[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]This is from my Alternate History of the Netherlands, that I wrote last year. I'm still working on various other parts of the world. Right now I'm starting my chapters on the Union of Balkan Socialist Republics. Keep in mind this is only the 1st Edition. That means you don't have to nit-pick it to death.[/FONT][/FONT]
This is actually chapter 2. The first chapter deals with the history of the provences before 1568, and has no alternate history in it, so I did not include it.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold][FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]II) The Forty Years War[/FONT][/FONT]
(1568-1609)
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Prelude to Rebellion[/FONT]
In the first years of Habsburg dominion, the Netherlanders barely noticed Spanish
Overlordship. In fact Charles V was born in Ghent, and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Castillian1 and
some German. In 1506, he gained lordship of the Burgundian states, among which included all the
Dutch provinces. Subsequently in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the King of Aragon,
King of Castile and Leon, which soon faced full political union as the Kingdom of Spain. In 1530,
he reached the pinnacle of power when he was elected the Holy Roman Emperor. However, it was
not to last. A combination of events, including funding the Habsburg’s world-wide empire, and
religious turmoil in Germany would soon lead to revolution.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Protestant Reformation[/FONT]
By the 1560s, the Protestant community grew in influence across Northern Europe. Dutch
Protestants, after initial backlash, were generally tolerated by local authorities. Their wealth made
them influential, and in a society based on trade and commerce, both freedom and tolerance were
essential. Local lords were far more interested in wealth than conforming to Spanish law. They were
a vital minority, but a minority nonetheless. In 1560, the majority of Netherlanders still follow to
path laid down by the Holy Church.
With little to no regard for Dutch customs, Charles V believed it his duty to battle
Protestantism, which under Spanish and Church law was considered heresy. His son, Philip II, struck
out at the heretics far harsher than Charles V. By Phillip’s reign, the situation escalated to the point
where Spanish soldiers were sent in to crush what Phillip viewed as Rebellion, and restore the
authority of the Church to the Netherlands. The harsh measures led to increasing grievances, where
local government had embarked on a course of coexistence. With the arrival of the Inquisition, Spain
proved it was not interested in coexistence or tolerance.
The Dutch Protestants compared their humble values favorably against the luxurious habits
of the ecclesiastical nobility. The Protestant movement initially emphasized such virtues of modesty,
cleanliness, frugality and hard work. The so-called Protestant work ethic helped drive the
Netherlands, even the Catholic citizens, into the world-striding Dutch Commonwealth of Nations
of later centuries. Biblical stories of fishermen, ship builders and other humble occupations resonated
among the seafaring Dutch. The moral elements of the Reformation represented a challenge to the
Spanish Empire.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Taxation[/FONT]
The provinces of the Netherlands have grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within
the Habsburg’s private empire by the middle of the Sixteenth Century. Neighboring states often
turned coveting eyes towards the provinces, Flanders in particular caught the attention of French
kings for decades. Its wealth would make it a welcome addition to the French state. During the reign
of Charles V, Spain blossomed into a world-wide empire, with territories not only across Europe,
but engulfing most of the New World.
Control and defense of these lands were hampered by the very size of the Spanish Empire.
Spain also had to face rivals who were more than eager to take a piece of its empire for themselves.
Both Spain and France were locked into near continuous conflict in the Italian Wars, and Spain also
(1568-1609)
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Prelude to Rebellion[/FONT]
In the first years of Habsburg dominion, the Netherlanders barely noticed Spanish
Overlordship. In fact Charles V was born in Ghent, and spoke fluent Dutch, French, Castillian1 and
some German. In 1506, he gained lordship of the Burgundian states, among which included all the
Dutch provinces. Subsequently in 1516, he inherited several titles, including the King of Aragon,
King of Castile and Leon, which soon faced full political union as the Kingdom of Spain. In 1530,
he reached the pinnacle of power when he was elected the Holy Roman Emperor. However, it was
not to last. A combination of events, including funding the Habsburg’s world-wide empire, and
religious turmoil in Germany would soon lead to revolution.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Protestant Reformation[/FONT]
By the 1560s, the Protestant community grew in influence across Northern Europe. Dutch
Protestants, after initial backlash, were generally tolerated by local authorities. Their wealth made
them influential, and in a society based on trade and commerce, both freedom and tolerance were
essential. Local lords were far more interested in wealth than conforming to Spanish law. They were
a vital minority, but a minority nonetheless. In 1560, the majority of Netherlanders still follow to
path laid down by the Holy Church.
With little to no regard for Dutch customs, Charles V believed it his duty to battle
Protestantism, which under Spanish and Church law was considered heresy. His son, Philip II, struck
out at the heretics far harsher than Charles V. By Phillip’s reign, the situation escalated to the point
where Spanish soldiers were sent in to crush what Phillip viewed as Rebellion, and restore the
authority of the Church to the Netherlands. The harsh measures led to increasing grievances, where
local government had embarked on a course of coexistence. With the arrival of the Inquisition, Spain
proved it was not interested in coexistence or tolerance.
The Dutch Protestants compared their humble values favorably against the luxurious habits
of the ecclesiastical nobility. The Protestant movement initially emphasized such virtues of modesty,
cleanliness, frugality and hard work. The so-called Protestant work ethic helped drive the
Netherlands, even the Catholic citizens, into the world-striding Dutch Commonwealth of Nations
of later centuries. Biblical stories of fishermen, ship builders and other humble occupations resonated
among the seafaring Dutch. The moral elements of the Reformation represented a challenge to the
Spanish Empire.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Taxation[/FONT]
The provinces of the Netherlands have grown into wealthy and entrepreneurial regions within
the Habsburg’s private empire by the middle of the Sixteenth Century. Neighboring states often
turned coveting eyes towards the provinces, Flanders in particular caught the attention of French
kings for decades. Its wealth would make it a welcome addition to the French state. During the reign
of Charles V, Spain blossomed into a world-wide empire, with territories not only across Europe,
but engulfing most of the New World.
Control and defense of these lands were hampered by the very size of the Spanish Empire.
Spain also had to face rivals who were more than eager to take a piece of its empire for themselves.
Both Spain and France were locked into near continuous conflict in the Italian Wars, and Spain also
2
French word, translates as ‘beggars’
must contest the Turks across the Mediterranean. For wars were waged in holy spirit across the
heretical states in Germany. These wars impacted Spain’s treasury severely, and the Netherlands
heretical states in Germany. These wars impacted Spain’s treasury severely, and the Netherlands
were forced to pay dearly to support them.
The provinces viewed these wars as unnecessary, or flat out harmful, as they were waged
against important trading partners. No consideration was given to the markets built up in
Amsterdam, Flanders or Antwerp when it came to Spain’s ‘divine’ right to spread the faith. By 1571,
Spain imposed a ten percent sales tax on all land within the Netherlands. Harsher measures would
soon follow. It was becoming increasingly clear that the Netherlands were not the provinces they had
been beneath Burgundy rule, but rather viewed not much differently than its colonies.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Centralization[/FONT]
By the later Middle Ages, most of the administrators in the Netherlands were not the tradition
aristocracy (the old families), but rather stemmed from non-noble families that worked their way into
power over the previous century (the new families). Under the rule of Burgundy, the provinces
enjoyed a degree of autonomy in appointing its own governors and councils. Thus the Netherlands
represented a loose confederation of high independent-minded citizenry.
Spanish rule changed much of this. The Kings of Spain set out to improve their empire by
increasing the authority of the central government in matters concerning taxation and laws. It was
a policy which caused great suspicion among the Netherlands’ nobility and merchant classes. An
example of Spain’s takeover of power occurred in 1528, when Charles V supplanted the council of
guildmasters in Utrecht and replaced it with a regent answerable only to him. Under the regency of
Mary of Hungary, tradition power had for a large part been stripped from the governors of the
provinces and from the Dutch nobility, whose members were being replaced by Spanish jurists in
the Council of State.
Phillip II went even further in appointing members to the Dutch Staaten-General, placing his
confidante, Granvelle, as head of the assembly, and furthermore he appointed Margaret of Parma as
Governor of all the Netherlands. By 1558, the situation grew worse, and the provinces began to
openly contradict the Spanish King’s wishes. Many of the Staaten-General withdrew, including the
Count of Egmont, Count of Horne and William of Orange, until Granville was recalled. Phillip II’s
responded with even sterner oppression.
During the same time, religious protests increased in spite of the oppression and inquisition.
In 1566, four hundred members of the high nobility petitioned the governor to suspend persecution.
Count Berlaymont called the petition and act of gueux2, a name taken up as an honor by the
petitioners, soon called Geuzen. Margaret accepted the petition, and sent in to Spain, for the King’s
final verdict.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Uprising[/FONT]
The atmosphere in the Netherlands grew tense following the bad harvest of 1565, and
economic difficulties caused by wars in Northern Europe. Hunger, hardship and the rebellious
preaching of Calvinist leaders brought tensions to a boiling point. In August of 1566, a Calvinist
mob stormed the church of Hondschoote in Flanders. This one incident sparked a massive iconoclast
movement, where Calvinists raided churches and other religious centers, destroying all statues and
imaged of Catholic Saints they could lay their hands upon.
The number of vandals was likely small, and their exact background is debated, but local
authorities did little to rein in the enthusiastic iconoclasts. Their action drove the Dutch nobility into
two camps. One camp, lead by William of Orange, opposed the destruction. Others, most notably
Henry of Brederode, openly supported the movement, a dangerous statement in a world were a word
from the Spanish Governor could cost you your head.
Before the petition of the Guezen could even be read, Phillip II knew he lost control in the
troublesome provinces. He had little option but to send an army to suppress the rebellion. On August
22, 1567, Fernando Alvarez of Toledo, the 3rd Duke of Alba, marched into the city of Brussels at the
head of an army numbering ten thousand strong. The ‘Iron Duke’ entered the Netherlands with
unlimited power and replaced Margaret as governor. Alba took harsh measures and quickly
established a series of special courts to judge all in opposition to the king.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Blood Council[/FONT]
Alba established a tribunal which was soon known by the locals as the ‘Blood Council’ or
‘Blood Court’. During his six years of governorship, thousands of people were brought forth to these
courts, convicted and executed. The exact number of the condemned is not known, the Dutch claim
eighteen thousand, while the Spanish history only recorded a few hundred. No matter the cost, the
Duke of Alba failed in his quest. Instead of quelling the rebellion, his measures helped fuel the
unrest. He unwittingly became the instrument of future independence of the Seventeen Provinces.
