set itself free from the authority of the Shahanshah. The area had been previously mostly Manichean, now again converted to Nestorianism.
Let us see the Turkic enclaves in the Iranian Sea
And then we have Sogdia. The Mesopotamia of Central Asia. The area used to be a multireligious and multicultural melting pot, a crossroad of civilizations, where Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences met. By the twelfth century, the Nestorians have come to dominate the cultural landscape, increasing their proportion to 60%. The second most numerous group were the declining Manicheans, making around a fifth of the population. The Buddhists number a mere tenth of the population, and the rest being a mix of Zoroastrians, Jacobites and Jews.
While Manicheism used to flourish in the lands of Central Asia, where it was home and headquarters to the Denawar Church based in Samarqand, it has been in decline, and especially since the Seljuks began actively promoting Nestorianism, which was already gaining numerical superiority in the region by the eleventh century. Religious strife began to be an issue in the previously tolerant region, mostly Denawar against Nestorians, with occasional clashes and attacks. This results in more Buddhist emigration from Sogdia into the staunchly Buddhist- dominated Tukharistan; meanwhile a steady number of Manicheans move to the relatively safe region of Khwarezm.
The Denawar Manicheans took up a more militant version of the faith, as a response to being threatened. Manichean scholars and thinkers, writing in Sogdian and even more commonly in Kwarezmian-influenced Sogdian justify the need of self-defence and defence of one´s community in accordance with Manichean doctrine (6).
Many Persian were also prepared to use violence in bringing down the Seljuk Empire and reinstating a true Persian Persia. They would assemble in secret societies, and their bases of operation could have been found in the inaccessibility of the Elborz Mountains, but also anywhere where they could blend in with the locals. Their methods of warfare could not be described as guerrilla warfare either, although skirmish tactics were often used to attack patrols in the proximity of their hidden castles. But the most standard attacks were carried out as discrete murders (7) of important Seljuk official.
And finally a political map in the end
(1) Without Arabic influence, the change from “p” to “f” in Persian does not occur
(2) Yes, it reminds me of the Yuan dynasty of China.
(3) Or warlords, put it simply
(4) This a Muhammad II analogue
(5) I´ve inspired myself the Scorpion´s Bite, by @fi11222
(6) So maybe we have a sort of Central Asian islam after all. Or don´t we? Well, they are limited by now mostly to Uzbekistan, so not that much they can do anyway.
(7) The Assassins, anyone?
Their system of government by feudal appanages meant a further weakening of the crown. Loyalty of the atabegs or governors in the provinces- with powerful vassals in Khorasan, Kerman, Pars, Adarbaigan and Dailam – often depended upon the personal relations with the Shahanshah himself than any possible coercion mechanism. Furthermore, the tribes in the hilly Zagros were left to be be governed by themselves, while Sawat and Khozestan were considered to be the real golden eggs of the realm and placed under the most trusted administrators of the Shahanshah.
While Persian has become the language of court, of literature, science, philosophy and poetry, the newcomers often treated local Persians as second-class citizens, parcelling the land among themselves as spoils of war and extorting whatever resources they could. This was particularly the case of the Turkmen clans in the region of Pars (1) and the tribes in Kerman. The ancient regions of Media and Adarbaigan, but also Khorasan, on the other hand, experienced a significant influx of Turkic nomads into their lands, resulting in a general cultural shift.
As mentioned, the local Persians were generally given little influence and say under the Seljuks; especially if they remained Zoroastrian. Being Manichean was not better either, and both were encouraged to convert to Nestorianism. This was more successful in the more cosmopolitan regions along the Silk Road, where you could often meet merchants and monks from Mesopotamia or Sogdia. Taberestan and the southeastern regions of Iran, such as Yazd and Kerman remained much more conservative and Kerman was the site of a major Zoroastrian revolt against the undisciplined and few Turkic nomads stationed there.
Essentially, after the local Beg began extorting taxes in an exceptionally dry year and failed to receive the demanded sum, he sacked the local Fire Temple. This provoked a popular uprising, which resulted in him being and his garrison being lynched by the angry crowd.
The Shahanshah indeed acknowledged, that his vassal behaved in an unacceptable manner and chose “a man from amongst them, a man whom he fully trusted, for he was his loyal friend and courtier.Magi by faith, Persian by blood, Darius from the city of Semnan”. Thus Kerman received a Zoroastrian Satrap, who was to govern as to not provoke further revolts. Darius was one of the few Zoroastrians, who rose to prominence under the Seljuks.
In Dailam and the Zagros Mountains, the Shahanshah relied on local chiefs and satraps – who, as Seljuk authority waned, quietly reasserted their independence, without any such formal declaration, with their best protection being the mere inaccessibility of the mountain ranges, as well as the disunity and quarrelling among the Turks.
The major decision-makers in the realm were thus the Turks and the Assyrians – with the Turks being mostly the military and the nobility, while Assyrians dominate as clergymen and townsfolk. Assyrians were the ones giving the Turks the values to protect and the Turks were the ones ready to protect them; such an arrangement has been called the “pact of the priest and the knight” (2).
A little inferior, but also in places of influence were local Persian Christians. Some of them were actually descendants of Assyrian merchants in Persia who had assimilated into Persian culture, while preserving their faith. Others were Persians converted centuries ago, and ultimately there are also the most recent converts. You could find them mostly in the cities and towns, especially in the region between Hulwan and Semnan, where they could be found also in the villages along the Silk Road. Their major cultural centre was the city of Reyy, which was the seat of the metropolitan province of the Church of the East.
Many values ingrained in Persian culture were quite naturally upheld by the Christians as well. We are not talking merely about the ceremonial politeness or the celebrations of Nowruz. More problematic was the Persian custom of polygamy, as Persian nobles had enjoyed multiple wives for centuries. Marital ties have often held the realm together, as the lesser nobility sought to marry their daughters well. True, often they were junior wives, but fair and beautiful, giving birth to the most talented of the Persian nobility.
With many Persians now being Christian, there arose a problem. Polygamy as such is forbidden. However a solution has presented itself, by Farbokht, the private confessor of the king (5) suggests marrying them to eunuchs. After all, each man will be husband to one wife, and the harems will not grow too large, for one would need to feed as many eunuchs as one wishes to have extra wives.
The practice of these of “Persianate marriages” was at first largely ignored by the local Persian bishops and priests. After all, their aim was to gain as many converts as possible, not to ban them everything. Only after the Visitor of the Order of Mar Addai reports the case to the Patriarch Ishoyahb V (1149-1175), has the Church begun making a controversy of the whole thing.
Religion in Persia. Note the rise of Nestorianism in central Persia
Patriarch Ishoyahb has called a Council, with was to meet in Kashkar, in Lower Mesopotamia and discuss the whole issue. Politically speaking, Ishoyahb did not wish tear the Church apart. He saw what was going on in the Mediterranean, how endless disputes kept dividing the Church, after kicking a group of heretics out. Not here. In the East, the Holy Spirit kept the faithful together, despite their differences, despite the fact that it was stretched from Jerusalem to the steppes of the Naimans.
