John J Pershing 1920-1928
The Black Knight
John J. Pershing never had really wanted to be president. He was an army man through and through. He was born in 1860 in Missouri in a family that was largely neutral in the civil war. He attended high school and became a teacher of local blacks. In 1880 he was accepted into West Point, more for the education then the army.
At West Point he received top leadership marks, leading the West Point student honor guard at President Grant's funeral. He was commended by the superintendent upon graduation 30th in the class. His first active duty was in the Indian wars, where his unit narrowly escaped participation in the wounded knee massacre. After being bounced around quite a bit he found himself commanding the 10th Calvary Regiment, all black and the first of the "Buffalo Soldiers". While Pershing, contrary to popular belief, was not totally dedicated to equality he did respect his men. In 1897 he began instructing at West Point where his strict manner made him unpopular and gained him the nickname "Nigger Jack", which over the years softened to "Black Jack". He served as quartermaster for the 10th Calvary in the Spanish American war and served with distinction in the Pilipino-American War. Recognizing Pershing's talent President Theodore Roosevelt called him back to the states. Roosevelt pressured the army to promote him to Colonel, but the army promotions in that time were done based on seniority, not merit. Pershing was bounced around diplomatic posts for several years. In 1905 Roosevelt dropped a bombshell, using his ability to reshuffle officers in the general levels he promoted Pershing the Brigadier General, when Congress approved it Pershing completed what no man has done before or since. He skipped 3 ranks and over 800 Officers in his promotion. Some cried foul citing political reasoning (Pershing's wife was the daughter of a Wyoming Senator) but others supported it. In 1913 he took over the 8th Brigade along the tense Mexican border. While there his wife and children died in a fire at Ft. Bliss, he was denied leave.
After the Pancho Villa raid in 1916 he commanded the expedition into Mexico to chase him. Ironically the two had met before and hit off somewhat, Villa sending his condolences to Pershing after the fire. The expedition routed Villa's forces but failed to capture him. It reflected well on Pershing his ability to lead his force with out adequate supplies or railroads. When WWI broke out Wilson had intended to appoint Pershing's immediate superior Fredrick Funson, but Funson had the gall to die suddenly, leaving Pershing to become the first full General since the Spanish-American War. He exercised tight control over "his" army, receiving delegation of authority from Wilson. While earlier he had been a champion of black soldiers he abandoned this campaign in the face of heavy racism above and below him and did not allow blacks on the front line. As a general he proved controversial. He was praised for refusing to allow Americans to be placed under Allied command, but his over eagerness to attack and contempt of the knowledge accumulated by the French and British hurt his skills. But he would be remembered in America as the man who won the war.
As soon as he returned home speculation ran amok about the possibility of him running for President. He refused to actively campaign, especially after being promoted to a position created for him General of the Armies, but was quoted as saying that he would not refuse the nomination. While a Republican he was closely tied to Wilson and seemed too internationalist for the party bosses. But as the Red Scare wore on and the paranoia grew some began to turn toward him. After the breakup of a strike of Portland public officials Pershing came out in favor of a peacetime Espionage Act, turning some away but drawing more in his favor. As the GOP convention grew near all eyes turned on him. Just 10 days before the convention he tearfully resigned his post in the army (Service Number 0-1), and announced that he would, regretfully run for president. Pershing fever swept aside fellow General Leonard Wood and Illinois Governor Frank Lowdon in 8 ballots.
McAdoo never had a chance. He was the son in law of the unpopular President, he was internationalist (even if Pershing was as well) and his cries of how he saved the economy somehow rang hollow. Pershing's running mate Warren G Harding was much more useful then AG Palmer, whose raids were slowly loosing steam. On Election Day America turned out in favor of "Black Jack".
Once he assumed office he took unorthodox steps, he appointed a more bipartisan cabinet, holding over Wilson's Postmaster General, Albert S. Burleson, who continued his department's undeclared crusade against Communism. His other cabinet appointments signaled similar collaboration. With a staunchly Republican congress he easily pushed through the Sedition Act of 1921, which was quite similar to the Espionage Act, but less strict in punishment and enforcement. As the Red Scare finally died down it was enforced less and less, but remained a useful "deterrent" against Communism in the United States. Meanwhile Pershing began a "secret war" against Wilson's internal policies. He gradually desegregated some parts of the government, in areas where he faced resistance he tried to make "separate but equal" a reality. As stated earlier Pershing was no crusader for civil liberties for blacks, but he certainly was an improvement over others. More publicly he tightened the reigns on Prohibition, and all in all sought greater "morality and uniformity" in the populace. Economically he maintained a more hands off approach on the advise of his cabinet, as he was not knowledgeable on the subject. This is what critics call his greatest weakness, his lack of political and non-military knowhow led to him turning to his conservative cabinet often. Some even say that Warren Harding ran the the government, though this is likely untrue. Late in his first term he took up support for the "MacDonald Map" a proposed series of high importance military roads, he got the bill passed despite skepticism by anti-spending congressmen. Construction began in 1926. Internationally Pershing tried to get the US to at least accept some sort of arrangement with the League of Nations, but faced opposition from his own party as well as democrats, either out of "memory" of Wilson or isolationism. In the end he had to content himself with an isolationist term, though he got the USA into the League of Nations, though only as a member on the level of the small countries and with exceptions for almost every requirement possible.