His ruthless ‘justice’ extended beyond the Protestant trouble makers. He had both Lamoral,
Count of Egmont, and Philip of Montmorency, Count of Hoorn imprisoned. Both were very popular
leaders of the dissatisfied nobility, and both were Catholic. Nonetheless, Alba condemned both as
traitors to the crown without benefit of a trial, and sentenced them to death. On June 1, 1568, six
days before the deaths of Egmont and Hoorn, twenty-two noblemen of Brussels were simultaneously
beheaded. Deaths ordered by an overlord, rather than judged in court, sparked a wave of outrage
across the Netherlands, both Protestant and Catholic alike.
The Duke of Alba entered the Netherlands with the explicit goal of crushing the rebellion.
Instead, he managed to unite what should have been a very volatile sectarian conflict. Instead of
gathering the support of the majority of the Netherlands, he managed to drive even the most loyal
of Spain’s supporters into the rebels camp. The Staaten-General met at Dordrecht, minus the Spanish
appointees, and openly declared against Alba’s government, and marshaled beneath the banners of
the Prince of Orange.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]William of Orange[/FONT]
Willem van Oranje, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland, was born into
the House of Orange on April 24, 1533. In his day, he was widely known as William the Silent, so
much so that William Shakespear wrote a play by the same name though [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]William the Silent [/FONT]dealt
mostly with the exploits of Earl of Leicester, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I, and his campaign
against the Spanish in the Netherlands. In Tudor England, a writer could not live long unless he was
on the Queen’s good side.
The Prince of Orange came from the castle of Dillenburg in Nassau, in present day Germany.
He was the eldest son of the Count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg-Werningerode. Unlike many
across the mostly Catholic low countries, William was raised a Lutheran. By principle, this made
him a target in the eyes of the Holy Inquisition. William’s rise to power started in 1544, when his
cousin, the former Prince of Orange died without an heir. William inherited his cousin’s title and
vast estates throughout the Netherlands. Because of his young age, Charles V (both King of Spain
and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire) served as regent until his was fit to rule.
In order for the Lutheran to gain his rightful lands from his regent, he had no choice but to
study beneath Mary of Hungary in Brussels. Charles V insisted that William receive a Catholic
The Greatest being,
The provinces viewed these wars as unnecessary, or flat out harmful, as they were waged
against important trading partners. No consideration was given to the markets built up in
Amsterdam, Flanders or Antwerp when it came to Spain’s ‘divine’ right to spread the faith. By 1571,
Spain imposed a ten percent sales tax on all land within the Netherlands. Harsher measures would
soon follow. It was becoming increasingly clear that the Netherlands were not the provinces they had
been beneath Burgundy rule, but rather viewed not much differently than its colonies.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Centralization[/FONT]
By the later Middle Ages, most of the administrators in the Netherlands were not the tradition
aristocracy (the old families), but rather stemmed from non-noble families that worked their way into
power over the previous century (the new families). Under the rule of Burgundy, the provinces
enjoyed a degree of autonomy in appointing its own governors and councils. Thus the Netherlands
represented a loose confederation of high independent-minded citizenry.
Spanish rule changed much of this. The Kings of Spain set out to improve their empire by
increasing the authority of the central government in matters concerning taxation and laws. It was
a policy which caused great suspicion among the Netherlands’ nobility and merchant classes. An
example of Spain’s takeover of power occurred in 1528, when Charles V supplanted the council of
guildmasters in Utrecht and replaced it with a regent answerable only to him. Under the regency of
Mary of Hungary, tradition power had for a large part been stripped from the governors of the
provinces and from the Dutch nobility, whose members were being replaced by Spanish jurists in
the Council of State.
Phillip II went even further in appointing members to the Dutch Staaten-General, placing his
confidante, Granvelle, as head of the assembly, and furthermore he appointed Margaret of Parma as
Governor of all the Netherlands. By 1558, the situation grew worse, and the provinces began to
openly contradict the Spanish King’s wishes. Many of the Staaten-General withdrew, including the
Count of Egmont, Count of Horne and William of Orange, until Granville was recalled. Phillip II’s
responded with even sterner oppression.
During the same time, religious protests increased in spite of the oppression and inquisition.
In 1566, four hundred members of the high nobility petitioned the governor to suspend persecution.
Count Berlaymont called the petition and act of gueux2, a name taken up as an honor by the
petitioners, soon called Geuzen. Margaret accepted the petition, and sent in to Spain, for the King’s
final verdict.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Uprising[/FONT]
The atmosphere in the Netherlands grew tense following the bad harvest of 1565, and
economic difficulties caused by wars in Northern Europe. Hunger, hardship and the rebellious
preaching of Calvinist leaders brought tensions to a boiling point. In August of 1566, a Calvinist
mob stormed the church of Hondschoote in Flanders. This one incident sparked a massive iconoclast
movement, where Calvinists raided churches and other religious centers, destroying all statues and
imaged of Catholic Saints they could lay their hands upon.
The number of vandals was likely small, and their exact background is debated, but local
authorities did little to rein in the enthusiastic iconoclasts. Their action drove the Dutch nobility into
two camps. One camp, lead by William of Orange, opposed the destruction. Others, most notably
Henry of Brederode, openly supported the movement, a dangerous statement in a world were a word
from the Spanish Governor could cost you your head.
Before the petition of the Guezen could even be read, Phillip II knew he lost control in the
troublesome provinces. He had little option but to send an army to suppress the rebellion. On August
22, 1567, Fernando Alvarez of Toledo, the 3rd Duke of Alba, marched into the city of Brussels at the
head of an army numbering ten thousand strong. The ‘Iron Duke’ entered the Netherlands with
unlimited power and replaced Margaret as governor. Alba took harsh measures and quickly
established a series of special courts to judge all in opposition to the king.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Blood Council[/FONT]
Alba established a tribunal which was soon known by the locals as the ‘Blood Council’ or
‘Blood Court’. During his six years of governorship, thousands of people were brought forth to these
courts, convicted and executed. The exact number of the condemned is not known, the Dutch claim
eighteen thousand, while the Spanish history only recorded a few hundred. No matter the cost, the
Duke of Alba failed in his quest. Instead of quelling the rebellion, his measures helped fuel the
unrest. He unwittingly became the instrument of future independence of the Seventeen Provinces.
His ruthless ‘justice’ extended beyond the Protestant trouble makers. He had both Lamoral,
Count of Egmont, and Philip of Montmorency, Count of Hoorn imprisoned. Both were very popular
leaders of the dissatisfied nobility, and both were Catholic. Nonetheless, Alba condemned both as
traitors to the crown without benefit of a trial, and sentenced them to death. On June 1, 1568, six
days before the deaths of Egmont and Hoorn, twenty-two noblemen of Brussels were simultaneously
beheaded. Deaths ordered by an overlord, rather than judged in court, sparked a wave of outrage
across the Netherlands, both Protestant and Catholic alike.
The Duke of Alba entered the Netherlands with the explicit goal of crushing the rebellion.
Instead, he managed to unite what should have been a very volatile sectarian conflict. Instead of
gathering the support of the majority of the Netherlands, he managed to drive even the most loyal
of Spain’s supporters into the rebels camp. The Staaten-General met at Dordrecht, minus the Spanish
appointees, and openly declared against Alba’s government, and marshaled beneath the banners of
the Prince of Orange.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]William of Orange[/FONT]
Willem van Oranje, Stadtholder of Holland, Zeeland, Utrecht and Friesland, was born into
the House of Orange on April 24, 1533. In his day, he was widely known as William the Silent, so
much so that William Shakespear wrote a play by the same name though [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]William the Silent [/FONT]dealt
mostly with the exploits of Earl of Leicester, a favorite of Queen Elizabeth I, and his campaign
against the Spanish in the Netherlands. In Tudor England, a writer could not live long unless he was
on the Queen’s good side.
The Prince of Orange came from the castle of Dillenburg in Nassau, in present day Germany.
He was the eldest son of the Count of Nassau and Juliana of Stolberg-Werningerode. Unlike many
across the mostly Catholic low countries, William was raised a Lutheran. By principle, this made
him a target in the eyes of the Holy Inquisition. William’s rise to power started in 1544, when his
cousin, the former Prince of Orange died without an heir. William inherited his cousin’s title and
vast estates throughout the Netherlands. Because of his young age, Charles V (both King of Spain
and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire) served as regent until his was fit to rule.
In order for the Lutheran to gain his rightful lands from his regent, he had no choice but to
study beneath Mary of Hungary in Brussels. Charles V insisted that William receive a Catholic
The Greatest being,
3 of course, the Queen of England.
education. In Brussels, he was taught foreign languages, such as Spanish, and received military and
diplomatic education. On July 6, 1551, William married his first wife, Anna of Egmont, a wealthy
diplomatic education. On July 6, 1551, William married his first wife, Anna of Egmont, a wealthy
heiress of her father’s lands and title.
In the same year of his marriage, William was appointed captain in the cavalry. Despite the
taint of Lutheranism that would haunt him during Phillip II’s reign, William rapidly grew into
Charles V’s favor, and became commander of one of the Emperor’s armies by the age of twenty-two.
Both marital education and experience in the Holy Roman Empire would serve William well in his
future struggle for Dutch Independence. When Charles abdicated, it was on William’s shoulder the
former Emperor leaned as he stepped down in favor for his son, Phillip. When standing there,
watching his father abdicate, did Phillip know then man by his side would one day become Spain’s
second greatest enemy of the Sixteenth Century3?
Phillip II’s relations with William remained positive in William’s early years. It was Phillip
who appointed William as Stadtholder of Holland, and thus greatly increased his political power.
The year before, tragedy struck his life. His first wife died on March 24, 1558. Though a personal
tragedy, the death of Anna permitted William to take another wife, and sire more children, one of
which would be the founder of a dynasty.
William, brought up a Lutheran and given a Catholic education was a strong proponent of
religious freedom. Like those to follow, he believed that one’s religion was a private matter. In deed,
he was very dissatisfied by the growing persecution of Protestants throughout his provinces.
Ironically, the persecution angered the Catholic population more so than the intended targets. Those
who were assumed to be loyal to Spain grew in opposition to foreign rule.
On August 25, 1561, William married for a second time, this time to an ill-tempered woman
known as Anna of Saxony. It is generally believed that William married Anna to increase his power
and gain influence over the German states of Saxony and Hesse. William did gain more power, but
more importantly, the Netherlands gained one of their greatest leaders when Anna gave birth to their
first son, Maurice.
During the Blood Council, William was one of the thousands summoned to stand in
judgement before the Iron Duke. He failed to show, and was subsequently declared an outlaw, his
lands seized immediately afterward. As a popular leader in the Staaten-General, William emerged
as leader to the armed rebellion against Spain. In pamphlets and letters spread across the
Netherlands, William called attention to the right of subjects to renounce their oath of obedience if
their sovereign refused to respect their rights.