Therefore, the Council aimed to come up with a position which could be described as a consensus, yet still within the truth of the Church´s teaching. The general atmosphere was not offensive and hostile; rather the clergymen sought to speak of the phenomenon and why it is wrong. The Assyrians took a more principal stance, condemning the practice as sin and fornification; the Persian bishops however took a much more moderate attitude, citing examples from the Scripture, where Jesus remained in company of the sinners and would not stand the pride of the self-righteous. The bishops from the exterior provinces beyond Persia did not have any strong opinion in favour or against, and took sides upon basis of their zeal (or almost lack thereof).
In general, even the Persians understood that the practice was outside the limits of Christian ethics, yet they lacked the courage to act against it. Ultimately it was decided that the practice is contrary to Christian doctrine and therefore it shall not be practiced in the future; yet those who remain in such unions ought to seek penance and shall be forgiven, while still being allowed to stay in such a state. The Church did not seek a confrontation with the Seljuks, for the Seljuks actually depended on the Church and the Church depended on them greatly as well.
The Seljuks were indeed great patrons of the Church of the East, and helped build monasteries as caravanserais in almost regular intervals along the entirety of the length of the Silk Road in their territory. The travellers would often use the inns as their most commonly used function, but the hospitals, the schools and the libraries were beneficial mostly to those living in their close proximity. It was actually this network of monasteries that resulted in the conversion to Christianity in the area.
Persian Christians were thus offered the lower posts in the administration and bureaucracy, but without them the entire state could barely work. These people were the ones, who reintroduced the old Persian model of governance and the satrapies. However, implementing it into a country divided amongst the clans of the conquerors (3). And bringing back the Kurds, the Lurs and the Dailamites under control would be another.
Thus in the mid-twelth century, Shahanshah Petrus II. (4) decreed an administrative reform, subject to which was to be almost the entire country, save “Chartered Lands Under Exclusive Authority of Tribal Clans”. In other words, the land left to unruly tribes for it was not worth fighting them.
Administration in Persia
Implementing said reform was easiest in Sawat and Khuzestan and along the Silk Road, as well as in the royal demesne around Ispahan. More difficult, but not impossible was Kerman and Pars; Khorasan and Adarbaigan would have to wait.
Khorasan, whose language was already under heavy Turkic influence was one of the first parts of the empire to set itself free from the authority of the Shahanshah. The area had been previously mostly Manichean, now again converted to Nestorianism.
Let us see the Turkic enclaves in the Iranian Sea
And then we have Sogdia. The Mesopotamia of Central Asia. The area used to be a multireligious and multicultural melting pot, a crossroad of civilizations, where Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences met. By the twelfth century, the Nestorians have come to dominate the cultural landscape, increasing their proportion to 60%. The second most numerous group were the declining Manicheans, making around a fifth of the population. The Buddhists number a mere tenth of the population, and the rest being a mix of Zoroastrians, Jacobites and Jews.
While Manicheism used to flourish in the lands of Central Asia, where it was home and headquarters to the Denawar Church based in Samarqand, it has been in decline, and especially since the Seljuks began actively promoting Nestorianism, which was already gaining numerical superiority in the region by the eleventh century. Religious strife began to be an issue in the previously tolerant region, mostly Denawar against Nestorians, with occasional clashes and attacks. This results in more Buddhist emigration from Sogdia into the staunchly Buddhist- dominated Tukharistan; meanwhile a steady number of Manicheans move to the relatively safe region of Khwarezm.
The Denawar Manicheans took up a more militant version of the faith, as a response to being threatened. Manichean scholars and thinkers, writing in Sogdian and even more commonly in Kwarezmian-influenced Sogdian justify the need of self-defence and defence of one´s community in accordance with Manichean doctrine (6).
Many Persian were also prepared to use violence in bringing down the Seljuk Empire and reinstating a true Persian Persia. They would assemble in secret societies, and their bases of operation could have been found in the inaccessibility of the Elborz Mountains, but also anywhere where they could blend in with the locals. Their methods of warfare could not be described as guerrilla warfare either, although skirmish tactics were often used to attack patrols in the proximity of their hidden castles. But the most standard attacks were carried out as discrete murders (7) of important Seljuk official.
And finally a political map in the end
(1) Without Arabic influence, the change from “p” to “f” in Persian does not occur
(2) Yes, it reminds me of the Yuan dynasty of China.
(3) Or warlords, put it simply
(4) This a Muhammad II analogue
(5) I´ve inspired myself the Scorpion´s Bite, by @fi11222
(6) So maybe we have a sort of Central Asian islam after all. Or don´t we? Well, they are limited by now mostly to Uzbekistan, so not that much they can do anyway.
(7) The Assassins, anyone?
Chapter 76: Mess in Mesopotamia
The realm of Mazoun has thus faced a severe crisis and appears not to have fully recovered. While a major slave rebellion has indeed been supressed, the realm has been weakened also by the rise of powerful competitors, and the Mazouni Republic has degraded into nothing more than a mere oligarchy during the course of the 12th century, and the real power was vested not in the hands of the Rais, nor the Council of Elders, not even the Sacred Council, but in the hands of the Dapir[1]. This was the most influential position, with the real executive power.
A political map of the Gulf Region
However, Mazoun lost most of its position in the trading system to the island-city of Ormus. This new rival took advantage of the weakening of Mazoun and due to a more favourable position took control of practically all trade entering and leaving the Gulf. Fighting a series of wars against Mazoun, Ormus manages to confirm its new position, and the Emirate of Magan[2] accepts Ormusian suzerainty, paying a yearly tribute. Mazoun remains a more pragmatically-oriented city-state, careful to have good relations with the powers that be in Persia (allowing free concessions for any Seljuk merchants and practically no tolls), as the local plutocrats know that risking war is certainly not a good idea.
Mazoun, having lost its position in the trade network and generally weakened now after the rise of Ormus sees itself become a monarchy by the 1160s in possibly all but name, as the office of the Dapir becomes hereditary and the remaining republican institutions merely formal. As the landowners gain more and more influence, while the traders gradually lose it, the society becomes generally more conservative, meaning more aristocratic and clerical power, with more conservative ideas and mores.
Linguistic make-up of the Gulf. Notice that Aramaic has expanded into parts of northern Mazoun
As for Beth Qatriye, the region has once again swapped to a sort of feudal rule, as the area experienced a population decline due to climate change, and a general collapse of some social structure, with the military commanders overthrowing the “greedy” merchants. Staying true to the tenets of the Christian faith, they outlawed any form of slavery, be it open or in disguise, as it is unjust and sinful.
Beth Qatriye has listened to the words of Youhanan of Gebail[3], heavily criticising the corruption of the Church and its mingling with Manicheism in most of Asia, as well as the temporal power of the Catholicos. His followers began to be known as sharirlimadh (meaning true disciples); the name has been corrupted in English into the form of Sarlimian. This new movement spread along the Qatriyan coast, and upon hearing that the Church of the East is not willing to take a rough stance against the Persianate Marriages they denounced the legitimacy of the Church of the East as an institution, claiming that it lost the original message of Jesus and was tainted and acculturated too much into the earlier Persian and Manichean traditions.
The Sarlimians shown in purple
Ironically, an unbiased observer could actually witness more Manichean and Gnostic elements in the Sarlimian theology than in Nestorianism. The Sarlimians judged everything and gave a moral quality (plus or minus) on any action, and put again more emphasis on the spiritual rather than the material world, claiming that only those who seek the transcendent are eligible to enter the Kingdom of God.
