three in one
The Far East
After the Portuguese victory in western India succeed in regaining control of the west Indian Spice trade, Portugal would once again see great wealth arrive at its ports. Portugal would use the next years to spread out its trade network. Strategic straits, Islands and other areas came under Portuguese influence. Yet everything had not gone in the favour of Portugal, several attempts were made to gain a larger foothold in India, and nearly all were a failure of some sorts.
The first real success, besides trading posts, where the acquisition of large parts of the island of Ceilão and eventual all of it. While the trouble of the Portuguese efforts on acquiring territory in the east, seemed to be troublesome, there was a reason for it. For the first couple of decades Portugal had followed a specific policy to gain trade rights and controlling strategic locations, such as forts. It was first around the late 16th century that that policy would change.
Generally, Portugal had exploited local rivalries, supporting one side over the other but these relations were not ironclad. One of the best-known examples of this was the so called Fourth Portuguese campaign in India. Trying to expand their influence Portugal had allied itself to a set of native nobles in eastern India, in their efforts to strengthen their hold in western India.
Men, supplies and money were spent on this alliance and at first it promised to break the stalemate. But just as the main army had engaged the West-Indian opposition, mainly consisting of the men from the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. The Portuguese was betrayed by their eastern allies and the eastern army was slaughtered to the last man. Resulting in a sounding and bitter defeat.
Historians agree that one of the reasons that the Portuguese efforts were met with such hard-fought resistance was the impression that they had given off when arriving in India, often using cannons instead of diplomacy to acquire the desired trading rights. Which can also be seen in the general support of the earlier Mamluk efforts to take control of the spice trade from cities along the coast of Western India.
The second European nation to really try to establish a foothold in the far east was Spain. But Spain would take a quite different route, already established in the new world Spain had established a naval presence in the western part of the new landmass by sailing around the southern continent. But it was a perilous journey that saw few ships try it.
In 1578 Spain would try to cross the pacific to get to the far east, a journey that was ultimately successful. But that is where Spain’s luck ran out, the following three expeditions were all lost. While that would not had been enough to completely stop the efforts. A rebellion, in 1580 saw Spain lose control with its land on the southern continent of the New World.
Spain’s control of the more southern located colony had been far more tenuous than in the Vice Royalty of New Spain. And finally, the harsh treatment that the indigenous population suffered under the Spanish colonial rule in several of the mines was enough and a general revolt emerged. Spiralling out of control and eventual lose the land for Spain.
The loss of nearly fifty percent of Spain’s colonial territory in the New World, was not just due to a few ships going missing or a rebellion. It was also helped on its way, by the monarch of Spain, which compared to the old king, had far less interest in the colonies of the west. Instead, he looked east and the opportunities that had arisen there.
A Northern Passage
The discovery of The New World proved to be a headache for an eventual trade route to China and the far east. A southern route had been discovered by Spain in the early 16th century, but not only was it perilous it was also not exactly a time saver. For decades and even centuries Europeans would try to discover a northern passage, which was believed by many to exist.
The search for a northern passage is split in two, the Northwestern in the New World, which many participated in. And an Eastern passage, which not only started later, but also saw little involvement from outside Dania and Muscovy.
The search for the Northwestern passage, for an easy sea-lane between Europe and China would help fuel the exploration of the New World. Rivers were explored in case they could lead to a transcontinental passage. One of the most famous expeditions were the Danish one sailing down the Great River, and into the Lakes beyond. While clearly unsuccessful, it succeeded in expanding the knowledge of the New World and the extent of the massive lake system, that Danish settlers had started to settle in.
Another ultimately unsuccessful expedition, this one from England, would discover the large King’s Bay as it would be known. Though, the English captain as the two English ships sailed into what was believed to be a strait and the Northwest passage. Had originally named it after King Richard IV. It would take several years before it was proved that it was no strait at all but a large bay. It took even more years to explore the various large river systems that flowed into the King’s Bay.
At least the Rivers and land around the King’s Bay would prove profitable as various nations established trading settlements in the area, as fur was a valuable commodity.
The search for the Northwest passage would go on for decades without being truly successful, today it is romanticised, idealised even as the brave captains and their men braved the elements. And not all returned home.
While the Northwestern passage would take a prominent place in people’s mind, the North-eastern passage did not do that to the same degree. One of the reasons was that Dania was not only the first to try to discover it. Dania also had an iron grip on the approach and considered the waters between Greenland, Iceland and the Scandinavian peninsula its own. And only Danish whalers and fishermen were allowed there. Any approach from foreign ships were not welcomed with open arms.