William raised an army to battle the Duke of Alba, containing of mostly German
mercenaries. Contingents of his army, lead by his brothers Louis and Adolf, engaged and defeated
a Spanish army of three thousand at Heiligerlle in Groningen. The Battle of Heiligerlle marks the
start of the Forty Years War. The victory turned into a hollow one. Instead of pressing the campaign
onward, William ran short of funds and his army disintegrated. Armies raised by his allies were
handily defeated and destroyed by the Duke of Alba.
William went into hiding as soon as the initial fires of rebellion died out. He was only one
of the grandees still able to offer resistance. With his ancestral lands of Orange, in Breda, remained
under Spanish occupation, William moved his court to Delft, in Holland. Delft would remain
William’s base of operation until his death, in 1584.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Brielle[/FONT]
On March 1, 1572, Queen Elizabeth of England ousted thousands of Dutch exiles within her
own nation. She walked a fine line in regards to Spain, and could not afford to provoke Phillip II.
Though Spain was distracted by wars against the Turks, they were still more than a match for
England’s small army. To appease Phillip, she had little option but to kick out the Gueux. The
ejection forces the beggars to return home.
Under the command of Lumey, the Gueux captured the unguarded town of Brielle. By
grabbing a toe hold in the northern Netherlands, the rebels let the Protestants populace know the time
to rebel had returned. As far as morale was concerned, Brielle turned out to be an important victory.
In reality, it was little more than a token defeat of a nonexistent occupying force. Cities across
Zeeland and Holland quickly renewed their support for the rebels. The most conspicuous absence
in support came from Amsterdam itself.
With rebellion back in swing, William of Orange came out of hiding to take command. In
July of 1572, the Staaten-General assembled in Dordrecht, and agreed to recognize William as
Governor-General of the Netherlands. It was agreed upon that William would share his new found
power with the Provinces. Sharing of power eventually metamorphosed into the separation of powers
soon to be the cornerstone of the United Provinces.
However, by declaring for the Protestants, the Gueux handed William an assortment of
problems. The minority Calvinists were bent on converting all of the Netherlands to their way of
thinking. Meanwhile, the Catholic Dutch maintained no permanent allegiance, instead wanting to
simply eject the Duke of Alba and his army of Spaniards and mercenaries. A majority of the Dutch
were reluctant to rebel at all. Though they were no fans of Spain, they still wished to live their lives
in peace and earn a decent income. By making an enemy of Spain, merchants had difficulty in
trading abroad. William was the key figure in directing the various factions to a common goal.
It is doubtful that William would have been successful if not for an outside enemy to unite
all the Dutch. Tension between Calvinists and Catholics threatened to tear apart the rebellion. No
matter how hard William tried to convince the masses he was fighting for nationalism, the fanatical
Calvinists would quickly open their collective mouths and insert their collective feet. William had
little choice but to work with the Calvinists, since they were fighting the Spanish harder than any
other Netherlander. As with much during the Forty Years War, it was not what the Dutch leaders
said, but what the Spanish did that strengthened the unity between Provinces.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Spanish Fury[/FONT]
Being unable to squash the rebellion, the Duke of Alba was replaced in 1573, by Luis of
Requesnes. Requesnes came to the Netherlands with what he considered a policy of moderation. He
would punish rebels, but cease harassment of those who would swear loyalty to the King. His policy
was poorly managed, and by the time of his death in 1576, moderation was swept from the table.
What struck William’s army years before, now struck the Spanish. In 1575, because of wars
abroad and at home, Spain declared bankruptcy. The inability to pay their army, particularly their
mercenaries, would have dire consequences for Spanish rule in the Netherlands. Mutinies followed
lack of pay, and on November 4, 1576, troops from the Spanish Tercois entered the wealthy port of
Antwerp.
Tired of fighting numerically superior rebels without their salary, the mercenaries decided
to ‘pay themselves’ by looting Antwerp. The out-of-control army indulged in a wave of violence that
claimed some eight thousand lives and untold quantities of lost property. For three days, the
mercenaries pillaged, plundered and looted anything not nailed down. For locals, the Sack of
Antwerp became a reference point in their lives. Antwerpers soon began to refer to events in their
lives as ‘before the sacking’ or after it.
Instead of crushing the rebellion, the mutinous army managed to turn even the harshest critics
of the rebellion into its most adherent followers. The most reluctant of Dutch took up arms and
pledged to fight together against the Spanish. Those provinces and cities still loyal to Spain were
quickly alienated by the carnage seen at Antwerp and joined the rest of the Netherlands in open
rebellion. In one single act of greed and brutality, the modern Dutch state was born.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Pacification of Ghent[/FONT]
Following the Spanish Fury, the Provinces of the Netherlands negotiated an internal treaty,
in which all Dutch put aside their religious difference to combat the foreigners who so ravished their
lands. William of Orange was instrumental in forming the alliance, and more importantly, of finally
pushing the religious question out of public domain. The declaration was also the first major
expression of Dutch national self-consciousness.
To make this work, William allied himself with the most powerful of southern nobles, the
Duke of Aerschott. Aerschott himself was no fan of William, and was opposed to the rebellion up
until the Sacking of Antwerp. What he wanted more than to see William’s downfall, was the
restoration of the old privileges and his rights, both revoked by Phillip of Spain. In order to achieve
his goals, he teamed up with William. William’s ultimate ambition, a United Netherlands strong
enough to resist Spanish domain, was nearing a reality.
The Pacification of Ghent, aside from making religious tolerance law, also called for the
expulsion of all Spanish armed forces and restoration of local and provincial prerogatives. If Phillip
II did not take a simple petition well, such a bold declaration infuriated him. Who were these Dutch
upstarts, to make demands of their anointed king? Answering the only way he knew how, with a
heavy hand, he sent Alessandro Farnes, the Duke of Parma, to crush these traitors. The Duke of
Parma was appointed Governor-General, the same title held by the Prince of Orange. Clearly the
Netherlands were not large enough for the both of them. Aided by a shipment of bullion just arrived
from the New World, the Duke of Parma formed his army and set out to destroy the Dutch rebellion
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Oath of Abjuration[/FONT]
In Sixteenth Century Europe, it was not conceivable that a country could be governed by
anyone other than high nobility, if not a king, so the Staaten-General sought out a suitable
replacement for their current ‘king’ Phillip of Spain. They first courted Elizabeth of England, but in
1581, she was in no position to displace Phillip II. Spain still eyed England, and would jump at the
slightest provocation to invade the island nation and destroy it Protestant institutions. Thus,
Elizabeth rejected the offer of protectorship.
With one rejection on its list, the Staaten-General turned to Elizabeth’s one-time suitor, the
Duke of Anjou. The younger brother to the French King accepted the offer, under one condition; the
Netherlands must denounce any loyalty to Phillip II. In 1581, the Oath of Abjuration was issued, in
which the Netherlands proclaimed the King of Spain did not uphold his responsibilities to the Dutch
population and thus no longer accepted as their rightful ruler. In other words, on July 22, 1851, the
Provinces declared independence.
Anjou did not stay long in the Netherlands. He was, naturally for a French noble, deeply
disturbed by the limited influence and power the Staaten-General was willing to grant him. The
French were accustomed to rule by edict, and in a sense were little different from Spanish. Both
believed strongly that their right to rule was divine, and that God anointed them ruler over all their
subjects and their lives. After some attempt to increase his power via a coup, the Duke of Anjou was
rapidly ridden out of the Netherlands, losing any chance of ever being King.
A third, and obvious choice presented itself. Many of his followers and allies suggest that
William himself take up the crown of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. William considered
the offer, but put it on hold for the time being. The alliance between provinces was shaky at best, and
William’s opponents might use it as a chance to move against him. He could ill afford to have the
rebellion turn in on itself.
After Spain was defeated? William was unsure even then. If he became King, how many of
the Provinces would follow him? Catholic nobles were suspicious since he was born a Lutheran.
Protestant nobles were suspicious because he obtained a Catholic education. Lastly, the Calvinists
were suspicious because he himself was not one of them. Though he was not King, he was still seen
as head of the rebellion. As such, the King of Spain placed a bounty on his head, one that many were
intent on collecting.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Fall of Antwerp[/FONT]
By 1584, the King of Spain was through playing games with the rebels. He called upon the
Duke of Parma to restore ‘peace and orthodoxy’ to his Netherlands. Parma met various Dutch militia
in battle after battle, defeating the untrained men with ease. In the first half of the 1580s, Parma tried
to force William into a decisive battle, where he could tear out the heart of the rebellion. IN July of
1584, Parma led his army to encircle the focal point of resistance, Antwerp.
Less than a decade earlier, Antwerp faced the wrath of mutinous Spaniards. Thousands of
Dutch were slaughtered in the ensuing sacking, and hundreds of houses put to the torch. At the time,
Antwerp was not only the largest Dutch city, but also the financial, cultural and economic center of
Sixteenth Century Netherlands. Its trade even eclipsed Amsterdam, granary of the north.
Parma’s first act was the construction of a bridge across the Scheldt River, to isolate Antwerp
from the growing Dutch Navy. After the Spanish Fury, rebels flocked to Antwerp, transforming it
into the capital of the Dutch rebellion. By taking the city, Parma hoped to break the will of the rebels
and force them back into the Spanish fold. After a year long siege, the city surrendered.
After the siege, Parma kept the bridge across Scheldt in place, blocking all traffic and trade
to the port. Protestants were forced to leave town before the fall, to keep ahead of the Inquisition.
They were not the only ones to leave. Tens of thousands fled northward, reducing Antwerp’s
population from nearly one hundred thousand down to forty thousands. What was the golden century
In the same year of his marriage, William was appointed captain in the cavalry. Despite the
taint of Lutheranism that would haunt him during Phillip II’s reign, William rapidly grew into
Charles V’s favor, and became commander of one of the Emperor’s armies by the age of twenty-two.
Both marital education and experience in the Holy Roman Empire would serve William well in his
future struggle for Dutch Independence. When Charles abdicated, it was on William’s shoulder the
former Emperor leaned as he stepped down in favor for his son, Phillip. When standing there,
watching his father abdicate, did Phillip know then man by his side would one day become Spain’s
second greatest enemy of the Sixteenth Century3?
Phillip II’s relations with William remained positive in William’s early years. It was Phillip
who appointed William as Stadtholder of Holland, and thus greatly increased his political power.
The year before, tragedy struck his life. His first wife died on March 24, 1558. Though a personal
tragedy, the death of Anna permitted William to take another wife, and sire more children, one of
which would be the founder of a dynasty.
