America - Albion's Orphan - A history of the conquest of Britain - 1760
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Chapter 5 - Politics makes strange bedfellows
1757 (spring)
East Prussia
Though the Kingdom of East Prussia was among the least valuable of Frederick II's possessions (for it was lightly populated and undeveloped), it did have the charm of being an actual KINGDOM. This gave Frederick the right to refer to himself as a King rather than just some vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor (as was the case of his wealthier, more populous and more important possession within the Empire like Brandenburg, Magdeburg and Silesia). East Prussia meant Frederick could look other Kings in the eye as an equal even as he was forced to bend the knee to the Emperor (if only figuratively).
This meant Prussia was more important politically than militarily. While facing the power of Austria to the south, Frederick was forced to leave the non-contiguous territory lightly defended. He'd assumed that, despite the nominal "alliance" between Austria and Russia, that the latter would not be ready for war for at least another year.
It turned out he was wrong.
In early 1757, the Russian Army 75,000 strong would cross the border into East Prussia, besieging Memel. A hastily-thrown-together expedition to relieve the fortress was crushed by the Russians and the much smaller Prussian Army (25,000) was thrown back with ease to the even stronger fortress of Konigsberg.
The Russians marched on this second and most important fortification in East Prussia to commence a siege. Here the Russian problems became apparent in the field of logistics. In past wars, the Russian Army would be forced to halt or retreat even after victories. This was due to their lack of capacity in supply. The long supply lines of the region would be difficult for anyone but the inefficient (though powerful) Russian army was even more vulnerable. When the Prussian force retreated to Konigsberg (effectively backing themselves into a corner), they smugly believed that they could hold out for months until winter as the Russian powder and cannonball supply had been exhausted at the previous battle.
However, it was here that the Russians presented their second surprise. A wealth of powder and cannonball appeared almost by magic, allowing for a vigorous shelling of the mighty fortress. The defenders were mystified exactly how this could have happened as they knew Russia lacked the logistical ability to move so much material. When the Swedish Navy wiped out the tiny Prussian fleet in the Baltic, they proceeded to land 15,000 Swedish troops dispatched by the Riksdag (the Hat faction in particular) and brought sizable powder, shot and shell with them to allow the Russians to continue the siege.
Over the winter, the Czarina had contacted the Riksdag with a thoroughly unexpected offer of alliance. Nothing could have shocked them more as the Russian Czarina could hardly support a government which turned out its own sovereign. In most cases, this would be impossible to imagine especially when one considers that the Czarina had actually PUT Adolf Frederick on the throne of Sweden! Years before, after a grievous defeat to Russia in battle, the Czarina made what was received as a generous offer. If the Swedes made the young Adolf Frederick, paternal uncle to her own nephew and heir, on the throne of Sweden, she'd give back most of the conquered Duchy of Finland. The Swedish Parliament jumped at the offer of putting Adolf Frederick in line behind their aging, childless King.
Of course now that the Czarina's nephew had betrayed her and hide behind Frederick II of Prussia, Elizabeth determined perhaps understandably that the return of the obviously deficient House of Holstein-Gottorp to the throne of Sweden was no longer a priority.
If the Swedes agreed to aid her assault upon Prussia, then she would not only ignore the overthrow of a crowned head but would agree to help Sweden regain parts of Pomerania lost to Prussia over the past half century.
Throughout the summer, the two unexpected allies would manage to reduce the fortification to ruins, finally taking it in September, forcing the entire garrison to surrender. After the fall of Konigsberg, there were no strong defenses along the remainder of the flat, lightly populated Kingdom nor a Prussian force to man them. Though much of the Kingdom remained unoccupied until Spring (as the Swedes and Prussians went into winter quarters), they allies would march east towards Prussian Pomerania after the 1758 snow melt.
East Prussia
Though the Kingdom of East Prussia was among the least valuable of Frederick II's possessions (for it was lightly populated and undeveloped), it did have the charm of being an actual KINGDOM. This gave Frederick the right to refer to himself as a King rather than just some vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor (as was the case of his wealthier, more populous and more important possession within the Empire like Brandenburg, Magdeburg and Silesia). East Prussia meant Frederick could look other Kings in the eye as an equal even as he was forced to bend the knee to the Emperor (if only figuratively).
This meant Prussia was more important politically than militarily. While facing the power of Austria to the south, Frederick was forced to leave the non-contiguous territory lightly defended. He'd assumed that, despite the nominal "alliance" between Austria and Russia, that the latter would not be ready for war for at least another year.
It turned out he was wrong.
In early 1757, the Russian Army 75,000 strong would cross the border into East Prussia, besieging Memel. A hastily-thrown-together expedition to relieve the fortress was crushed by the Russians and the much smaller Prussian Army (25,000) was thrown back with ease to the even stronger fortress of Konigsberg.