This would have the effect that only two entities would search for the North-eastern passage. Muscovy and Dania.
Dania’s efforts to explore the North-eastern passage had the effect that several outposts were established along the cost. Nominally the land was uninhabited, or at least neither Dania nor Muscovy exercised any control of it. But Muscovy certainly claimed it. The result was Muscovy trying to establish a presence, and while they had lost Arkhangelsk it could be regained, or another port may be established at the Arctic Sea. And maybe that would open up for an Asian trade route. But only if the pesky Danes could be removed from what was rightfully Muscovy land.
Westphalian War
The Westphalian war was a conflict that broke out in late 1579 between the Kingdom of Saxony and the Kingdom of Lotharingia. The conflict had its roots in a series of diplomatic victorious for Saxony in the various Northern Duchies, resulting in increased influence in the duchies. Importantly marginalising Lotharingian influence in the Catholic Duchy of Mark. Which was situated on a tributary of the Rhine. The diplomatic coup of Saxony, was a sword point directed towards the heart of Lotharingia.
The war would change the face of central Europe and what seemed to be, might not actually be what it was.
Albrecht IV at his death in 1554 had ruled for 60 years, he had at the age of two been proclaimed Duke and Elector of Saxony. Later in life he would see his Duchy, in union with other states humble the Holy Roman Empire. Which resulted in a royal title and the elevation of Saxony into a now enlarged Kingdom.
But while Albrecht’s rule can only be described as very successful, he had not rested on his accomplishment in his later years. Albrecht realised that while Saxony had emerged victorious in the large religious conflict, it was not due to Saxony but due to the alliances made during the war.
The geopolitical situation of Saxony following the war was not exactly excellent, the alliance system of the protestant leaders quickly evaporated as the threat to their religion vanished. And Saxony was left without allies and potential enemies on all borders.
To the West lay the Catholic Lotharingia, and Saxony controlled not only substantial catholic lands, but also parts of the Main river something that Lotharingia itched to get it's hands on. To the North lay Dania, neutral, but dangerously close to the core territory around the Elbe river. To the East Moravia, the closest thing to a friend amongst the major powers of Central Europe. To the south Bavaria, smaller and weaker than Saxony, but far more friendly with Moravia than Saxony was. To the Northwest lay the only salvation, the Northern duchies which were quick to align themselves with various stronger neighbours.
Brunswick-Lauenburg the largest of the northern duchies was not only a long term alliy with Dania, but also represented Dania’s interest in influencing the areas west of the Elbe river. Göttingen at least had close ties to Saxony practically being a vassal.
While the diplomatic situation was bleak, the newly established Kingdom internally looked good. The population might have been smaller than Lotharingia's, Dania's and Moravia's but it was a rich population and generally well educated.
The eastern cities of Saxony were thriving, artist and intellectuals could find eager benefactors. Religiously the capital Wittenberg still held major significance, even if Salzburg would go on to challenge it in 1587.
Albrecht knew his kingdoms limits, he also knew that it was too big not to participate in the game for central Europe, and as such he would prepare the kingdom for when peace was no longer on the horizon.
Albrecht died in 1554 after 61 years on the throne of Saxony, leaving the Kingdom to his second son Christian I. It was a reformed kingdom and its neighbours eyed it warily, the court at Wittenberg was on one hand a flourish of art and delicate beauty the envy of much of Europe. On the other hand cold and disciplined officers of the recently established Standing army was just as a common sight.
Albrecht had started several military reforms before his death, which would be finished by his son Christian. The doctrines established would for example phase away the use of mercenaries, which Albrecht had less than ideal experiences with, in the religious wars of the early 16th century. Instead, it would establish the largest standing army in Europe at the time, with standardized armament and formations. Saxony would be one of the first European nations to stop using the crossbow favouring gunpowder weaponry, furthermore lighter cavalry became common, augmenting the abhorrently expensive heavy cavalry that required the incredible expensive full plate armour. They would prove very successful.
also importantly the militia system was reformed, what some historians have called proto-conscription and others fervently against the term, was established to support the standing army with effective reinforcements and additional men to the army of Saxony. At the same time proper schooling for officers were established in Magdeburg and Dresden.
It would prove in the late 16th century and early 17th century, to be an incredibly effective, reliable, plentiful and somewhat cheap fighting force that the Kingdom could rely upon in wartime.