For this matter, many Qatriyans would retreat to the desert for a couple of weeks to meditate and seek to enter the Heavenly Kingdom, taking example from Jesus himself as well as Paul the Apostle in Arabia. In fact, this period of meditation began to be seen as another sacrament, marking the spiritual adulthood of the Sarlimian faithful.
As mentioned much of the region of Sawat remains under the rule of the Seljuks. This area, corresponding to what historians called Lower Mesopotamia was more or less synonymous with ancient Sumer or perhaps Lower Babylonia. The area remains a heavily populated and urbanized region, and therefore the Seljuks do not give it to a random clan as a trophy of war, but put it into the hands of their most trusted administrators.
As for the population, the gross and overwhelming majority are again Nestorian Christians, with Gnostic Mandeans retaining some presence in the marshy regions on the borderlands of Khuzestan and in the Mesopotamian marshes. Linguistically, the dialects to the south of Qtēspōn show some variations from the speech elsewhere in Mesopotamia, mainly by incorporating more borrowings from Persian and Turkish as well as Arabic (which was the case in the whole of Mesopotamia). However, more often, it was actually Arabic taking up Aramaic loanwords and cognates, for the lands of the Fertile Crescent were more civilized than the desert interior of the Arab Peninsula. In many cases, such as the semi-desert borderlands of southern Mesopotamia, you get just a variety which can best be described as Aramaic spoken and mispronounced by Arabs.
The population of Lower Mesopotamia was labelled as Sawadis or Chladeans by other Aramaic-speaking peoples, but of such “national identity” did not exist, rather they were seen as those Aramaic-speaking Nestorian Christians, who are subjects of the Seljuk Shahanshah. Nevertheless some cultural differences began to emerge as this area had more contact with Persia than the rest of Mesopotamia.[4]
The central regions of Mesopotamia include the city of Qtēspōn, as well as the region of Babil[5] were included in the “Donation of Tughril” and formed the Patriarchal State, a theocratic regime under the direct administration of the Patriarch of the East. Or at least theoretically, this metropolitan area was the demesne of the Nestorian Patriarch or Catholicos [6]. This region was heavily urbanized and there were practically no religious minorities (save a handful of Jewish merchants), yet the area was rather cosmopolitan, as it was basically the headquarters of the Nestorian church, so you could meet there people from India, from Socotra, from Sogdia or even Mongolia.
Regarding cultural developments, one can say that indeed Mesopotamia was rather advanced in culture and education; as previously stated, Assyrians were one of the best scholars in the medieval world. Great universities could have been found in Gundeshapur, in Niniveh, in Qtespon, a new one in Kashkar and in Nisibis. Mesopotamia continues in its ancient tradition of astronomy and astrology (although you hear occasionally some priests and monks complain about it being idolatry).
The prosperity in the area, as well as historic tradition [7] had it that prostitution was relatively widespread in the area of Mesopotamia. Even despite the fact, that the area was literally outside the doors of the Nestorian Patriarch, perhaps because the ark is the darkest just below the lamp. The region of Sawat was fast in adopting the Persianate marriages from beyond the Zagros, although sometimes these formalities would not even happen.
The very relaxed mode of these urban societies would be something that the Church did try to tackle, but had real difficulty in doing so, especially in Sawat.
To the west of Qtespon, we have the Jewish city of Nehardea, which remains one of the greatest centers of Jewish culture worldwide. Nehardea is one of the few areas in the world actually ruled by the Jews in the form of a city-republic, while being practically dependent on the Patriarchal State for in most practical affairs. Actually, the sole reason for which it continues to exist as an independent entity in the first place is the lack of further territorial ambitions in Qtespon.
Government in the Persian Gulf
Further upstream the Euphrates, there is the small, yet still independent County of Anbar, which thanks its independence to Nehardea. Not much is to be said about this place, except that it remains in a rather backwaterish state.
In Upper Mesopotamia, the Malikdom of Assyria experiences, yes, you expected, religious tensions yet again. The Seljuks seek practically disestablish the Maphrianate of the East and open persecution of the Syriac Jacobites begins, as all of it is declared to be merged into the Church of the East. In the lowland regions around the Euphrates river and in Tagrit, this results in converting (at last nominally) the majority of the population. After all, the liturgical language is practically the same, and the only differences remain in the question whether Jesus was a man or God. But the Schism is long gone, and people and priests actually have forgotten the real reasons for the schism but have continued viewing each other in enmity ever since.
The regions of the Khabour (Gozarto) and Tur Abdin remain the bastions of the Syriac Jacobite Church[8], which is thus geographically divided into two, with these northern areas separated by Nestorian and Orthodox from the Jacobite areas further southwards in the proximity of Damascus.
[1] Original Persian word for the „scribe“ or secretary of the Sassanian kings, from whom the Abbasid office of the Vizier was derived
[2] Corresponding more or less to the UAE
[3] Qatriyan Aramaic variation of Jubail, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
[4] For some reason, I come to view the development of the Nestorian wolrd in Asia as an nalogue of Europe. Qtespon being Rome, the whole of Mesopotamia being analogous to Italy. South Italy being like Assyria, squabling between Orthodox and Catholic/Nestorian; lower Mesoptoamia being like northern Italy, the Zagros being the Alps and Persia being the Frankish realms. We can continue to view Qatar as Spain etc.
[5] For some reason, early Christians identified Babylon with Rome. With Qtespon being the Rome of Asia, very near the ruins of ancient Babylon, we can see it there again.
[6] An analogy to the Papal States, yes.
[7] Also New Testamental scriptural references to the Whore of Babylon
[8] Very much like in OTL, where these mountain refuges remained the last areas where the Jacobites actually retained their majority
A political map of the Gulf Region
However, Mazoun lost most of its position in the trading system to the island-city of Ormus. This new rival took advantage of the weakening of Mazoun and due to a more favourable position took control of practically all trade entering and leaving the Gulf. Fighting a series of wars against Mazoun, Ormus manages to confirm its new position, and the Emirate of Magan[2] accepts Ormusian suzerainty, paying a yearly tribute. Mazoun remains a more pragmatically-oriented city-state, careful to have good relations with the powers that be in Persia (allowing free concessions for any Seljuk merchants and practically no tolls), as the local plutocrats know that risking war is certainly not a good idea.
Mazoun, having lost its position in the trade network and generally weakened now after the rise of Ormus sees itself become a monarchy by the 1160s in possibly all but name, as the office of the Dapir becomes hereditary and the remaining republican institutions merely formal. As the landowners gain more and more influence, while the traders gradually lose it, the society becomes generally more conservative, meaning more aristocratic and clerical power, with more conservative ideas and mores.
Linguistic make-up of the Gulf. Notice that Aramaic has expanded into parts of northern Mazoun
As for Beth Qatriye, the region has once again swapped to a sort of feudal rule, as the area experienced a population decline due to climate change, and a general collapse of some social structure, with the military commanders overthrowing the “greedy” merchants. Staying true to the tenets of the Christian faith, they outlawed any form of slavery, be it open or in disguise, as it is unjust and sinful.