The Russians marched on this second and most important fortification in East Prussia to commence a siege. Here the Russian problems became apparent in the field of logistics. In past wars, the Russian Army would be forced to halt or retreat even after victories. This was due to their lack of capacity in supply. The long supply lines of the region would be difficult for anyone but the inefficient (though powerful) Russian army was even more vulnerable. When the Prussian force retreated to Konigsberg (effectively backing themselves into a corner), they smugly believed that they could hold out for months until winter as the Russian powder and cannonball supply had been exhausted at the previous battle.
However, it was here that the Russians presented their second surprise. A wealth of powder and cannonball appeared almost by magic, allowing for a vigorous shelling of the mighty fortress. The defenders were mystified exactly how this could have happened as they knew Russia lacked the logistical ability to move so much material. When the Swedish Navy wiped out the tiny Prussian fleet in the Baltic, they proceeded to land 15,000 Swedish troops dispatched by the Riksdag (the Hat faction in particular) and brought sizable powder, shot and shell with them to allow the Russians to continue the siege.
Over the winter, the Czarina had contacted the Riksdag with a thoroughly unexpected offer of alliance. Nothing could have shocked them more as the Russian Czarina could hardly support a government which turned out its own sovereign. In most cases, this would be impossible to imagine especially when one considers that the Czarina had actually PUT Adolf Frederick on the throne of Sweden! Years before, after a grievous defeat to Russia in battle, the Czarina made what was received as a generous offer. If the Swedes made the young Adolf Frederick, paternal uncle to her own nephew and heir, on the throne of Sweden, she'd give back most of the conquered Duchy of Finland. The Swedish Parliament jumped at the offer of putting Adolf Frederick in line behind their aging, childless King.
Of course now that the Czarina's nephew had betrayed her and hide behind Frederick II of Prussia, Elizabeth determined perhaps understandably that the return of the obviously deficient House of Holstein-Gottorp to the throne of Sweden was no longer a priority.
If the Swedes agreed to aid her assault upon Prussia, then she would not only ignore the overthrow of a crowned head but would agree to help Sweden regain parts of Pomerania lost to Prussia over the past half century.
Throughout the summer, the two unexpected allies would manage to reduce the fortification to ruins, finally taking it in September, forcing the entire garrison to surrender. After the fall of Konigsberg, there were no strong defenses along the remainder of the flat, lightly populated Kingdom nor a Prussian force to man them. Though much of the Kingdom remained unoccupied until Spring (as the Swedes and Prussians went into winter quarters), they allies would march east towards Prussian Pomerania after the 1758 snow melt.
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Chapter 6 - Haymaker
1757 - Summer
Bohemia
Having conquered most of Saxony in 1756 with little resistance, Frederick II was feeling optimistic as he used the Electorate as a path to invade Habsburg Bohemia. As he expected, the Habsburg war machine was slow to mobilize and he successfully outmaneuvered the Austrians several times before laying siege to Prague. In a devastating three day battle, 25,000 Austrians and 15,000 Prussians were lost...in a strategic draw. Austria may be able to make good such losses but Prussia could not, especially as it was looking like his new Saxon subjects were liable to desert at the first chance. Still, Frederick maintained 60,000 soldiers in his vanguard and tried again to constrict the Austrian forces around Prague (with 45,000 Habsburgs guarding the approaches). This was not his preferred method of warfare. He liked devastating battles of maneuver.
As the summer turned to fall, the King learned of 40,000 further Habsburg troops were marching from the southeast, leaving him in an exposed position. He could turn on one...but that would leave his back vulnerable. What was more, he suspected that even if he took Prague, it would cost him far too many troops to make it a true victory.
Worse, a small army of 25,000 Imperial troops made up mainly of southern Germans from Habsburg allies would march (mainly under French pay) east towards Saxony and commenced aiding the Saxons to rebel.
Only in late summer did Frederick learn of the early insertion of Russian forces in the Kingdom of Prussia as well as the shocking alliance with the Swedes. He had no capacity to send significant reinforcements.
For the first time, Frederick was reconsidering his strategy and wondered if some neutral party was willing to negotiate a truce and an Antebellum Peace.
That didn't even account for what was happening in Western Germany.
1757 - Summer
Hesse, Hanover
As Hanover was held in personal union with Britain under George II (and it was well established that the King preferred his German domain), this put the Electorate in danger by the French whom sought to leverage the King's loyalty to his German people against potential British gains abroad.