Christian had not planned to go to war, in fact he would never lead his armies into war himself. But he was an incredible competent diplomat, if a bit aggressive, which resulted in several success in the Northern Duchies, with both Göttingen and following that Oldenburg falling into the hands of Saxony.
And after that the eyes of Saxony began to look upon the Duchy of Mark. Which eventually led to the Westphalian War.
Lotharingia might have been threatened but it was still richer, more populous and wealthier than Saxony. And with Saxony remaining without a large ally, it was seen as an easy war that would result in significant gains from not only Saxony’s catholic provinces but also an excuse to annex Mark and its capital Dortmund.
History would prove otherwise, Saxony was far more ready for a war than Lotharingia and quickly moved into Mark, ousting the Duke of Mark, and installing the son and heir of Christian as Duke of Mark, all with the relative support of the nobility of Mark.
The Lotharingian response was a twin invasion, one along the Main river into Franconia, the southernmost part of Saxony. And another invasion into Mark, the main battlefield. Neither was a success and just two years into the war Köln not far from the capital of Aachen was under siege.
In all Lotharingia ceded land around Arnsberg to the Duchy of Mark and all land along the Main river till the Confluence at the Rhine river, resulting in the loss of the important cities of Frankfurt and Wiesbaden.
It was a humiliating defeat for Lotharingia, and the first among two victorious wars that would see Saxony rise to become regarded as the power of Central Europe.
The success of Saxony in the war did not sate the Kingdom and soon it looked north and south where other dreams and claims were present. Which would eventually lead to the drums of war to beat again.
At least with some hindsight the neighbors of Saxony can take a breath of relief, for as much as the year 1581 marks the first of many Saxon victories in the foreseeable future. It is also the year of Frederick of Brandenburg's fathers death, Frederick of Brandenburg, who was born just outside Dresden in a minor noble estate. Frederick of Brandenburg would go on to gain infamy and fame as one of the few generals in the history of mankind to not face defeat on the battlefield and Saxony would surely wish that he had never been born. But that is in the future and for now the well-oiled military machine of Saxony marches to new victories. The death of his father was significant as it was at that point he choose to pursue a military career.
After the Portuguese victory in western India succeed in regaining control of the west Indian Spice trade, Portugal would once again see great wealth arrive at its ports. Portugal would use the next years to spread out its trade network. Strategic straits, Islands and other areas came under Portuguese influence. Yet everything had not gone in the favour of Portugal, several attempts were made to gain a larger foothold in India, and nearly all were a failure of some sorts.
The first real success, besides trading posts, where the acquisition of large parts of the island of Ceilão and eventual all of it. While the trouble of the Portuguese efforts on acquiring territory in the east, seemed to be troublesome, there was a reason for it. For the first couple of decades Portugal had followed a specific policy to gain trade rights and controlling strategic locations, such as forts. It was first around the late 16th century that that policy would change.
Generally, Portugal had exploited local rivalries, supporting one side over the other but these relations were not ironclad. One of the best-known examples of this was the so called Fourth Portuguese campaign in India. Trying to expand their influence Portugal had allied itself to a set of native nobles in eastern India, in their efforts to strengthen their hold in western India.
Men, supplies and money were spent on this alliance and at first it promised to break the stalemate. But just as the main army had engaged the West-Indian opposition, mainly consisting of the men from the Ahmadnagar Sultanate. The Portuguese was betrayed by their eastern allies and the eastern army was slaughtered to the last man. Resulting in a sounding and bitter defeat.
Historians agree that one of the reasons that the Portuguese efforts were met with such hard-fought resistance was the impression that they had given off when arriving in India, often using cannons instead of diplomacy to acquire the desired trading rights. Which can also be seen in the general support of the earlier Mamluk efforts to take control of the spice trade from cities along the coast of Western India.
The second European nation to really try to establish a foothold in the far east was Spain. But Spain would take a quite different route, already established in the new world Spain had established a naval presence in the western part of the new landmass by sailing around the southern continent. But it was a perilous journey that saw few ships try it.
In 1578 Spain would try to cross the pacific to get to the far east, a journey that was ultimately successful. But that is where Spain’s luck ran out, the following three expeditions were all lost. While that would not had been enough to completely stop the efforts. A rebellion, in 1580 saw Spain lose control with its land on the southern continent of the New World.