Beth Qatriye has listened to the words of Youhanan of Gebail[3], heavily criticising the corruption of the Church and its mingling with Manicheism in most of Asia, as well as the temporal power of the Catholicos. His followers began to be known as sharirlimadh (meaning true disciples); the name has been corrupted in English into the form of Sarlimian. This new movement spread along the Qatriyan coast, and upon hearing that the Church of the East is not willing to take a rough stance against the Persianate Marriages they denounced the legitimacy of the Church of the East as an institution, claiming that it lost the original message of Jesus and was tainted and acculturated too much into the earlier Persian and Manichean traditions.
The Sarlimians shown in purple
Ironically, an unbiased observer could actually witness more Manichean and Gnostic elements in the Sarlimian theology than in Nestorianism. The Sarlimians judged everything and gave a moral quality (plus or minus) on any action, and put again more emphasis on the spiritual rather than the material world, claiming that only those who seek the transcendent are eligible to enter the Kingdom of God.
For this matter, many Qatriyans would retreat to the desert for a couple of weeks to meditate and seek to enter the Heavenly Kingdom, taking example from Jesus himself as well as Paul the Apostle in Arabia. In fact, this period of meditation began to be seen as another sacrament, marking the spiritual adulthood of the Sarlimian faithful.
As mentioned much of the region of Sawat remains under the rule of the Seljuks. This area, corresponding to what historians called Lower Mesopotamia was more or less synonymous with ancient Sumer or perhaps Lower Babylonia. The area remains a heavily populated and urbanized region, and therefore the Seljuks do not give it to a random clan as a trophy of war, but put it into the hands of their most trusted administrators.
As for the population, the gross and overwhelming majority are again Nestorian Christians, with Gnostic Mandeans retaining some presence in the marshy regions on the borderlands of Khuzestan and in the Mesopotamian marshes. Linguistically, the dialects to the south of Qtēspōn show some variations from the speech elsewhere in Mesopotamia, mainly by incorporating more borrowings from Persian and Turkish as well as Arabic (which was the case in the whole of Mesopotamia). However, more often, it was actually Arabic taking up Aramaic loanwords and cognates, for the lands of the Fertile Crescent were more civilized than the desert interior of the Arab Peninsula. In many cases, such as the semi-desert borderlands of southern Mesopotamia, you get just a variety which can best be described as Aramaic spoken and mispronounced by Arabs.
The population of Lower Mesopotamia was labelled as Sawadis or Chladeans by other Aramaic-speaking peoples, but of such “national identity” did not exist, rather they were seen as those Aramaic-speaking Nestorian Christians, who are subjects of the Seljuk Shahanshah. Nevertheless some cultural differences began to emerge as this area had more contact with Persia than the rest of Mesopotamia.[4]
The central regions of Mesopotamia include the city of Qtēspōn, as well as the region of Babil[5] were included in the “Donation of Tughril” and formed the Patriarchal State, a theocratic regime under the direct administration of the Patriarch of the East. Or at least theoretically, this metropolitan area was the demesne of the Nestorian Patriarch or Catholicos [6]. This region was heavily urbanized and there were practically no religious minorities (save a handful of Jewish merchants), yet the area was rather cosmopolitan, as it was basically the headquarters of the Nestorian church, so you could meet there people from India, from Socotra, from Sogdia or even Mongolia.
Regarding cultural developments, one can say that indeed Mesopotamia was rather advanced in culture and education; as previously stated, Assyrians were one of the best scholars in the medieval world. Great universities could have been found in Gundeshapur, in Niniveh, in Qtespon, a new one in Kashkar and in Nisibis. Mesopotamia continues in its ancient tradition of astronomy and astrology (although you hear occasionally some priests and monks complain about it being idolatry).
The prosperity in the area, as well as historic tradition [7] had it that prostitution was relatively widespread in the area of Mesopotamia. Even despite the fact, that the area was literally outside the doors of the Nestorian Patriarch, perhaps because the ark is the darkest just below the lamp. The region of Sawat was fast in adopting the Persianate marriages from beyond the Zagros, although sometimes these formalities would not even happen.
The very relaxed mode of these urban societies would be something that the Church did try to tackle, but had real difficulty in doing so, especially in Sawat.
To the west of Qtespon, we have the Jewish city of Nehardea, which remains one of the greatest centers of Jewish culture worldwide. Nehardea is one of the few areas in the world actually ruled by the Jews in the form of a city-republic, while being practically dependent on the Patriarchal State for in most practical affairs. Actually, the sole reason for which it continues to exist as an independent entity in the first place is the lack of further territorial ambitions in Qtespon.
Government in the Persian Gulf
Further upstream the Euphrates, there is the small, yet still independent County of Anbar, which thanks its independence to Nehardea. Not much is to be said about this place, except that it remains in a rather backwaterish state.
In Upper Mesopotamia, the Malikdom of Assyria experiences, yes, you expected, religious tensions yet again. The Seljuks seek practically disestablish the Maphrianate of the East and open persecution of the Syriac Jacobites begins, as all of it is declared to be merged into the Church of the East. In the lowland regions around the Euphrates river and in Tagrit, this results in converting (at last nominally) the majority of the population. After all, the liturgical language is practically the same, and the only differences remain in the question whether Jesus was a man or God. But the Schism is long gone, and people and priests actually have forgotten the real reasons for the schism but have continued viewing each other in enmity ever since.
The regions of the Khabour (Gozarto) and Tur Abdin remain the bastions of the Syriac Jacobite Church[8], which is thus geographically divided into two, with these northern areas separated by Nestorian and Orthodox from the Jacobite areas further southwards in the proximity of Damascus.
[1] Original Persian word for the „scribe“ or secretary of the Sassanian kings, from whom the Abbasid office of the Vizier was derived
[2] Corresponding more or less to the UAE
[3] Qatriyan Aramaic variation of Jubail, Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia
[4] For some reason, I come to view the development of the Nestorian wolrd in Asia as an nalogue of Europe. Qtespon being Rome, the whole of Mesopotamia being analogous to Italy. South Italy being like Assyria, squabling between Orthodox and Catholic/Nestorian; lower Mesoptoamia being like northern Italy, the Zagros being the Alps and Persia being the Frankish realms. We can continue to view Qatar as Spain etc.
[5] For some reason, early Christians identified Babylon with Rome. With Qtespon being the Rome of Asia, very near the ruins of ancient Babylon, we can see it there again.
[6] An analogy to the Papal States, yes.
[7] Also New Testamental scriptural references to the Whore of Babylon
[8] Very much like in OTL, where these mountain refuges remained the last areas where the Jacobites actually retained their majority
The Sarlimians did the job in Qatar; the question of Persia are Marriages was indeed an invitation for a schism
Good idea. Is it going to be the Oromo, or the Shilluuk in Nubia?
You could have TTL’s version of Genghis Khan whose Nestorian in faith accomplish his OTL conquests. The PoD would be that one of his many children who happens to be a talented ruthless general, but a poor politician (she backs a splinter heretical faction which in turn will cost her the succession as the Mongol tribal chieftains prefer someone who has the fewest major enemies to be next khan) will form a clan / horde of her own and heads towards the Middle East a generation earlier than OTL.
Not necessarily the whole thing, I would advise you read selectively the chapters about the regions that interest you , throughout the various centuries, plus take a look at the overviews for they show us the maps in the big picture
Chapter 77: Wars of the Holy Sepulchre
What was the main conflict going on in the Middle East during the twelfth century? As you may have guessed, religion continues to play an important, perhaps even decisive role in this region, and particularly sensitive is the issue of the ownership of the Holy Land, containing biblical locations such as Jerusalem, Nazareth and Bethlehem.