William, brought up a Lutheran and given a Catholic education was a strong proponent of
religious freedom. Like those to follow, he believed that one’s religion was a private matter. In deed,
he was very dissatisfied by the growing persecution of Protestants throughout his provinces.
Ironically, the persecution angered the Catholic population more so than the intended targets. Those
who were assumed to be loyal to Spain grew in opposition to foreign rule.
On August 25, 1561, William married for a second time, this time to an ill-tempered woman
known as Anna of Saxony. It is generally believed that William married Anna to increase his power
and gain influence over the German states of Saxony and Hesse. William did gain more power, but
more importantly, the Netherlands gained one of their greatest leaders when Anna gave birth to their
first son, Maurice.
During the Blood Council, William was one of the thousands summoned to stand in
judgement before the Iron Duke. He failed to show, and was subsequently declared an outlaw, his
lands seized immediately afterward. As a popular leader in the Staaten-General, William emerged
as leader to the armed rebellion against Spain. In pamphlets and letters spread across the
Netherlands, William called attention to the right of subjects to renounce their oath of obedience if
their sovereign refused to respect their rights.
William raised an army to battle the Duke of Alba, containing of mostly German
mercenaries. Contingents of his army, lead by his brothers Louis and Adolf, engaged and defeated
a Spanish army of three thousand at Heiligerlle in Groningen. The Battle of Heiligerlle marks the
start of the Forty Years War. The victory turned into a hollow one. Instead of pressing the campaign
onward, William ran short of funds and his army disintegrated. Armies raised by his allies were
handily defeated and destroyed by the Duke of Alba.
William went into hiding as soon as the initial fires of rebellion died out. He was only one
of the grandees still able to offer resistance. With his ancestral lands of Orange, in Breda, remained
under Spanish occupation, William moved his court to Delft, in Holland. Delft would remain
William’s base of operation until his death, in 1584.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Brielle[/FONT]
On March 1, 1572, Queen Elizabeth of England ousted thousands of Dutch exiles within her
own nation. She walked a fine line in regards to Spain, and could not afford to provoke Phillip II.
Though Spain was distracted by wars against the Turks, they were still more than a match for
England’s small army. To appease Phillip, she had little option but to kick out the Gueux. The
ejection forces the beggars to return home.
Under the command of Lumey, the Gueux captured the unguarded town of Brielle. By
grabbing a toe hold in the northern Netherlands, the rebels let the Protestants populace know the time
to rebel had returned. As far as morale was concerned, Brielle turned out to be an important victory.
In reality, it was little more than a token defeat of a nonexistent occupying force. Cities across
Zeeland and Holland quickly renewed their support for the rebels. The most conspicuous absence
in support came from Amsterdam itself.
With rebellion back in swing, William of Orange came out of hiding to take command. In
July of 1572, the Staaten-General assembled in Dordrecht, and agreed to recognize William as
Governor-General of the Netherlands. It was agreed upon that William would share his new found
power with the Provinces. Sharing of power eventually metamorphosed into the separation of powers
soon to be the cornerstone of the United Provinces.
However, by declaring for the Protestants, the Gueux handed William an assortment of
problems. The minority Calvinists were bent on converting all of the Netherlands to their way of
thinking. Meanwhile, the Catholic Dutch maintained no permanent allegiance, instead wanting to
simply eject the Duke of Alba and his army of Spaniards and mercenaries. A majority of the Dutch
were reluctant to rebel at all. Though they were no fans of Spain, they still wished to live their lives
in peace and earn a decent income. By making an enemy of Spain, merchants had difficulty in
trading abroad. William was the key figure in directing the various factions to a common goal.
It is doubtful that William would have been successful if not for an outside enemy to unite
all the Dutch. Tension between Calvinists and Catholics threatened to tear apart the rebellion. No
matter how hard William tried to convince the masses he was fighting for nationalism, the fanatical
Calvinists would quickly open their collective mouths and insert their collective feet. William had
little choice but to work with the Calvinists, since they were fighting the Spanish harder than any
other Netherlander. As with much during the Forty Years War, it was not what the Dutch leaders
said, but what the Spanish did that strengthened the unity between Provinces.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Spanish Fury[/FONT]
Being unable to squash the rebellion, the Duke of Alba was replaced in 1573, by Luis of
Requesnes. Requesnes came to the Netherlands with what he considered a policy of moderation. He
would punish rebels, but cease harassment of those who would swear loyalty to the King. His policy
was poorly managed, and by the time of his death in 1576, moderation was swept from the table.
What struck William’s army years before, now struck the Spanish. In 1575, because of wars
abroad and at home, Spain declared bankruptcy. The inability to pay their army, particularly their
mercenaries, would have dire consequences for Spanish rule in the Netherlands. Mutinies followed
lack of pay, and on November 4, 1576, troops from the Spanish Tercois entered the wealthy port of
Antwerp.
Tired of fighting numerically superior rebels without their salary, the mercenaries decided
to ‘pay themselves’ by looting Antwerp. The out-of-control army indulged in a wave of violence that
claimed some eight thousand lives and untold quantities of lost property. For three days, the
mercenaries pillaged, plundered and looted anything not nailed down. For locals, the Sack of
Antwerp became a reference point in their lives. Antwerpers soon began to refer to events in their
lives as ‘before the sacking’ or after it.
Instead of crushing the rebellion, the mutinous army managed to turn even the harshest critics
of the rebellion into its most adherent followers. The most reluctant of Dutch took up arms and
pledged to fight together against the Spanish. Those provinces and cities still loyal to Spain were
quickly alienated by the carnage seen at Antwerp and joined the rest of the Netherlands in open
rebellion. In one single act of greed and brutality, the modern Dutch state was born.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Pacification of Ghent[/FONT]
Following the Spanish Fury, the Provinces of the Netherlands negotiated an internal treaty,
in which all Dutch put aside their religious difference to combat the foreigners who so ravished their
lands. William of Orange was instrumental in forming the alliance, and more importantly, of finally
pushing the religious question out of public domain. The declaration was also the first major
expression of Dutch national self-consciousness.
To make this work, William allied himself with the most powerful of southern nobles, the
Duke of Aerschott. Aerschott himself was no fan of William, and was opposed to the rebellion up
until the Sacking of Antwerp. What he wanted more than to see William’s downfall, was the
restoration of the old privileges and his rights, both revoked by Phillip of Spain. In order to achieve
his goals, he teamed up with William. William’s ultimate ambition, a United Netherlands strong
enough to resist Spanish domain, was nearing a reality.
The Pacification of Ghent, aside from making religious tolerance law, also called for the
expulsion of all Spanish armed forces and restoration of local and provincial prerogatives. If Phillip
II did not take a simple petition well, such a bold declaration infuriated him. Who were these Dutch
upstarts, to make demands of their anointed king? Answering the only way he knew how, with a
heavy hand, he sent Alessandro Farnes, the Duke of Parma, to crush these traitors. The Duke of
Parma was appointed Governor-General, the same title held by the Prince of Orange. Clearly the
Netherlands were not large enough for the both of them. Aided by a shipment of bullion just arrived
from the New World, the Duke of Parma formed his army and set out to destroy the Dutch rebellion
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Oath of Abjuration[/FONT]
In Sixteenth Century Europe, it was not conceivable that a country could be governed by
anyone other than high nobility, if not a king, so the Staaten-General sought out a suitable
replacement for their current ‘king’ Phillip of Spain. They first courted Elizabeth of England, but in
1581, she was in no position to displace Phillip II. Spain still eyed England, and would jump at the
slightest provocation to invade the island nation and destroy it Protestant institutions. Thus,
Elizabeth rejected the offer of protectorship.
With one rejection on its list, the Staaten-General turned to Elizabeth’s one-time suitor, the
Duke of Anjou. The younger brother to the French King accepted the offer, under one condition; the
Netherlands must denounce any loyalty to Phillip II. In 1581, the Oath of Abjuration was issued, in
which the Netherlands proclaimed the King of Spain did not uphold his responsibilities to the Dutch
population and thus no longer accepted as their rightful ruler. In other words, on July 22, 1851, the
Provinces declared independence.
Anjou did not stay long in the Netherlands. He was, naturally for a French noble, deeply
disturbed by the limited influence and power the Staaten-General was willing to grant him. The
French were accustomed to rule by edict, and in a sense were little different from Spanish. Both
believed strongly that their right to rule was divine, and that God anointed them ruler over all their
subjects and their lives. After some attempt to increase his power via a coup, the Duke of Anjou was
rapidly ridden out of the Netherlands, losing any chance of ever being King.
A third, and obvious choice presented itself. Many of his followers and allies suggest that
William himself take up the crown of the United Provinces of the Netherlands. William considered
the offer, but put it on hold for the time being. The alliance between provinces was shaky at best, and
William’s opponents might use it as a chance to move against him. He could ill afford to have the
rebellion turn in on itself.
After Spain was defeated? William was unsure even then. If he became King, how many of
the Provinces would follow him? Catholic nobles were suspicious since he was born a Lutheran.
Protestant nobles were suspicious because he obtained a Catholic education. Lastly, the Calvinists
were suspicious because he himself was not one of them. Though he was not King, he was still seen
as head of the rebellion. As such, the King of Spain placed a bounty on his head, one that many were
intent on collecting.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Fall of Antwerp[/FONT]
By 1584, the King of Spain was through playing games with the rebels. He called upon the
Duke of Parma to restore ‘peace and orthodoxy’ to his Netherlands. Parma met various Dutch militia
in battle after battle, defeating the untrained men with ease. In the first half of the 1580s, Parma tried
to force William into a decisive battle, where he could tear out the heart of the rebellion. IN July of
1584, Parma led his army to encircle the focal point of resistance, Antwerp.
Less than a decade earlier, Antwerp faced the wrath of mutinous Spaniards. Thousands of
Dutch were slaughtered in the ensuing sacking, and hundreds of houses put to the torch. At the time,
Antwerp was not only the largest Dutch city, but also the financial, cultural and economic center of
Sixteenth Century Netherlands. Its trade even eclipsed Amsterdam, granary of the north.
Parma’s first act was the construction of a bridge across the Scheldt River, to isolate Antwerp
from the growing Dutch Navy. After the Spanish Fury, rebels flocked to Antwerp, transforming it
into the capital of the Dutch rebellion. By taking the city, Parma hoped to break the will of the rebels
and force them back into the Spanish fold. After a year long siege, the city surrendered.
After the siege, Parma kept the bridge across Scheldt in place, blocking all traffic and trade
to the port. Protestants were forced to leave town before the fall, to keep ahead of the Inquisition.