Spain’s control of the more southern located colony had been far more tenuous than in the Vice Royalty of New Spain. And finally, the harsh treatment that the indigenous population suffered under the Spanish colonial rule in several of the mines was enough and a general revolt emerged. Spiralling out of control and eventual lose the land for Spain.
The loss of nearly fifty percent of Spain’s colonial territory in the New World, was not just due to a few ships going missing or a rebellion. It was also helped on its way, by the monarch of Spain, which compared to the old king, had far less interest in the colonies of the west. Instead, he looked east and the opportunities that had arisen there.
A Northern Passage
The discovery of The New World proved to be a headache for an eventual trade route to China and the far east. A southern route had been discovered by Spain in the early 16th century, but not only was it perilous it was also not exactly a time saver. For decades and even centuries Europeans would try to discover a northern passage, which was believed by many to exist.
The search for a northern passage is split in two, the Northwestern in the New World, which many participated in. And an Eastern passage, which not only started later, but also saw little involvement from outside Dania and Muscovy.
The search for the Northwestern passage, for an easy sea-lane between Europe and China would help fuel the exploration of the New World. Rivers were explored in case they could lead to a transcontinental passage. One of the most famous expeditions were the Danish one sailing down the Great River, and into the Lakes beyond. While clearly unsuccessful, it succeeded in expanding the knowledge of the New World and the extent of the massive lake system, that Danish settlers had started to settle in.
Another ultimately unsuccessful expedition, this one from England, would discover the large King’s Bay as it would be known. Though, the English captain as the two English ships sailed into what was believed to be a strait and the Northwest passage. Had originally named it after King Richard IV. It would take several years before it was proved that it was no strait at all but a large bay. It took even more years to explore the various large river systems that flowed into the King’s Bay.
At least the Rivers and land around the King’s Bay would prove profitable as various nations established trading settlements in the area, as fur was a valuable commodity.
The search for the Northwest passage would go on for decades without being truly successful, today it is romanticised, idealised even as the brave captains and their men braved the elements. And not all returned home.
While the Northwestern passage would take a prominent place in people’s mind, the North-eastern passage did not do that to the same degree. One of the reasons was that Dania was not only the first to try to discover it. Dania also had an iron grip on the approach and considered the waters between Greenland, Iceland and the Scandinavian peninsula its own. And only Danish whalers and fishermen were allowed there. Any approach from foreign ships were not welcomed with open arms.
This would have the effect that only two entities would search for the North-eastern passage. Muscovy and Dania.
Dania’s efforts to explore the North-eastern passage had the effect that several outposts were established along the cost. Nominally the land was uninhabited, or at least neither Dania nor Muscovy exercised any control of it. But Muscovy certainly claimed it. The result was Muscovy trying to establish a presence, and while they had lost Arkhangelsk it could be regained, or another port may be established at the Arctic Sea. And maybe that would open up for an Asian trade route. But only if the pesky Danes could be removed from what was rightfully Muscovy land.
Westphalian War
The Westphalian war was a conflict that broke out in late 1579 between the Kingdom of Saxony and the Kingdom of Lotharingia. The conflict had its roots in a series of diplomatic victorious for Saxony in the various Northern Duchies, resulting in increased influence in the duchies. Importantly marginalising Lotharingian influence in the Catholic Duchy of Mark. Which was situated on a tributary of the Rhine. The diplomatic coup of Saxony, was a sword point directed towards the heart of Lotharingia.
The war would change the face of central Europe and what seemed to be, might not actually be what it was.
Albrecht IV at his death in 1554 had ruled for 60 years, he had at the age of two been proclaimed Duke and Elector of Saxony. Later in life he would see his Duchy, in union with other states humble the Holy Roman Empire. Which resulted in a royal title and the elevation of Saxony into a now enlarged Kingdom.
But while Albrecht’s rule can only be described as very successful, he had not rested on his accomplishment in his later years. Albrecht realised that while Saxony had emerged victorious in the large religious conflict, it was not due to Saxony but due to the alliances made during the war.
The geopolitical situation of Saxony following the war was not exactly excellent, the alliance system of the protestant leaders quickly evaporated as the threat to their religion vanished. And Saxony was left without allies and potential enemies on all borders.
To the West lay the Catholic Lotharingia, and Saxony controlled not only substantial catholic lands, but also parts of the Main river something that Lotharingia itched to get it's hands on. To the North lay Dania, neutral, but dangerously close to the core territory around the Elbe river. To the East Moravia, the closest thing to a friend amongst the major powers of Central Europe. To the south Bavaria, smaller and weaker than Saxony, but far more friendly with Moravia than Saxony was. To the Northwest lay the only salvation, the Northern duchies which were quick to align themselves with various stronger neighbours.