While northern Syria was reconquered from the Seljuks by Rhomaic troops, southern Syria as well as the Holy Land were under the control of Tutush, one of the successors of the Seljuks. The realm of Tutush had been relatively weak since the very beginning, as the majority of the population in Damascus and the inland regions were belonging to the Syriac Jacobite Church, that is Miaphysites, strongly opposed to Nestorianism [1]. The coastal areas were, however, mostly Chalcedonian, with the Tutushid realm surrounded by an ever more ambitious Egypt and Rhomania.
The Seljuk policies, especially regarding the Holy Land, where they put all of the important Christian monuments under the control of Assyrian monks, and demanded high fees from pilgrims of other denominations, resulted in the so-called Wars of the Holy Sepulchre[2].
Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Who controls it?
After the death of Tutush, his heir Duqaq got into a quarrel with his nephew Tutush II., who was rather sympathetic of the Syriac Jacobites. Tutush fled to Egypt, where Yaraklas welcomed him and, having already a candidate to enthrone in –Damascus, marched upon Jerusalem. The Egyptian campaign was also aided by an unexpected ally – the Arab tribes in Midian. Ultimately, in the First War of the Holy Sepulchre, the Nestorians lose and Tutush II is proclaimed King of Syria and Damascus in 1104.
Unfortunately for him, this considered an insult to the Great Seljuks in Qtespon, that these places are left under the rule of such blasphemous heretics, and the Second War of the Holy Sepulchre begins in 1115, with Turkic cavalry manifesting its superiority in many battles, taking control of Damascus after a swift siege, but resulting in a bloodbath. Subsequently, the Duchy of Aram is set up, while the Holy Land, once conquered by the Seljuks, is organized in a theocratic manner, and indeed is proclaimed as the Holy State of the City of Jerusalem, directly administered by the Nestorian Archbishop of Jerusalem and the Holy Order of Mar Addai.
Unfortunately for the Nestorians, this new state was not of long duration either. This was caused by a similar way of thinking among Italian merchants and Frankish knights, who jointly sought to regain control of the region for the Chalcedonian faith[3] (and, also very importantly, to take control of the Neguev Desert and the Gulf of Aqaba, allowing access to the trade with India.
Therefore, the Latins waged war against the Turks in the Third War of the Holy Sepulchre in 1154. Unsurprisingly, the Maronites managed to reassume independence as a separate kingdom in Lebanon, while the city of Damascus was captured by the Rhomaics in a brief campaign. By in 1157, the area between the Mediterranean and the Dead See, extending to the Jordan River, and ultimately beyond, is under the control of the Chalcedonians, declare the holy Land to be under the direct rule of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, who is restored to his office. In practical terms, the most important office was that of the Defender of Jerusalem, who was actually in charge of the temporal matters in the Patriarchate. The Defender was usually the man who was to be seen dealing with practical matters; however the real executive power was vested in the six grand offices: the constable, the marshal, the seneschal, the chamberlain, the butler, the chancellor and the bailiff. The last one grew to ever-more more prominence, as he was literally the regent, and generally the office of the Defender and the Bailiff would come to be combined.
Map of the Southern Levant
As for the demographics, one can observe a significant decline of population in the area, caused by continuous warfare. Separate demographic patterns could have been observed in urban and rural areas: the urban centres saw major demographic disturbances, caused by continued warfare; while the rural areas did not witness as much disruption.
The rural population of the Patriarchate could be estimated to be somewhere at around 200 000 people. Most of the villagers were indeed Chalcedonian Christians, speaking mainly Aramaic, to a lesser extent also Arabic (in the south). These could number to some perhaps 130 000[4]. The second most numerous were Samaritans, living, well in northern Samaria, numbering some 30 000 people, followed by Nestorian Christians (some perhaps 25 000 people) and the remaining 15 000 being mostly Syriacs, Jews and Copts. Ultimately, another 40 000 Frankish (mainly Occitan and Provensal) farmers arrived in the area, who were separated from their neighbours mainly by their language. The Latin-speaking farmers have settled mostly on the coastal plains and in the proximity of castles; the Syriac Jacobites actually spoke mainly Arabic and lived in the Negev, while some others spoke Aramaic and could be found in the Galilee. Nestorians have settled mainly in the proximity of key Biblical locations, with Galilee and the Golan being the areas with their highest concentrations.
Demography of Jerusalem
Regarding the urban population, the numbers have risen again from a drop to a mere 75 000 back to 200 000; with major urban centres being found on the coasts: Acre, Ceasarea, Jaffa, Tyre, Gaza and Ascalon; with Jerusalem and Nazareth being major exceptions, while Tiberias sort of fits into the rule by being on the coast of the Sea of Galilee. The coastal cities have soon come to be dominated by Italian, to a lesser extent also Occitan townsfolk, who could number as much as 100 000.Significant remained also local Greek Orthodox (Aramaic-speaking, also partially Hellenophone) townsfolk, making 30 000 as well; numerously similar were Maronites (20 000) and Armenians at 15 000 (an Armenian Quarter could have been found in every major city). Furthermore, you could meet some Nestorians (15 000), newly installed Greeks (10 000), Syriac Jacobites (5 000). Ultimately, there were also Jewish and Samaritan townsfolk (5 000 together).
Thus, all in all, the realm had some 400 000 people, with the Latins actually being the most numerous at 140 000 (32%), followed by Palestinian Greek Orthodox 115 000 (26%) and Maronites 60 000 (14%). Important minorities also include 40 000 Assyrians (9%), 30 000 Samaritans (7%) and 15 000 Armenians and Greeks each (4%). The rest being Syriacs, Jews and Copts.
As the victors of the Third War of the Holy Sepulchre were mainly from Western Europe, they took with them most of the advantages; handing out landed titles and taking control of the trade in the area. Very favourable to the new arrangement were especially the Maronites, living in the north of the realm; the Palestinian Orthodox may have preferred to be united under the Rhomaic Empire, should the Emperor at least care a little for the region. The new regime is not however seen very positively by the Armenians or the Assyrians[5] . The Samaritans are mostly left alone without major concern.
Further northwards, we can see the Duchy of Lebanon, a Maronite state, which reclaimed its independence during the Wars of the Holy Sepulchre. Lebanon has very close ties with Jerusalem, and has opened its ports to Italian (and Greek) merchants, seeking not to give the Rhomaic Empire any casus belli.
Ultimately, the Duchy of Aram continues to exist as a rump state on the fringes of the Syrian Desert.
Forms of government in the southern Levant
[1] Yes, the Nestorian-Miaphysite divide is going to play the role of the Sunni-Shia divide
[2] Yes, an analogy to the Crusades. But you fight for the True Faith, against blasphemous heretics.
[3] After all, Jerusalem was also the home of one of the Patriarchates of the ancient Pentarchy, which was however in enemy hands.
[4] Of these, some 40 000 could be Maronites
[5] However, quie a few of the believers of the Church of the East used to be Syriac Orthodox or Chalcedonian previously, and were converted by the previous regime.