They were not the only ones to leave. Tens of thousands fled northward, reducing Antwerp’s
population from nearly one hundred thousand down to forty thousands. What was the golden century
of Antwerp came to an end on August 17, 1585.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Assassination[/FONT]
William continued his struggle, now with a twenty-five thousand crown reward on him. In
what was to be his last year, William married for a fourth and final time, this time to Louise of
what was to be his last year, William married for a fourth and final time, this time to Louise of
Coligny, a Huguenot. She bore him one child, Frederick Henry, future king. William, himself, given
up the idea of becoming king. He had enough trouble already. The Duke of Parma’s campaign
threatened to break his alliance. Many Catholic communities, seeing Spain back on the rise, wavered
in their loyalty. Wavered, but did not break. Too many times the Spanish broke the Dutch Catholic’s
hearts, and they were not about to trust them again.
William’s demise came from the hand of Balthasar Gerard. When William was declared an
outlaw, back in 1581, Gerard decided to travel to the Netherlands and collect on the bounty. He
served in the army of Luxembourg for two years, hoping to get close enough to take a shot at
William. Alas, the two armies never joined, and in 1584, Gerard left the army. He presented the
Duke of Parma his plans, but the Duke was hardly impressed, but permitted the would-be assassin
to go ahead.
In May of 1584, Gerard presented himself to William as a French Nobleman, and presented
him with the seal of the Count of Mansfelt. This seal would permit forgeries of messages of
Mansfelt. William sent Gerard back to France, to pass the seal to his French allies. Gerard returned
in July, having bought pistols on his return voyage. On July 10, he made an appointment to meet
William in his residence, in Delft.
What happened next altered the course of Dutch history, and is, in fact the first recorded
assassination of a head of state by a fire arm. It would not be the last. Gerard shot William in the
chest at close range and fled. According to official reports, Williams last words were said to be “My
God, have pity on my soul; my God, have pity on this poor people”. The assassin failed to flee Delft
before his apprehension and imprisoned. His fate was the same as to befall anyone who committed
regicide.
up the idea of becoming king. He had enough trouble already. The Duke of Parma’s campaign
threatened to break his alliance. Many Catholic communities, seeing Spain back on the rise, wavered
in their loyalty. Wavered, but did not break. Too many times the Spanish broke the Dutch Catholic’s
hearts, and they were not about to trust them again.
William’s demise came from the hand of Balthasar Gerard. When William was declared an
outlaw, back in 1581, Gerard decided to travel to the Netherlands and collect on the bounty. He
served in the army of Luxembourg for two years, hoping to get close enough to take a shot at
William. Alas, the two armies never joined, and in 1584, Gerard left the army. He presented the
Duke of Parma his plans, but the Duke was hardly impressed, but permitted the would-be assassin
to go ahead.
In May of 1584, Gerard presented himself to William as a French Nobleman, and presented
him with the seal of the Count of Mansfelt. This seal would permit forgeries of messages of
Mansfelt. William sent Gerard back to France, to pass the seal to his French allies. Gerard returned
in July, having bought pistols on his return voyage. On July 10, he made an appointment to meet
William in his residence, in Delft.
What happened next altered the course of Dutch history, and is, in fact the first recorded
assassination of a head of state by a fire arm. It would not be the last. Gerard shot William in the
chest at close range and fled. According to official reports, Williams last words were said to be “My
God, have pity on my soul; my God, have pity on this poor people”. The assassin failed to flee Delft
before his apprehension and imprisoned. His fate was the same as to befall anyone who committed
regicide.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Earl of Leicester[/FONT]
By 1585, the Staaten-General signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with England. As per the treaty,
Elizabeth I sent an army numbering six thousand to do battle with the Spanish. She found appeasing
Elizabeth I sent an army numbering six thousand to do battle with the Spanish. She found appeasing
Phillip II now impossible, and decided it best to beat him over there than in her own backyard.
Leading the English Army was Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester. Long since a favorite of the
Queen, and rumored to be her lover at one point, Leicester remains a controversial character in Dutch
history. It was not the first time Leicester was the center of controversy; years earlier, his wife was
found dead at the bottom of a stair case. Though the death was ruled accidental, his closeness to the
Queen, and the vacant Kingship, made her death more than a little convenient. He spent the
following years laying low and out of sight.
Leicester was offered the Governor-Generalship, though he could not rule with a free hand.
His Queen forbade him from making any agreements with Spain without her consent. Further more,
he did not share the secular values laid down by the Pacification of Ghent. He immediately sided
with the Calvinists, drawing distrust from everyone else. He also butted heads with Stadtholders and
nobles across the Netherlands when he tried to strengthen his own power by robbing the Provinces
of theirs. He was not the first to make this error, but he would be the last.
Leicester proved to be a poor commander, hardly worthy of a staring role in [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]William the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Silent[/FONT]. Nor did he understand the delicate balance between trade and war. The Dutch, by 1586, were
fully committed to independence, however this was by no means an abandonment of commerce.
Within a year of his arrival, the Earl of Leicester lost the support of the Staaten-General and
population at large. He returned to England, after which the Staaten-General was unable to find any
other suitable regent. This was not the way either government envisioned an Anglo-Dutch Alliance
to begin.
Leading the English Army was Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester. Long since a favorite of the
Queen, and rumored to be her lover at one point, Leicester remains a controversial character in Dutch
history. It was not the first time Leicester was the center of controversy; years earlier, his wife was
found dead at the bottom of a stair case. Though the death was ruled accidental, his closeness to the
Queen, and the vacant Kingship, made her death more than a little convenient. He spent the
following years laying low and out of sight.
Leicester was offered the Governor-Generalship, though he could not rule with a free hand.
His Queen forbade him from making any agreements with Spain without her consent. Further more,
he did not share the secular values laid down by the Pacification of Ghent. He immediately sided
with the Calvinists, drawing distrust from everyone else. He also butted heads with Stadtholders and
nobles across the Netherlands when he tried to strengthen his own power by robbing the Provinces
of theirs. He was not the first to make this error, but he would be the last.
Leicester proved to be a poor commander, hardly worthy of a staring role in [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]William the[/FONT]
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]Silent[/FONT]. Nor did he understand the delicate balance between trade and war. The Dutch, by 1586, were
fully committed to independence, however this was by no means an abandonment of commerce.
Within a year of his arrival, the Earl of Leicester lost the support of the Staaten-General and
population at large. He returned to England, after which the Staaten-General was unable to find any
other suitable regent. This was not the way either government envisioned an Anglo-Dutch Alliance
to begin.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Spanish Armada[/FONT]
The turning point in the Forty Years War came in August of 1588. Under the command of
the notorious privateer, Sir Francis Drake, a fleet of English and Dutch ships defeated the Spanish
the notorious privateer, Sir Francis Drake, a fleet of English and Dutch ships defeated the Spanish
Armada at the Battle of Gravelines. Finally tired of the resistance offered by the Protestant Queen
of England, Phillip II assembled a vast armada, consuming most of Spain’s treasury, for an invasion
of the island nation.
At the command of twenty-two warships and one hundred eight converted transports, the
King appointed the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. He was to sail to the Netherlands and ferry the Duke
of Parma’s army across the sea. Twenty thousand Spanish and mercenary soldiers awaited the
Armada at Dunkirk. In May, Medina-Sidonia set sail from Lisbon on what he expected to be an easy
conquest. After all, the English Army was pathetic in comparison to Spain’s.
Following a running fight, and a night attack by fireships in July, Medina-Sidonia was forced
to take the Armada into port. He chose Gravelines in Flanders as a base to reform his scattered fleet.
Its proximity to the English coast made it as good a spot as any to embark Parma’s army. Parma was
taken by surprise by the Armada’s choice of ports, and required six days to bring his troops up for
embarkation.
Those six days gave England enough room to maneuver. In that time, Drake learned more
of the Armada’s strengths and weaknesses through a series of skirmished in the Channel. What they
learned gave Drake the edge. Spanish guns were very unwieldy and their crews poorly trained, a far
cry from the Royal Navy. Spain preferred to board enemy ships and fight them hand-to-hand. In this
way, Spain held the upper hand.
Drake was not about to allow the Spanish to close in for boarding. His own strengths lay in
cannon fire. On August 8, Drake lead the fleet of English and Dutch vessels into battle. With its
superior maneuverability, the English provoked the Spanish into firing while they stayed out of
range. Once the Armada expended their heavy shot, Drake moved in for the kill, firing repeated
broadsides into the enemy ships. Though only eleven of the Spanish ships were sunk or crippled,
Drake cancelled the Armada’s plans to embark Parma’s army. Medina-Sidonia left port and set sail
towards home. Both English and Dutch ships hounded the Armada across the North Sea, but in the
end, rough seas and not rough marines destroyed the Armada. Upon returning to Spain, it is reported
the Phillip II responded by saying ‘I sent my ships to fight against the English, not against the
Elements.’
of England, Phillip II assembled a vast armada, consuming most of Spain’s treasury, for an invasion
of the island nation.
At the command of twenty-two warships and one hundred eight converted transports, the
King appointed the Duke of Medina-Sidonia. He was to sail to the Netherlands and ferry the Duke
of Parma’s army across the sea. Twenty thousand Spanish and mercenary soldiers awaited the
Armada at Dunkirk. In May, Medina-Sidonia set sail from Lisbon on what he expected to be an easy
conquest. After all, the English Army was pathetic in comparison to Spain’s.
Following a running fight, and a night attack by fireships in July, Medina-Sidonia was forced
to take the Armada into port. He chose Gravelines in Flanders as a base to reform his scattered fleet.
Its proximity to the English coast made it as good a spot as any to embark Parma’s army. Parma was
taken by surprise by the Armada’s choice of ports, and required six days to bring his troops up for
embarkation.
Those six days gave England enough room to maneuver. In that time, Drake learned more
of the Armada’s strengths and weaknesses through a series of skirmished in the Channel. What they
learned gave Drake the edge. Spanish guns were very unwieldy and their crews poorly trained, a far
cry from the Royal Navy. Spain preferred to board enemy ships and fight them hand-to-hand. In this
way, Spain held the upper hand.
Drake was not about to allow the Spanish to close in for boarding. His own strengths lay in
cannon fire. On August 8, Drake lead the fleet of English and Dutch vessels into battle. With its
superior maneuverability, the English provoked the Spanish into firing while they stayed out of
range. Once the Armada expended their heavy shot, Drake moved in for the kill, firing repeated
broadsides into the enemy ships. Though only eleven of the Spanish ships were sunk or crippled,
Drake cancelled the Armada’s plans to embark Parma’s army. Medina-Sidonia left port and set sail
towards home. Both English and Dutch ships hounded the Armada across the North Sea, but in the
end, rough seas and not rough marines destroyed the Armada. Upon returning to Spain, it is reported
the Phillip II responded by saying ‘I sent my ships to fight against the English, not against the
Elements.’