All that said, most viewed Pershing as a successful President and urged him to run for reelection. He complied, once again reluctantly. A small part of his parties progressive wing broke off under Robert Lafollette, but he was in the end easily renominated. The democrats however faced a massive split. They were torn between the looser from 4 years before, William Gibbs McAdoo, who was backed by the Klu Klux Klan and Al Smith the "wet", Catholic governor of New York. In the end after hundreds of ballots McAdoo finally got the 2/3rds majority. But the drama wasn't over, many from the left of the party went to the progressives, while supporters of Smith placed him on the ticket of the "Liberty Democrats". A sizable bloc also simply defected over to Pershing. Of course, all of this ended in a GOP landslide.
Smith managed to barely, barely eek out victory in Rhode Island and New Hampshire and Lafollatte won Wisconsin. McAdoo lost the upper south to Pershing, and only held on closely in several others. The democrats collapsed in Congress. Going into his second term Pershing seemed destined for success. But 3 things would get in his way. Firstly his Vice President Harding was exposed to be quite corrupt along with a few Cabinet members. The "Middle Gang Scandal" broke Pershing's Administration's image as a tight ship, military honor driven, squeaky clean group. As a central part of the scandal involved laundering funds from the MacDonald Roads the program faced considerable setbacks. Some cabinet members were forced to resign, but most remained, much to the oppositions unhappiness. Secondly was the Second Red Scare, as the Soviet Union under the shaky troika of Trotsky, Stalin and Molotov began a program of expansion a new round of panic emerged. While they ultimately only succeeded in the formation of the Mongolian SSR they threw the USA into a panic. Post Officials ripped open mail, searching for bombs. Private groups like the American League of Patriots, the Constitutional Guard and the Eagle's Legion carried out huge, private raids on suspected communists, turning over large amounts of dubious information to dumbfounded Federal Attorneys. The Attorneys then tried to upstage the private "patriots" leading to a violent cycle. The Sedition Act was invoked as Labor tried to strike back, strikes in Columbus, Olympia and San Diego were all brutally broken up and many leftists jailed. Pershing didn't exactly approve of it all, but he saw the fight against communism as a crucial one and allowed the scare to continue. The scare waned by 1926, only to give way to the White Scare. During the previous years the KKK and other right wing extremists had gained power in many southern states, often taking the law into their own hands. During the 2nd Red Scare they had lynched their fair smash are of "Commies". But now their power seemed a threat to some and a new scare began. Anti-Klan politicians decried it and proposed tough new anti-vigilante laws. The Klan responded with a round of lynchings. National Guards were mobilized to fight, or support, the right wingers. In Alabama a mini-civil war broke out between pro and anti-Klan units. When a segment of the powerful Indiana Klan lynched several people in Western Ohio the governor responded by sending in the guard, a series of clashes followed between Klansmen and Ohians. The incident resulted in the collapse of the Indiana Klan when it was revealed some of them were close to people in positions of power. In the south Pershing reluctantly allowed Federal troops to fight the Klan in areas where they were fighting legitimate governments. The Justice Department arrested hundreds under the Sedition Act, many of whom they had worked with during the Red Scares. By the time the White Scare (or "The Klan War" for the more melodramatic) ended the Federal Government had firmer control over security and a larger military/police presence internally. All of this occurred while the economy was being further deregulated in the roaring twenties.
These all led to a mixed legacy for Pershing, his first term is regarded well, but his second term is hugely controversial. Some say he preserved democracy others say he set up a dictatorship, but most say he simply got in too deep. He declined to run for a third term, as was traditional and retired. He wrote the memoir "Peace in Europe, War in Washington". More immediately his Secretary of Commerce, Andrew Mellon, was nominated for President. Even as Pershing grew less popular it seemed like the fractured Democratic Party would have to loose. But like a Phoenix it rose again, though to observers then it seemed to rise from the water, not the flame.