While northern Syria was reconquered from the Seljuks by Rhomaic troops, southern Syria as well as the Holy Land were under the control of Tutush, one of the successors of the Seljuks. The realm of Tutush had been relatively weak since the very beginning, as the majority of the population in Damascus and the inland regions were belonging to the Syriac Jacobite Church, that is Miaphysites, strongly opposed to Nestorianism [1]. The coastal areas were, however, mostly Chalcedonian, with the Tutushid realm surrounded by an ever more ambitious Egypt and Rhomania.
The Seljuk policies, especially regarding the Holy Land, where they put all of the important Christian monuments under the control of Assyrian monks, and demanded high fees from pilgrims of other denominations, resulted in the so-called Wars of the Holy Sepulchre[2].
Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Who controls it?
After the death of Tutush, his heir Duqaq got into a quarrel with his nephew Tutush II., who was rather sympathetic of the Syriac Jacobites. Tutush fled to Egypt, where Yaraklas welcomed him and, having already a candidate to enthrone in –Damascus, marched upon Jerusalem. The Egyptian campaign was also aided by an unexpected ally – the Arab tribes in Midian. Ultimately, in the First War of the Holy Sepulchre, the Nestorians lose and Tutush II is proclaimed King of Syria and Damascus in 1104.
Unfortunately for him, this considered an insult to the Great Seljuks in Qtespon, that these places are left under the rule of such blasphemous heretics, and the Second War of the Holy Sepulchre begins in 1115, with Turkic cavalry manifesting its superiority in many battles, taking control of Damascus after a swift siege, but resulting in a bloodbath. Subsequently, the Duchy of Aram is set up, while the Holy Land, once conquered by the Seljuks, is organized in a theocratic manner, and indeed is proclaimed as the Holy State of the City of Jerusalem, directly administered by the Nestorian Archbishop of Jerusalem and the Holy Order of Mar Addai.
Unfortunately for the Nestorians, this new state was not of long duration either. This was caused by a similar way of thinking among Italian merchants and Frankish knights, who jointly sought to regain control of the region for the Chalcedonian faith[3] (and, also very importantly, to take control of the Neguev Desert and the Gulf of Aqaba, allowing access to the trade with India.
Therefore, the Latins waged war against the Turks in the Third War of the Holy Sepulchre in 1154. Unsurprisingly, the Maronites managed to reassume independence as a separate kingdom in Lebanon, while the city of Damascus was captured by the Rhomaics in a brief campaign. By in 1157, the area between the Mediterranean and the Dead See, extending to the Jordan River, and ultimately beyond, is under the control of the Chalcedonians, declare the holy Land to be under the direct rule of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, who is restored to his office. In practical terms, the most important office was that of the Defender of Jerusalem, who was actually in charge of the temporal matters in the Patriarchate. The Defender was usually the man who was to be seen dealing with practical matters; however the real executive power was vested in the six grand offices: the constable, the marshal, the seneschal, the chamberlain, the butler, the chancellor and the bailiff. The last one grew to ever-more more prominence, as he was literally the regent, and generally the office of the Defender and the Bailiff would come to be combined.
Map of the Southern Levant
As for the demographics, one can observe a significant decline of population in the area, caused by continuous warfare. Separate demographic patterns could have been observed in urban and rural areas: the urban centres saw major demographic disturbances, caused by continued warfare; while the rural areas did not witness as much disruption.
The rural population of the Patriarchate could be estimated to be somewhere at around 200 000 people. Most of the villagers were indeed Chalcedonian Christians, speaking mainly Aramaic, to a lesser extent also Arabic (in the south). These could number to some perhaps 130 000[4]. The second most numerous were Samaritans, living, well in northern Samaria, numbering some 30 000 people, followed by Nestorian Christians (some perhaps 25 000 people) and the remaining 15 000 being mostly Syriacs, Jews and Copts. Ultimately, another 40 000 Frankish (mainly Occitan and Provensal) farmers arrived in the area, who were separated from their neighbours mainly by their language. The Latin-speaking farmers have settled mostly on the coastal plains and in the proximity of castles; the Syriac Jacobites actually spoke mainly Arabic and lived in the Negev, while some others spoke Aramaic and could be found in the Galilee. Nestorians have settled mainly in the proximity of key Biblical locations, with Galilee and the Golan being the areas with their highest concentrations.
Demography of Jerusalem
Regarding the urban population, the numbers have risen again from a drop to a mere 75 000 back to 200 000; with major urban centres being found on the coasts: Acre, Ceasarea, Jaffa, Tyre, Gaza and Ascalon; with Jerusalem and Nazareth being major exceptions, while Tiberias sort of fits into the rule by being on the coast of the Sea of Galilee. The coastal cities have soon come to be dominated by Italian, to a lesser extent also Occitan townsfolk, who could number as much as 100 000.Significant remained also local Greek Orthodox (Aramaic-speaking, also partially Hellenophone) townsfolk, making 30 000 as well; numerously similar were Maronites (20 000) and Armenians at 15 000 (an Armenian Quarter could have been found in every major city). Furthermore, you could meet some Nestorians (15 000), newly installed Greeks (10 000), Syriac Jacobites (5 000). Ultimately, there were also Jewish and Samaritan townsfolk (5 000 together).
Thus, all in all, the realm had some 400 000 people, with the Latins actually being the most numerous at 140 000 (32%), followed by Palestinian Greek Orthodox 115 000 (26%) and Maronites 60 000 (14%). Important minorities also include 40 000 Assyrians (9%), 30 000 Samaritans (7%) and 15 000 Armenians and Greeks each (4%). The rest being Syriacs, Jews and Copts.
As the victors of the Third War of the Holy Sepulchre were mainly from Western Europe, they took with them most of the advantages; handing out landed titles and taking control of the trade in the area. Very favourable to the new arrangement were especially the Maronites, living in the north of the realm; the Palestinian Orthodox may have preferred to be united under the Rhomaic Empire, should the Emperor at least care a little for the region. The new regime is not however seen very positively by the Armenians or the Assyrians[5] . The Samaritans are mostly left alone without major concern.
Further northwards, we can see the Duchy of Lebanon, a Maronite state, which reclaimed its independence during the Wars of the Holy Sepulchre. Lebanon has very close ties with Jerusalem, and has opened its ports to Italian (and Greek) merchants, seeking not to give the Rhomaic Empire any casus belli.
Ultimately, the Duchy of Aram continues to exist as a rump state on the fringes of the Syrian Desert.
Forms of government in the southern Levant
[1] Yes, the Nestorian-Miaphysite divide is going to play the role of the Sunni-Shia divide
[2] Yes, an analogy to the Crusades. But you fight for the True Faith, against blasphemous heretics.
[3] After all, Jerusalem was also the home of one of the Patriarchates of the ancient Pentarchy, which was however in enemy hands.
[4] Of these, some 40 000 could be Maronites
[5] However, quie a few of the believers of the Church of the East used to be Syriac Orthodox or Chalcedonian previously, and were converted by the previous regime.
Attachments
Adding a map of the territorial organization of the Patriarchate of Rome in 1100 AD. Shown are only archdioceses (metropolitan provinces), individual dioceses are not shown.