Brunswick-Lauenburg the largest of the northern duchies was not only a long term alliy with Dania, but also represented Dania’s interest in influencing the areas west of the Elbe river. Göttingen at least had close ties to Saxony practically being a vassal.
While the diplomatic situation was bleak, the newly established Kingdom internally looked good. The population might have been smaller than Lotharingia's, Dania's and Moravia's but it was a rich population and generally well educated.
The eastern cities of Saxony were thriving, artist and intellectuals could find eager benefactors. Religiously the capital Wittenberg still held major significance, even if Salzburg would go on to challenge it in 1587.
Albrecht knew his kingdoms limits, he also knew that it was too big not to participate in the game for central Europe, and as such he would prepare the kingdom for when peace was no longer on the horizon.
Albrecht died in 1554 after 61 years on the throne of Saxony, leaving the Kingdom to his second son Christian I. It was a reformed kingdom and its neighbours eyed it warily, the court at Wittenberg was on one hand a flourish of art and delicate beauty the envy of much of Europe. On the other hand cold and disciplined officers of the recently established Standing army was just as a common sight.
Albrecht had started several military reforms before his death, which would be finished by his son Christian. The doctrines established would for example phase away the use of mercenaries, which Albrecht had less than ideal experiences with, in the religious wars of the early 16th century. Instead, it would establish the largest standing army in Europe at the time, with standardized armament and formations. Saxony would be one of the first European nations to stop using the crossbow favouring gunpowder weaponry, furthermore lighter cavalry became common, augmenting the abhorrently expensive heavy cavalry that required the incredible expensive full plate armour. They would prove very successful.
also importantly the militia system was reformed, what some historians have called proto-conscription and others fervently against the term, was established to support the standing army with effective reinforcements and additional men to the army of Saxony. At the same time proper schooling for officers were established in Magdeburg and Dresden.
It would prove in the late 16th century and early 17th century, to be an incredibly effective, reliable, plentiful and somewhat cheap fighting force that the Kingdom could rely upon in wartime.
Christian had not planned to go to war, in fact he would never lead his armies into war himself. But he was an incredible competent diplomat, if a bit aggressive, which resulted in several success in the Northern Duchies, with both Göttingen and following that Oldenburg falling into the hands of Saxony.
And after that the eyes of Saxony began to look upon the Duchy of Mark. Which eventually led to the Westphalian War.
Lotharingia might have been threatened but it was still richer, more populous and wealthier than Saxony. And with Saxony remaining without a large ally, it was seen as an easy war that would result in significant gains from not only Saxony’s catholic provinces but also an excuse to annex Mark and its capital Dortmund.
History would prove otherwise, Saxony was far more ready for a war than Lotharingia and quickly moved into Mark, ousting the Duke of Mark, and installing the son and heir of Christian as Duke of Mark, all with the relative support of the nobility of Mark.
The Lotharingian response was a twin invasion, one along the Main river into Franconia, the southernmost part of Saxony. And another invasion into Mark, the main battlefield. Neither was a success and just two years into the war Köln not far from the capital of Aachen was under siege.
In all Lotharingia ceded land around Arnsberg to the Duchy of Mark and all land along the Main river till the Confluence at the Rhine river, resulting in the loss of the important cities of Frankfurt and Wiesbaden.
It was a humiliating defeat for Lotharingia, and the first among two victorious wars that would see Saxony rise to become regarded as the power of Central Europe.
The success of Saxony in the war did not sate the Kingdom and soon it looked north and south where other dreams and claims were present. Which would eventually lead to the drums of war to beat again.
At least with some hindsight the neighbors of Saxony can take a breath of relief, for as much as the year 1581 marks the first of many Saxon victories in the foreseeable future. It is also the year of Frederick of Brandenburg's fathers death, Frederick of Brandenburg, who was born just outside Dresden in a minor noble estate. Frederick of Brandenburg would go on to gain infamy and fame as one of the few generals in the history of mankind to not face defeat on the battlefield and Saxony would surely wish that he had never been born. But that is in the future and for now the well-oiled military machine of Saxony marches to new victories. The death of his father was significant as it was at that point he choose to pursue a military career.
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Can't have Dania do everything.