However, the initial prospects were good for the British. Parliament, throughout 1756 AND 1757, had utterly refused to ship a single British soldier to the continent. Instead, a coalition of Hanover's army, the troops from Frederick II's scattered western possessions and regiments hired from the tradition mercenary nations (Hesse, Lippe, Waldeck, Brunswick, etc) would form the spine of the army protecting Hanover (and indirectly, Prussia) from a French invasion. Instead of soldiers, the British sent only gold and supplies. Thought the opposition in Parliament bemoaned the expense, it seemed far cheaper than France's only option: funding and dispatching their own army to Germany. This pulled resources away from other theaters of war, thus giving Britain a great advantage in America, India and the high seas.
Leading the defense of Hanover was the King's favorite son, the Duke of Cumberland.
No one was sure if the French would even bother attacking Hanover in 1757. This question was answered in the spring when 60,000 French soldiers marched through northwestern Germany towards the ancestral lands of Hanover. With only 35,000 total men to defend the German state, the Duke was outnumbered...badly. Northwestern Germany didn't even have the advantage of natural defenses like mountains. It would be a war of maneuver.
Little by little, the Germans were pushed back. When reaching the "neutral nations" like Hesse which had rented the majority of their armies to King George II, the Princes were shocked to find that their "neutrality" was not acknowledged by the French whom occupied their little states without hesitation. Several Dukes and Princes and Margraves and etc would seek terms with France, offering to withdraw their forces from the coalition if only the French would evacuate their occupied homelands. The French laughed, knowing that the Duke of Cumberland would not allow a third of his army to just desert because his hirelings' princes called them home. No, these Princes had drawn French blood just as surely as the Hanoverians. They would pay the price with occupation. Most of these local potentates would long remember the devastation and ruin brought to their nations by their foolish belief no harm would come to them.
By the fall, the Duke had suffered several reverses and had been pushed halfway back into Hanover. His army was increasingly surrounded with few opportunities to retreat any further. After one final battle, which cost the lives of 5000 French and 3500 Germans, the Hanoverian Army was breaking. Even the capital city had fallen.
King George II, in a panic, quietly dispatched orders to his favorite son (the other, his heir Frederick was long dead) to make peace if a "favorable settlement" protecting Hanover coud be arranged. Privately, this meant abandoning Britain's Prussian ally. This left some leeway in the Duke's mind and he sought terms. He found the French demands hard but not unreasonable. He would order home all of his hired soldiers to Hesse, Lippe, Brunswick, etc where the French occupiers would command the local princes to disband the proud regiments that were often the only good way for the Princes to make hard currency for their impoverished realms.
The Hanoverian continent of the army would be split in two: half would be disarmed and enter comfortable winter quarters and the other half would remain unmolested in northern Hanover. In return, the French would make no further moves north into Hanover. This would allow greater dispatches of French men and material to the colonies and had the secondary benefit of settling Austrian nerves that France intended to conquer wide swathes of the northwestern Holy Roman Empire. Indeed, the French even dispatched the first French troops to the western border of Prussia since the war began. Without the Army of Hanover to shield it from the west, the Prussian King seemed ever more in danger in the looming winter of 1757/1758.
However, the Duke greatly misjudged his leeway and his father wept in shame that the Duke of Cumberland allowed so much of Hanover to be occupied for an indefinite period and that he gave up half the Hanoverian army along with the local hired Regiments. Cumberland didn't understand his father's rage. In his mind, he'd made the best deal possible to keep any hope of Hanoverian independence. He'd saved much of the army and prevented its total conquest. But the King would hear none of this and summarily removed his son from his command in the most humiliating manner possible.
The King demanded that the British Parliament "do something". However, for much of 1757, Britain's political establishment was in utter and complete chaos. Having collapsed after the fiasco of losing Minorca, the Newcastle government fell. One formed around the popular agitator William Pitt rose but he lacked support in the Commons. After a few months, Pitt's Ministry fell as well. Newcastle was brought back but felt his support was too weak to sustain a government either.
The King stepped in after many months and demanded the two cooperate. Newcastle would remain in charge of the Treasury but the direction of the war would be controlled by Pitt. It was an uncomfortable time as the King demanded that Pitt break his previous vow never to dispatch British troops to the continent. To his shock, Pitt did just that. He not only withdrew his objections but actually offered men and material in quantities that Newcastle never for a moment dared to ask of Parliament. Despite the about-face, the military situation looked grim.
Fortunately, Frederick would win a close battle Rossbach over the Imperial and French armies dispatched west in November. Though not an overwhelming victory, this allowed George II to withdraw his armistice in Hanover the following spring and dispatch 12,000 British soldiers to aid the 10,000 Hanoverians (and a few thousand Prussians) not in prison camps. He also privately requested that the monarchs of Hesse, Lippe, Brunswich, etc return their forces to this new combined army. Assuming that the princes would happily lease out their soldiers again, the King ordered the British to sail to the final fraction of free Hanover as soon as the ice cleared up. He would be disappointed to find that many of the local lords would not put their Duchies and Principalities in harm's way again for British coin.