Chapter 78: Komnenian Rhomania
Hello there, we are returning again to the hegemon of the Eastern Mediterranean, to the Rhomaic Empire. The realm to thirds of the Haemos[1] Peninsula, as well as Anatolia. Imperial possessions include also large parts of northwestern Syria; Cyrenaica and the southernmost tips of Italy, as well as parts of the Taurican [2] coastline.
With the Rhomaic Empire being Rhomaic Empire, unsurprisingly, new problems with heretics arise. These are the result of an earlier resettlement of Paulicians in Thrace. The Paulicians are a Gnostic denomination, originally from the regions of Roman Armenia and have caused quite a lot of trouble. Significant numbers of them have been deported to the Rhodope Mountains; however, dissatisfied Slavic inhabitants of Karvuna[3] or Paristrion rapidly adopting this new faith (also as a means of reasserting their own identity vis-à-vis the imperial Rhoman one.
Beige is Paulicianism
Paulician ideas continue to spread from here into Bosnia, where they become known as the Patarenes. Paulicians (Pavličani) were openly persecuted, and the Komnenian emperors had them burnt at the stake, as they considered them to be Manicheans.
The reign of John II. Komnenos was a relatively long one (1118-1143), and was distinguished by his lack of cruelty. He was nicknamed as John the Good, or the Second Marcus Aurelius. The northern frontiers, threatened by the Pechenegs, were fortified again.
During the reign of John II. Komnenos, the Rhomaics conquered the Beqaa Valley around the city of Zahle, as well as Damascus. Fruther fortifications were built on the Danube frontiers, while in the west, the Rhomaics conquered the Duchy of Salerno, thus consolidating their south Italian holdings.
Under the rule of the following Emperor, Manuel Komnenos, the Rhomaic Empire conquers Serbia and Croatia, as well as Bosnia. The northern limits of the Empire are thus found on the Kupa-Sava-Danube line; with Slavonia remaining as a Hungarian march.
A political map of the Empire
With a powerful and capable navy, Manuel launched an invasion on Sicily, seeking to restore Rhomaic rule on the island. The Tafircans, allied to Kemet, sought to halt any further Rhomaic expansion on the African soil. To counter the Copts, Manuel allied with the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. While Rhomaic forces suffered defeat under the Libyan sun, the naval battle of Lampedusa proved the superiority of the Rhomaic navy, and opened up the path for a Rhomaic conquest of the island, which then offered little to no resistance.
Twelfth century Rhomania sees a period of prosperity and population growth, with new villages being founded in the rural regions of Anatolia. Furthermore, many cities, such as Thessaloniki and Antioch experience growth, multiplying their size two or even threefold.
Emperor Manuel Komnenos
Peoples of the Empire
The Rhomaic Empire remains a multi-ethnic state; however the Greeks form over a half of the population of the Empire. The Greeks live in the heartland of the Empire: in Thrace, peninsular Greece and Anatolia, as well as Cyrenaica and parts of southern Italy and Sicily. With Greek being the language of state administration, of the army and liturgy, it has made significant advances, surpassing other languages in favour of Greek. Apart from standard Greek, divergent Hellenic languages include Pontic Greek (to be found along the north Anatolian Coast, as well as on the Black Sea coast of Taurica), Cappadocian Greek (at the northern foothills of the Taurus Mountains in Anatolia) and Italiot Greek (in Calabria, Apulia and western Sicily). Furthermore, there is also Cypriot, which developed independently from the rest of the Empire, and then Cyrenaic Greek on the North African coast and Antiochian Greek in Syria. The mountainous Peloponnesus has also resulted in isolated Hellenophone populations of Maniots (in the southern tip of the peninsula) and Tsakonians (in the eastern coast). These two languages are thought to be the descendant of the ancient Doric language of Sparta.
Languages of the Empire
The Slavs form a considerable minority in the northern provinces. Primarily the Karvunians in the Diocese of Paristrion[4], who have faced severe persecution after adopting the Paulician heresy, and then the Croats and Serbs in the newly acquired regions of former Roman Dalmatia. By this time, any further Slavic presence in Anatolia or further southwards was assimilated into Greek, or Vlach, or perhaps living as isolated pockets in an otherwise Greek environment.
The Romance peoples living within the borders of the empire are usually classified as either “Latins” (to relate to southern Italians, Sicilians and Dalmatians) or Vlachs (the bluk of Peninsular East Romance speakers), who are sometimes divided into Moesian Vlachs, Dacian Vlachs and Macedonian Vlachs. While it is acknowledged that also the Vlachs speak a dialect of Latin, generally the Latins are considered to be civilized, but the Vlachs are viewed as tough shepherds, who are suited excellently for warfare in mountainous terrain.
Armenians living within the borders of the Empire have, for the gross part, come under the jurisdiction of the Rhomaic Church; and many, apart from those in the close proximity of the eastern borders, also assimilated into Rhomaic culture, with their names being sometimes the only memory of their Armenian heritage.
The Syriacs are still a considerable minority in the Empire; apart from the newly acquired city of Damascus, the gross majority of Syriac-speaking subjects of the Empire are now under the Melkite Patriarch of Antioch, rather than the Syriac Jacobite Church. The area has been considerably depopulated during the wars of the Seljuk invasion and then again during the Rhomaic reconquest.
The Arnautes[5] continue to inhabit the northern parts of Epirus; with a lifestyle very similar to the Vlachs. Other groups which do appear in demographic surveys are “Iberians”, that is Kartvelian-speaking Lazes, living to the east of Trebizond; and occasionally there are mentions of peculiar transhumance shepherds and nomads in Anatolia, who speak a peculiar tongue, thought once to have been around in the area. In general, these tribes are on the margin of extinction. Their differing religious identity (Paulicianism), means that they are likely to resist assimilation for quite some time. But will they escape eprsecution from the Patriarch of Constantinople?
The Jews are no longer regarded as an ethnic group, but are rather viewed as a religious group; and usually, four different Jewish peoples are described. Firstly, the Rhomaniote Jews, who have integrated into Rhomaic (Greek) society, speak a variant of the Greek language and can be found in the core areas of the Empire. Then, secondly, we have the Syrian Jews (mainly in Aleppo and Damascus), speaking a form of Aramaic. Thirdly, there are Italiot Jews from southern Italy, and finally Moesian Jews living Paristrion, who have adopted the Vlach language for everyday communication.
Rhomaic Military
The Empire has managed to greatly reorganize its army. The elite units of the army include the Varangian Guard (originally recruited from Vikings and Russians, now perhaps considered to be the successor of the Praetorian Guard in imperial Rome), the Immortals heavy cavalry, and the Archontoupouli (consisting of the sons of dead officers). Also famous are Kataphraktoi heavy cavalry, recruited mainly from Macedonia, Thrace, Thessaly and the Marmarian provinces in Anatolia, then the Trebizond Archers and Vardariotes (horse archers from among the Steppe peoples stationed in Macedonia, but also from Paristrion). Another cavalry type were the koursores, roughly corresponding to central European Hussars.
Rhomaic cataphracts
Standard infantry units would include hoplites (heavy infantry), peltasts (javelin throwers), and the psiloi (unarmoured light infantry).
The top commander bore the title of Megas Domestikos, next inline was the Protostrator. Individual field armies were led by the strategos. The smallest tactical unit was the allagion, perhaps some 400 men strong, led by an allagator (not an alligator).