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Maurice of Orange[/FONT]
In looking for a new commander for the rebellion, by 1587, the
Staaten-General turned to twenty year old Maurice of Orange. Born on
Staaten-General turned to twenty year old Maurice of Orange. Born on
November 14, 1567, to William’s second wife, Maurice inherited his
father’s leadership abilities, though not his serial monogamy. Maurice
never married, though he did father two illegitimate children. At the age
of sixteen, when his father was gunned down, Maurice inherited his
titles and lands (though the latter were still occupied).
The borders of the United Provinces are largely defined by the
campaigns of Maurice. Was it his genius that lead the Dutch nation to
independence or fiscal burdens placed on Spain by the loss of its naval
investments? What can be said is, that it was Maurice who organized
the rebellion against Spain into a coherent and successful revolution. In
the early 1590s, Maurice lead the rebel army to victory in sieges against
Breda, Steenwijk and Geertruidenberg.
Following campaigns chased the demoralized Spanish army across much of the Netherlands,
driving them from Groningen, Holland, Zeeland and Friesland by 1595. Spain experienced setbacks
before in the Dutch revolt, and figured this would be no different. Sooner or later, the Provinces
would bicker and divide themselves, where the Spanish could move in and reassert itself. This grand
illusion was forever shattered in 1600, at a town called Nieuwpoort.
father’s leadership abilities, though not his serial monogamy. Maurice
never married, though he did father two illegitimate children. At the age
of sixteen, when his father was gunned down, Maurice inherited his
titles and lands (though the latter were still occupied).
The borders of the United Provinces are largely defined by the
campaigns of Maurice. Was it his genius that lead the Dutch nation to
independence or fiscal burdens placed on Spain by the loss of its naval
investments? What can be said is, that it was Maurice who organized
the rebellion against Spain into a coherent and successful revolution. In
the early 1590s, Maurice lead the rebel army to victory in sieges against
Breda, Steenwijk and Geertruidenberg.
Following campaigns chased the demoralized Spanish army across much of the Netherlands,
driving them from Groningen, Holland, Zeeland and Friesland by 1595. Spain experienced setbacks
before in the Dutch revolt, and figured this would be no different. Sooner or later, the Provinces
would bicker and divide themselves, where the Spanish could move in and reassert itself. This grand
illusion was forever shattered in 1600, at a town called Nieuwpoort.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Battle of Nieuwpoort[/FONT]
On July 2, 1600, Maurice of Orange met the Spanish Army, commanded by the Archduke of Austria,
near the city of Nieuwpoort. By mid-June, Maurice managed to raise an army of over ten thousand
near the city of Nieuwpoort. By mid-June, Maurice managed to raise an army of over ten thousand
men. Again the Spanish army faced mutiny, one that made it impossible for a relief army to be raised
by the Archduke. The only way to keep the army together was the promise of free plunder. The
workings of a second Spanish Fury were on the drawing board.
The desire of freedom outweighed greed, and in the end, Maurice managed to drive the
Spanish from the field of
battle, a rare feat in the
Sixteenth Century, but
soon to become all too
common during the
Seventeenth. Dutch lines
of communication were
stretched to vulnerable
limits, forcing Maurice to
withdraw as well.
Spanish strength along
the Dutch coast was
sapped by the battle,
paving the way for a
future campaign against
Dunkirker pirates.
Following the
battle, the Dutch were
finally able to dismantle the bridge Spain built fifteen years earlier to block Antwerp trade.
Nieuwpoort offered another turning point in the war. Never again could Spain threaten the northern
Provinces. Further more, Spain’s stranglehold on the south was now in danger. Maurice portrayed
the next nine years as a campaign to liberate all the Netherlands from Spanish hands. In truth, the
northern Provinces view eliminating threats to trade as a notch above freeing their own brethren, and
nearly forced Maurice to halt his campaign, five years later.
by the Archduke. The only way to keep the army together was the promise of free plunder. The
workings of a second Spanish Fury were on the drawing board.
The desire of freedom outweighed greed, and in the end, Maurice managed to drive the
Spanish from the field of
battle, a rare feat in the
Sixteenth Century, but
soon to become all too
common during the
Seventeenth. Dutch lines
of communication were
stretched to vulnerable
limits, forcing Maurice to
withdraw as well.
Spanish strength along
the Dutch coast was
sapped by the battle,
paving the way for a
future campaign against
Dunkirker pirates.
Following the
battle, the Dutch were
finally able to dismantle the bridge Spain built fifteen years earlier to block Antwerp trade.
Nieuwpoort offered another turning point in the war. Never again could Spain threaten the northern
Provinces. Further more, Spain’s stranglehold on the south was now in danger. Maurice portrayed
the next nine years as a campaign to liberate all the Netherlands from Spanish hands. In truth, the
northern Provinces view eliminating threats to trade as a notch above freeing their own brethren, and
nearly forced Maurice to halt his campaign, five years later.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Dunkirkers[/FONT]
Pirate nests plagued Dutch trade all through the Forty Years War. Instead of destroying the
pirates, as was the Spanish King’s responsibility to the Netherlands, he encouraged it. Such actions
pirates, as was the Spanish King’s responsibility to the Netherlands, he encouraged it. Such actions
were understandable [FONT=TimesNewRoman,Italic]after [/FONT]the Oath of Abjuration, but not before. Since the defeat of the Spanish
Armada, the Dutch navy grew from a gaggle of converted merchant ships into a force that rivaled
any on the sea. Even England’s Royal Navy was second to that of the Netherlands. Pirates on the
open seas were little threat to the Dutch Navy, were they would meet untimely ends very quickly.
In order to root out the pirates, the army must march on Dunkirk and its surrounding regions
to burn out the nests. In 1606, that was precisely what Maurice set out to do. With an army of eleven
thousand men, Maurice attempted to force the pirates into battle on the field. Instead, most fled from
the sight of a large army descending upon them. Maurice sent detachments to hunt down the pirates,
and set into motion of literally smoking them out. Each pirate den his army stumbled upon was put
to the torch, and each pirate found mercilessly cut down. By October of 1606, the Dunkirker threat
was destroyed, and the southern Netherlands free for commerce to once again thrive.
Armada, the Dutch navy grew from a gaggle of converted merchant ships into a force that rivaled
any on the sea. Even England’s Royal Navy was second to that of the Netherlands. Pirates on the
open seas were little threat to the Dutch Navy, were they would meet untimely ends very quickly.
In order to root out the pirates, the army must march on Dunkirk and its surrounding regions
to burn out the nests. In 1606, that was precisely what Maurice set out to do. With an army of eleven
thousand men, Maurice attempted to force the pirates into battle on the field. Instead, most fled from
the sight of a large army descending upon them. Maurice sent detachments to hunt down the pirates,
and set into motion of literally smoking them out. Each pirate den his army stumbled upon was put
to the torch, and each pirate found mercilessly cut down. By October of 1606, the Dunkirker threat
was destroyed, and the southern Netherlands free for commerce to once again thrive.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Liege[/FONT]
Out of all the Provinces, only Liege maintained loyalty to Spain. Despite the Spanish Fury,
the Bishopric could not bring itself to turn on who they saw as Defender of the Faith. Its location
the Bishopric could not bring itself to turn on who they saw as Defender of the Faith. Its location
right smack in the middle of the southern Provinces, Liege could not be bypassed or ignored.
Luxembourg alone was completely cut off from the rest of the Netherlands by Liege.
In 1608, Maurice already had the bulk of the remaining Spanish army bottled up under siege
in the city of Brussels, former capital of the Spanish Netherlands. The Staaten-General was not
content with having a huge hole in its new nation. While the Siege of Brussels was nearing its final
days, the Staaten-General ordered Maurice to deal with Liege. Against his better judgement, Maurice
divided his forces, and lead seven thousand infantry and cavalry into the Bishopric of Liege.
He did not fear Papal retribution. The fact that the Netherlands was already home to many
Protestants made them suspect. His only real concern was that the Spanish commander in Brussels
might rally his forces and break out. If they did, and linked up with the Spanish army assembling
near Mons, they could threaten all the southern Provinces. By now, the King of Spain knew keeping
all the Netherlands under his thumb was all but impossible. Instead, he was forced to focus on the
Catholic region, hoping it would stay true to the faith. This goes to show how little Spain understood
the revolution. Religion was never the top concern (with the possible exception of the Calvinists),
but the right of the people to decide their own fate.
The Bishop of Liege failed to muster any army worthy of the name. When Maurice arrived
in Liege, the Bishop commanded barely one thousand men, most of them mercenaries. He knew the
sell-swords would not fight to defend the church. When the battle turned against them, they might
very well run. Though Liege stayed loyal to Spain after ‘the fury’, they lost any trust for mercenaries.
The Bishop knew any battle would end in defeat, and loss of power.
Instead of fighting, the Bishop decided to cut a deal with Maurice and the Staaten-General.
Under the white flag of truce, the two met between the lines of armies. It was here, that the Bishop
saw just how puny his own force was in comparison. The Bishop agreed to join the United Provinces
under one condition; he would stay in power. Maurice could not agree to this, for the Staaten-
General was a forum where faith did not belong. His father dedicated his life to the very concept of
freedom of religion.
The Bishop could not stomach being part of such a ‘godless’ state, but he could not fight
either. Martyrdom did not appeal much to him, the Bishop thought he would be more use to God
alive, and leading his flock. In the end, with much convincing to the Staaten-General, Maurice
managed to strike a compromise. Liege would become part of the United Provinces, and the Bishop
would stay in power, but only as spiritual leader. For the interim, Maurice would select a regent to
rule as secular ruler. It was not until the end of the Forty Years War would Liege’s government be
settled.
Luxembourg alone was completely cut off from the rest of the Netherlands by Liege.
In 1608, Maurice already had the bulk of the remaining Spanish army bottled up under siege
in the city of Brussels, former capital of the Spanish Netherlands. The Staaten-General was not
content with having a huge hole in its new nation. While the Siege of Brussels was nearing its final
days, the Staaten-General ordered Maurice to deal with Liege. Against his better judgement, Maurice
divided his forces, and lead seven thousand infantry and cavalry into the Bishopric of Liege.
He did not fear Papal retribution. The fact that the Netherlands was already home to many
Protestants made them suspect. His only real concern was that the Spanish commander in Brussels
might rally his forces and break out. If they did, and linked up with the Spanish army assembling
near Mons, they could threaten all the southern Provinces. By now, the King of Spain knew keeping
all the Netherlands under his thumb was all but impossible. Instead, he was forced to focus on the
Catholic region, hoping it would stay true to the faith. This goes to show how little Spain understood
the revolution. Religion was never the top concern (with the possible exception of the Calvinists),
but the right of the people to decide their own fate.
The Bishop of Liege failed to muster any army worthy of the name. When Maurice arrived
in Liege, the Bishop commanded barely one thousand men, most of them mercenaries. He knew the
sell-swords would not fight to defend the church. When the battle turned against them, they might
very well run. Though Liege stayed loyal to Spain after ‘the fury’, they lost any trust for mercenaries.
The Bishop knew any battle would end in defeat, and loss of power.
Instead of fighting, the Bishop decided to cut a deal with Maurice and the Staaten-General.
Under the white flag of truce, the two met between the lines of armies. It was here, that the Bishop
saw just how puny his own force was in comparison. The Bishop agreed to join the United Provinces
under one condition; he would stay in power. Maurice could not agree to this, for the Staaten-
General was a forum where faith did not belong. His father dedicated his life to the very concept of
freedom of religion.
The Bishop could not stomach being part of such a ‘godless’ state, but he could not fight
either. Martyrdom did not appeal much to him, the Bishop thought he would be more use to God
alive, and leading his flock. In the end, with much convincing to the Staaten-General, Maurice
managed to strike a compromise. Liege would become part of the United Provinces, and the Bishop
would stay in power, but only as spiritual leader. For the interim, Maurice would select a regent to
rule as secular ruler. It was not until the end of the Forty Years War would Liege’s government be
settled.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Surrender at Mons[/FONT]
Much to Maurice’s fears, some of the defenders of Brussels managed to escape the siege and
link up with remaining forces massing at Mons. By the end of 1608, Brussels had little choice but
link up with remaining forces massing at Mons. By the end of 1608, Brussels had little choice but
to surrender. Some of the Spanish soldiers cast off their uniforms, deserted and simply merged with
the crowds. There was no love for Spain in Brussels, and many deserters were turned in by locals.
In response to their actions, Dutch authorities tired them as spies, and hung more than one.
With Brussels secure and Liege now conforming to Staaten-General, Maurice of Orange had
only the enemy ahead. The last bastion of Spanish authority within the Netherlands lay in the city
of Mons. Ironically, the last battle of the Forty Years War was fought upon what is now French
the crowds. There was no love for Spain in Brussels, and many deserters were turned in by locals.
In response to their actions, Dutch authorities tired them as spies, and hung more than one.
With Brussels secure and Liege now conforming to Staaten-General, Maurice of Orange had
only the enemy ahead. The last bastion of Spanish authority within the Netherlands lay in the city
of Mons. Ironically, the last battle of the Forty Years War was fought upon what is now French
Though in personal union, both nations g
4 overned their colonies separately.
4 overned their colonies separately.
territory. At the time, it lay within the reaches of the low countries, and would eventually be ceded
to the French in the Eighteenth Century.
to the French in the Eighteenth Century.
The Duke of Parma assembled his army outside of Mons. He considered holing up in the city,
but unlike Brussels, he knew no reinforcements were waiting. To the Duke there was great honor in
dying in the field of battle, but none to be gain by starving to death. His six thousand soldiers faced
Maurice and some ten thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry. Parma was badly outnumbered,
but he still would fight the battle on his terms. He would utilize what cavalry and artillery remained
in hopes of punching a hole in Maurice’s lines.
The Prince of Orange outgunned Parma as well as outnumbered. He would not give Parma
the opportunity to turn his few remaining guns upon Dutch forces. Shortly after seizing a modest hill
near the battlefield, Maurice ordered all his guns to open fire on the enemy, who had yet to organize
into lines. The hour long bombardment disrupted the Spanish forces, driving some of the less reliable
men and units to desert the field. Parma quickly ordered his own men to cut down any who retreated
without his command.
Parma still hoped to rally his army into one glorious charge, but Maurice would not have it.
He was not about to lose, not this close to victory. Shortly after the guns fell silent, Dutch heavy
cavalry charged forward, catching the disorganized Spanish forces and scattering them. Behind the
horsemen, thousand of soldiers marched forward, mopping up any and all Spanish pockets of
resistance remaining. The excellent execution of this early combined-arms assault rolled up the last
Spanish presence in less than an hour.
Mortally wounded during the fighting, the Duke of Parma had little choice but to parley. He
sent his emissaries under the flag of truce to meet with Maurice. Over two thousand Spaniards died
that day, but the survivors were surprised by Maurice’s leniency. Like all Dutch, he wanted the
Spanish gone more than anything else. The enemy were disarmed and escorted to Dunkirk. Here they
were herded on board ships and sent home. Their arrival in Seville was a message to the Spanish
King, a message declaring it was time to negotiate. For all intent purpose, the war at home was over.
but unlike Brussels, he knew no reinforcements were waiting. To the Duke there was great honor in
dying in the field of battle, but none to be gain by starving to death. His six thousand soldiers faced
Maurice and some ten thousand infantry and two thousand cavalry. Parma was badly outnumbered,
but he still would fight the battle on his terms. He would utilize what cavalry and artillery remained
in hopes of punching a hole in Maurice’s lines.
The Prince of Orange outgunned Parma as well as outnumbered. He would not give Parma
the opportunity to turn his few remaining guns upon Dutch forces. Shortly after seizing a modest hill
near the battlefield, Maurice ordered all his guns to open fire on the enemy, who had yet to organize
into lines. The hour long bombardment disrupted the Spanish forces, driving some of the less reliable
men and units to desert the field. Parma quickly ordered his own men to cut down any who retreated
without his command.
Parma still hoped to rally his army into one glorious charge, but Maurice would not have it.
He was not about to lose, not this close to victory. Shortly after the guns fell silent, Dutch heavy
cavalry charged forward, catching the disorganized Spanish forces and scattering them. Behind the
horsemen, thousand of soldiers marched forward, mopping up any and all Spanish pockets of
resistance remaining. The excellent execution of this early combined-arms assault rolled up the last
Spanish presence in less than an hour.
Mortally wounded during the fighting, the Duke of Parma had little choice but to parley. He
sent his emissaries under the flag of truce to meet with Maurice. Over two thousand Spaniards died
that day, but the survivors were surprised by Maurice’s leniency. Like all Dutch, he wanted the
Spanish gone more than anything else. The enemy were disarmed and escorted to Dunkirk. Here they
were herded on board ships and sent home. Their arrival in Seville was a message to the Spanish
King, a message declaring it was time to negotiate. For all intent purpose, the war at home was over.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Victory Abroad[/FONT]
In the middle of the Sixteenth Century, Phillip inherited the throne of Portugal. Both nations
were soon brought into personal union, and the King wasted no time in using Portuguese resources.
were soon brought into personal union, and the King wasted no time in using Portuguese resources.
Their army left something to desire, but their navy, and their trade routes to the east, added to Spain’s
power4. By a technicality in the Treaty of Tordelles, Portugal laid claim to a large stretch of eastern
South America, Brazil. It was a land, that by 1600, the Dutch decided to take for themselves.
By the Seventeen Century, sugar was all the rage in Europe. The Portuguese turned vast
swaths of Brazil into sugarcane fields, bringing them nearly as much wealth as the gold sent to Spain.
A variety of food and luxury crops were grown in the wide expanses of Brazil, a colony many times
larger than the United Provinces. The Dutch population grew over the past century, forcing them to
rely upon importation of food to prevent famine. Brazil offered more than enough land for the Dutch
to farm, plus it would remove any dependancy on importation of grain from foreign states.
power4. By a technicality in the Treaty of Tordelles, Portugal laid claim to a large stretch of eastern
South America, Brazil. It was a land, that by 1600, the Dutch decided to take for themselves.
By the Seventeen Century, sugar was all the rage in Europe. The Portuguese turned vast
swaths of Brazil into sugarcane fields, bringing them nearly as much wealth as the gold sent to Spain.
A variety of food and luxury crops were grown in the wide expanses of Brazil, a colony many times
larger than the United Provinces. The Dutch population grew over the past century, forcing them to
rely upon importation of food to prevent famine. Brazil offered more than enough land for the Dutch
to farm, plus it would remove any dependancy on importation of grain from foreign states.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Ernst van Bohr[/FONT]
Born in 1561, little is known about one of the Netherlands’ most famous admirals. Bohr
found himself a sailor by the age of sixteen. In 1588, he commanded one of the Dutch ships during
found himself a sailor by the age of sixteen. In 1588, he commanded one of the Dutch ships during
the engagement with the Spanish Armada. During the battle, Bohr earned the reputation as a reckless
leader, willing to throw himself into the line of fire to obtain victory. Unlike many Dutch, Bohr had
little interest in business. He lacked the patience to gradually earn wealth, and preferred the glories
of conquest over the subtleties of trade.
By 1602, Bohr rose to the rank of Admiral, commanding 18 ships, led a raid on Aviliz, on
the Spanish mainland. For twelve days, his sailors and marines occupied the Spanish port. Bohr
resupplied his fleet courtesy of the Spanish, and looted both silver and gold before abandoning the
city. The Netherlands were interested in freedom, not overthrowing the Habsburgs. Whomever
headed the United Provinces would have their hands full trying to govern the Provinces, much less
occupied territories that have no desire to be ruled by the Dutch.
Bohr’s biggest acclaim to fame was as Conqueror of Brazil. In 1604, he landed eighteen
hundred men in the Brazilian port of Salvador. No resistance to speak of was offered, and the only
combat within the town came from a lone colonist mistaking patrolling Dutch for game. After
assembling his force in Salvador, Bohr threw off his admiral’s hat and took up the mantle of general.
He lead his small army towards Recife, to battle the Portuguese garrison stationed there.
The Battle of Recife, future capital of Brazil, occurred on May 8, 1604. Bohr now lead only
one thousand men. Five hundred were left to hold Salvador, while nearly three hundred already
succumbed to tropical disease. Portugal mustered only a few hundred colonial militia to combat a
vastly larger invasion fort. Bohr’s five cannon helped decide the outcome before the battle even
began. Militia charged into a volley of fire, falling before they could come into range of sword and
spear.
Bohr wasted no time in fortifying his new conquests. Months passed before word of the fall
of Recife reached the Iberian Peninsula. Spain could spare little in combating the Dutch in distant
Brazil. However, they were deeply concerned that the Dutch would not be satisfied with Brazil. They
might very well make a grab at Mexico or Peru, both rich in gold and silver. Fear of losing their
bullion supply was the primary motivating factor in the King’s decisions to engage the Dutch across
the Atlantic. A small armada of thirty-one ships and three thousand men were assembled in Seville,
with the explicit goal of eliminating Ernst van Bohr. In early 1605, the Spanish and Portuguese set
sail for Brazil, meeting the Dutch fleet off the coast of Natal.