[1] Balkan
[2] Crimea
[3] Bulgarians living in the Paristrion region (Lower Moesia)
[4] The rump of the Bulgarian nation
[5] Albanians
With the Rhomaic Empire being Rhomaic Empire, unsurprisingly, new problems with heretics arise. These are the result of an earlier resettlement of Paulicians in Thrace. The Paulicians are a Gnostic denomination, originally from the regions of Roman Armenia and have caused quite a lot of trouble. Significant numbers of them have been deported to the Rhodope Mountains; however, dissatisfied Slavic inhabitants of Karvuna[3] or Paristrion rapidly adopting this new faith (also as a means of reasserting their own identity vis-à-vis the imperial Rhoman one.
Beige is Paulicianism
Paulician ideas continue to spread from here into Bosnia, where they become known as the Patarenes. Paulicians (Pavličani) were openly persecuted, and the Komnenian emperors had them burnt at the stake, as they considered them to be Manicheans.
The reign of John II. Komnenos was a relatively long one (1118-1143), and was distinguished by his lack of cruelty. He was nicknamed as John the Good, or the Second Marcus Aurelius. The northern frontiers, threatened by the Pechenegs, were fortified again.
During the reign of John II. Komnenos, the Rhomaics conquered the Beqaa Valley around the city of Zahle, as well as Damascus. Fruther fortifications were built on the Danube frontiers, while in the west, the Rhomaics conquered the Duchy of Salerno, thus consolidating their south Italian holdings.
Under the rule of the following Emperor, Manuel Komnenos, the Rhomaic Empire conquers Serbia and Croatia, as well as Bosnia. The northern limits of the Empire are thus found on the Kupa-Sava-Danube line; with Slavonia remaining as a Hungarian march.
A political map of the Empire
With a powerful and capable navy, Manuel launched an invasion on Sicily, seeking to restore Rhomaic rule on the island. The Tafircans, allied to Kemet, sought to halt any further Rhomaic expansion on the African soil. To counter the Copts, Manuel allied with the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. While Rhomaic forces suffered defeat under the Libyan sun, the naval battle of Lampedusa proved the superiority of the Rhomaic navy, and opened up the path for a Rhomaic conquest of the island, which then offered little to no resistance.
Twelfth century Rhomania sees a period of prosperity and population growth, with new villages being founded in the rural regions of Anatolia. Furthermore, many cities, such as Thessaloniki and Antioch experience growth, multiplying their size two or even threefold.
Emperor Manuel Komnenos
Peoples of the Empire
The Rhomaic Empire remains a multi-ethnic state; however the Greeks form over a half of the population of the Empire. The Greeks live in the heartland of the Empire: in Thrace, peninsular Greece and Anatolia, as well as Cyrenaica and parts of southern Italy and Sicily. With Greek being the language of state administration, of the army and liturgy, it has made significant advances, surpassing other languages in favour of Greek. Apart from standard Greek, divergent Hellenic languages include Pontic Greek (to be found along the north Anatolian Coast, as well as on the Black Sea coast of Taurica), Cappadocian Greek (at the northern foothills of the Taurus Mountains in Anatolia) and Italiot Greek (in Calabria, Apulia and western Sicily). Furthermore, there is also Cypriot, which developed independently from the rest of the Empire, and then Cyrenaic Greek on the North African coast and Antiochian Greek in Syria. The mountainous Peloponnesus has also resulted in isolated Hellenophone populations of Maniots (in the southern tip of the peninsula) and Tsakonians (in the eastern coast). These two languages are thought to be the descendant of the ancient Doric language of Sparta.
Languages of the Empire
The Slavs form a considerable minority in the northern provinces. Primarily the Karvunians in the Diocese of Paristrion[4], who have faced severe persecution after adopting the Paulician heresy, and then the Croats and Serbs in the newly acquired regions of former Roman Dalmatia. By this time, any further Slavic presence in Anatolia or further southwards was assimilated into Greek, or Vlach, or perhaps living as isolated pockets in an otherwise Greek environment.
The Romance peoples living within the borders of the empire are usually classified as either “Latins” (to relate to southern Italians, Sicilians and Dalmatians) or Vlachs (the bluk of Peninsular East Romance speakers), who are sometimes divided into Moesian Vlachs, Dacian Vlachs and Macedonian Vlachs. While it is acknowledged that also the Vlachs speak a dialect of Latin, generally the Latins are considered to be civilized, but the Vlachs are viewed as tough shepherds, who are suited excellently for warfare in mountainous terrain.
Armenians living within the borders of the Empire have, for the gross part, come under the jurisdiction of the Rhomaic Church; and many, apart from those in the close proximity of the eastern borders, also assimilated into Rhomaic culture, with their names being sometimes the only memory of their Armenian heritage.
The Syriacs are still a considerable minority in the Empire; apart from the newly acquired city of Damascus, the gross majority of Syriac-speaking subjects of the Empire are now under the Melkite Patriarch of Antioch, rather than the Syriac Jacobite Church. The area has been considerably depopulated during the wars of the Seljuk invasion and then again during the Rhomaic reconquest.
The Arnautes[5] continue to inhabit the northern parts of Epirus; with a lifestyle very similar to the Vlachs. Other groups which do appear in demographic surveys are “Iberians”, that is Kartvelian-speaking Lazes, living to the east of Trebizond; and occasionally there are mentions of peculiar transhumance shepherds and nomads in Anatolia, who speak a peculiar tongue, thought once to have been around in the area. In general, these tribes are on the margin of extinction. Their differing religious identity (Paulicianism), means that they are likely to resist assimilation for quite some time. But will they escape eprsecution from the Patriarch of Constantinople?
The Jews are no longer regarded as an ethnic group, but are rather viewed as a religious group; and usually, four different Jewish peoples are described. Firstly, the Rhomaniote Jews, who have integrated into Rhomaic (Greek) society, speak a variant of the Greek language and can be found in the core areas of the Empire. Then, secondly, we have the Syrian Jews (mainly in Aleppo and Damascus), speaking a form of Aramaic. Thirdly, there are Italiot Jews from southern Italy, and finally Moesian Jews living Paristrion, who have adopted the Vlach language for everyday communication.
Rhomaic Military
The Empire has managed to greatly reorganize its army. The elite units of the army include the Varangian Guard (originally recruited from Vikings and Russians, now perhaps considered to be the successor of the Praetorian Guard in imperial Rome), the Immortals heavy cavalry, and the Archontoupouli (consisting of the sons of dead officers). Also famous are Kataphraktoi heavy cavalry, recruited mainly from Macedonia, Thrace, Thessaly and the Marmarian provinces in Anatolia, then the Trebizond Archers and Vardariotes (horse archers from among the Steppe peoples stationed in Macedonia, but also from Paristrion). Another cavalry type were the koursores, roughly corresponding to central European Hussars.
Rhomaic cataphracts
Standard infantry units would include hoplites (heavy infantry), peltasts (javelin throwers), and the psiloi (unarmoured light infantry).
The top commander bore the title of Megas Domestikos, next inline was the Protostrator. Individual field armies were led by the strategos. The smallest tactical unit was the allagion, perhaps some 400 men strong, led by an allagator (not an alligator).
[1] Balkan
[2] Crimea
[3] Bulgarians living in the Paristrion region (Lower Moesia)
[4] The rump of the Bulgarian nation
[5] Albanians