Unlike the much larger battle with the Spanish Armada, the Battle of Natal ended far more
decisively. Twenty-seven Dutch ships encountered thirty-one ships early in the morning of March
15, 1605. After a two day battle, the Dutch all but destroyed the combined fleet. Bohr proved once
again a master admiral, while the Spanish and Portuguese failed to achieve any cohesion. Using one
of the oldest strategies in the book,
Bohr managed to divide the enemy
fleet, and destroy it a few ships at a
time. In the end, the only reason any
Spanish ships escaped was due to
exhaustion of ammunition and
powder on the Dutch side. For his
actions, the Staaten-General awarded
Bohr land in Brazil, and the title
Count of Natal.
leader, willing to throw himself into the line of fire to obtain victory. Unlike many Dutch, Bohr had
little interest in business. He lacked the patience to gradually earn wealth, and preferred the glories
of conquest over the subtleties of trade.
By 1602, Bohr rose to the rank of Admiral, commanding 18 ships, led a raid on Aviliz, on
the Spanish mainland. For twelve days, his sailors and marines occupied the Spanish port. Bohr
resupplied his fleet courtesy of the Spanish, and looted both silver and gold before abandoning the
city. The Netherlands were interested in freedom, not overthrowing the Habsburgs. Whomever
headed the United Provinces would have their hands full trying to govern the Provinces, much less
occupied territories that have no desire to be ruled by the Dutch.
Bohr’s biggest acclaim to fame was as Conqueror of Brazil. In 1604, he landed eighteen
hundred men in the Brazilian port of Salvador. No resistance to speak of was offered, and the only
combat within the town came from a lone colonist mistaking patrolling Dutch for game. After
assembling his force in Salvador, Bohr threw off his admiral’s hat and took up the mantle of general.
He lead his small army towards Recife, to battle the Portuguese garrison stationed there.
The Battle of Recife, future capital of Brazil, occurred on May 8, 1604. Bohr now lead only
one thousand men. Five hundred were left to hold Salvador, while nearly three hundred already
succumbed to tropical disease. Portugal mustered only a few hundred colonial militia to combat a
vastly larger invasion fort. Bohr’s five cannon helped decide the outcome before the battle even
began. Militia charged into a volley of fire, falling before they could come into range of sword and
spear.
Bohr wasted no time in fortifying his new conquests. Months passed before word of the fall
of Recife reached the Iberian Peninsula. Spain could spare little in combating the Dutch in distant
Brazil. However, they were deeply concerned that the Dutch would not be satisfied with Brazil. They
might very well make a grab at Mexico or Peru, both rich in gold and silver. Fear of losing their
bullion supply was the primary motivating factor in the King’s decisions to engage the Dutch across
the Atlantic. A small armada of thirty-one ships and three thousand men were assembled in Seville,
with the explicit goal of eliminating Ernst van Bohr. In early 1605, the Spanish and Portuguese set
sail for Brazil, meeting the Dutch fleet off the coast of Natal.
Unlike the much larger battle with the Spanish Armada, the Battle of Natal ended far more
decisively. Twenty-seven Dutch ships encountered thirty-one ships early in the morning of March
15, 1605. After a two day battle, the Dutch all but destroyed the combined fleet. Bohr proved once
again a master admiral, while the Spanish and Portuguese failed to achieve any cohesion. Using one
of the oldest strategies in the book,
Bohr managed to divide the enemy
fleet, and destroy it a few ships at a
time. In the end, the only reason any
Spanish ships escaped was due to
exhaustion of ammunition and
powder on the Dutch side. For his
actions, the Staaten-General awarded
Bohr land in Brazil, and the title
Count of Natal.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]Battle of Cape Verde[/FONT]
When the Dutch began their
rebellion, their could scarcely hope to
rebellion, their could scarcely hope to
gain their freedom from the masters
of Europe. By 1608, not only was that goal inevitable, but the Dutch were on their way to empire.
The biggest losers of the Forty Years War were not the Spanish, but rather Portugal. September 15,
1608, sounded the death nail of the Portuguese Empire. What remained of the Portuguese Navy,
twiddled down by attrition by the Dutch across the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, were ambushed
twelve kilometers southwest of Cape Verde.
The Count of Natal, Grand Admiral of the Netherlands, led his battle hardened fleet in an
attack against the Portuguese remnants. Natal divided his fleet into three sections, each crossing the
‘T’ at the appropriate time. After the first cross, Portugal’s ships scattered, and became easy pickings
for the Dutch. Had the Portuguese Navy held formation, it would likely have fought its way through
the battle and managed to reach home. As it happened, the ships were sunk to the last, guaranteeing
Portugal’s colonies would sit on the negotiating table.
of Europe. By 1608, not only was that goal inevitable, but the Dutch were on their way to empire.
The biggest losers of the Forty Years War were not the Spanish, but rather Portugal. September 15,
1608, sounded the death nail of the Portuguese Empire. What remained of the Portuguese Navy,
twiddled down by attrition by the Dutch across the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean, were ambushed
twelve kilometers southwest of Cape Verde.
The Count of Natal, Grand Admiral of the Netherlands, led his battle hardened fleet in an
attack against the Portuguese remnants. Natal divided his fleet into three sections, each crossing the
‘T’ at the appropriate time. After the first cross, Portugal’s ships scattered, and became easy pickings
for the Dutch. Had the Portuguese Navy held formation, it would likely have fought its way through
the battle and managed to reach home. As it happened, the ships were sunk to the last, guaranteeing
Portugal’s colonies would sit on the negotiating table.
[FONT=TimesNewRoman,Bold]The Treaty of Calais[/FONT]
In mid 1609, the belligerent parties of Spain, the Netherlands and England, along with
observers for Portugal, met in the town of Calais. After surrendering at Mons, two months earlier,
observers for Portugal, met in the town of Calais. After surrendering at Mons, two months earlier,
a general armistice was agreed upon. Spain lost too much in retaining such a small piece of territory.
Portugal lost far more, and they were not even the Dutch’s real enemy. Spain had the option of
continuing the war, but after Mons, there was no real hope at victory. The Dutch Navy was too
powerful, and any attempt to land would be disastrous. Overland routes were off the table, for France
was at war with Spain as well.
The first order of business was decided by the end of the first day; Spain would recognize
Dutch Independence. That much was never in doubt. What came into doubt was the future of
colonial possessions. The Dutch had no interest in Spain’s holding, but demanded Portugal surrender
all of its remaining colonies and trading posts to the United Provinces. Fleets in the Indian Ocean
either captured or destroyed posts along the African coast, conquered Ceylon and virtually drove the
Portuguese out of India.
Brazil was already home to hundreds of Dutch colonists looking for new opportunities, along
with the new Count of Natal. Portugal resisted the idea, but Spain gave them no say in the decision.
If they did not cede their colonial possessions, the Dutch would continue the war and leave Portugal
in ruins. Some in Portugal dreamed about putting a native king back on the throne, and losing their
empire would only strengthen Spain’s position.
Spain was already looking forward to political unification of Iberia, and surmised it could
take back Brazil at a later date. For now, it must rest and recuperate. In return for Portugal’s colonies,
the Dutch agreed not to interfere with Spanish shipping, and would allow what would now days be
called ‘favored trade status’ with Spain, by lowering tariffs on Spanish goods. Considering the
amount of wealth that would flow out of the East Indies and Brazil, the United Provinces could
afford to wave a few import fees.
Spain was forced to give up one of its possessions, however, to England. In 1604, the English
managed to capture Manilla and its harbor. Once entrenched in the Philippines, England decided they
would not give it up. Manilla offered an excellent harbor from which to center English trade in the
Far East. England gobbled up many Portuguese trading posts in West Africa, along with their slave
trade. Portugal’s final indignity came with the dismantling of its colonial companies, and end of its
commercial enterprise. As far as Portugal was concerned, whether the war continued or ended, they
were lost.
The Treaty was finalized by November, and signed by all parties. The Staaten-General
ratified to treaty only after an hour’s worth of debate, when all sides praised the treaty. On November
17, 1609, the United Provinces of the Netherlands were officially born. With the war against Spain
over, the real challenge began; governing diverse provinces, and just what to do with all the colonial
Portugal lost far more, and they were not even the Dutch’s real enemy. Spain had the option of
continuing the war, but after Mons, there was no real hope at victory. The Dutch Navy was too
powerful, and any attempt to land would be disastrous. Overland routes were off the table, for France
was at war with Spain as well.
The first order of business was decided by the end of the first day; Spain would recognize
Dutch Independence. That much was never in doubt. What came into doubt was the future of
colonial possessions. The Dutch had no interest in Spain’s holding, but demanded Portugal surrender
all of its remaining colonies and trading posts to the United Provinces. Fleets in the Indian Ocean
either captured or destroyed posts along the African coast, conquered Ceylon and virtually drove the
Portuguese out of India.
Brazil was already home to hundreds of Dutch colonists looking for new opportunities, along
with the new Count of Natal. Portugal resisted the idea, but Spain gave them no say in the decision.
If they did not cede their colonial possessions, the Dutch would continue the war and leave Portugal
in ruins. Some in Portugal dreamed about putting a native king back on the throne, and losing their
empire would only strengthen Spain’s position.
Spain was already looking forward to political unification of Iberia, and surmised it could
take back Brazil at a later date. For now, it must rest and recuperate. In return for Portugal’s colonies,
the Dutch agreed not to interfere with Spanish shipping, and would allow what would now days be
called ‘favored trade status’ with Spain, by lowering tariffs on Spanish goods. Considering the
amount of wealth that would flow out of the East Indies and Brazil, the United Provinces could
afford to wave a few import fees.
Spain was forced to give up one of its possessions, however, to England. In 1604, the English
managed to capture Manilla and its harbor. Once entrenched in the Philippines, England decided they
would not give it up. Manilla offered an excellent harbor from which to center English trade in the
Far East. England gobbled up many Portuguese trading posts in West Africa, along with their slave
trade. Portugal’s final indignity came with the dismantling of its colonial companies, and end of its
commercial enterprise. As far as Portugal was concerned, whether the war continued or ended, they
were lost.
The Treaty was finalized by November, and signed by all parties. The Staaten-General
ratified to treaty only after an hour’s worth of debate, when all sides praised the treaty. On November
17, 1609, the United Provinces of the Netherlands were officially born. With the war against Spain
over, the real challenge began; governing diverse provinces, and just what to do with all the colonial
spoils of war.