Hearing rumors of the impending British action, the French would turn many of their forces retreating from Germany northwards again, furious at the betrayal of the armistice.
All was not bad news for the British. The King would be happy to learn that the colonial war was going quite well indeed.
Fall, 1757
Louisburg, New France
Lord Loudon had replaced Abercrombie in command of his Majesty's forces in North America. From the day the Scot landed, he'd hated Americans with a passion. However, he had little time to break their wills as the first piece of business was conquering the island fortress of Louisburg.
Utilizing most of the British forces available, he prepped for the invasion for months. Finally, he sailed bearing the majority of the British Army and Navy in the Americas. Rumors of a large French fleet in the area gave him pause. If he were defeated, it would be crushing for Britain's war effort in America. God knew the colonists were useless.
He dithered for quite some time but finally ordered a belated sailing. He'd seen Admiral Byng hang for "failing to do his utmost" in defending Minorca. And with his sponsor, the Duke of Cumberland, apparently losing the war in Germany, Loudon's head was not secure.
The Scot felt he had to fight.
The invasion force spent only a few days breaching the harbor. The large French fleet, if it existed, was not in residence there. A handful of French ships formed a defense and sank or severely damaged several British ships before the harbor was secured. Then the British troops were disgorged onto land and the Royal Navy commenced bombarding the French fortifications as the Army commenced their siege. Five more warships were sank (including a 1st rater which was hit in the powder room by a shell. Two nearby frigates were destroyed in the explosion). Another second rater was blown by bad weather onto the rocks.
Still, the siege continued until, in October, the walls fell. Louisburg had fall.
As the British took prisoners and saw to their conquest, the Royal Navy commander looked about nervously for the rumored French fleet. He knew he could not remain in Louisburg for the entire winter and sailed out, only for severe weather to push much of the fleet about. Several ships were demasted, two were destroyed on the rocks and all were damaged. Then the French fleet made a belated arrival, noted the poor and confused condition of the Royal Navy force...and attacked. A dozen British ships were sunk or taken compared to only four French. The survivors limped for Britain or America. It was perhaps the worst naval defeat for the British in two generations.
The French may have tried to retake Louisburg but lacked the soldiers on hand. Bitterly, the French return to France or Quebec for the winter, leaving the now stranded British army in Louisburg.
1757
Bengal
Though it would take half a year for word to reach Britain, Lord Clive had successfully dethroned the Nawab of Bengal and replaced him with a British puppet.
1757
Southern Brazil
Seeing no real resistance, the Spanish fleet and colonial militia would sail north, conquering ever more northerly coastal towns along Brazil. The official declaration of war between Portugal and Spain had been issued but no Portuguese resistance had been encountered.
1757
Lisbon and Porto, Portuguese port cities
After the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the already declining Portuguese navy was down to just three serviceable ships-of-the-line and a handful of frigates. The Spanish Navy easily brushed them aside and seized control over the port cities of Lisbon and Porto.
The outdated fortifications fell quickly to the Spanish fleet. Only a handful of British frigates and one 3rd rate ship-of-the-line (which happened to be in their ally's port) put up much of a fight. Though Spain and Britain were not officially at war, the fact was that the British could not stand by and watch their long-time ally fall without resistance. The British were eventually forced out of the harbor and dozens of British merchant ships were seized. More importantly, the easy path of British ships to the Mediterranean was under dire threat.
Rumors of a Spanish siege of Gibraltar were postponed as Spanish forces were rushed to support the conquest of the cities of Lisbon and Porto. With this, the Portuguese were cut off from Brazil...and the rest of the world.
As the Portuguese army had collapsed as well (only 8000 unpaid, starving, ill-equipped and ill-trained soldiers were nominally on the payroll but, in reality, barely 5000 were even healthy enough to be called to arms), the seizure of the cities was shockingly easy. Most of the Portuguese regular forces were along border garrisons near Spain or in Brazil.
This was still a major risk for Spain. Though King Ferdinand had prioritized reforming the Spanish Navy, it still remained far....FAR....behind the huge and skilled British fleet. If the British could dispatch a large enough force, then the Spanish fleet could be ejected from the Portuguese cities and strand the occupying Spanish armies.
But Ferdinand's advisors still felt this was the best way to get a quick settlement from Portugal. Invading the hinterlands would be timeconsuming and eastern Portugal almost impossible to navigate even without resistance.
Less convinced of his Army than his Navy, Ferdinand used his connections in France to request an "advisor" in 1756 to reorganize his poorly functioning army. The Duke of Belle-Isle was a famous as was his second-in-command, the Comte de St. Germain. While not officially in command of the Spanish Army, it was obvious whom was in charge.
The pair each took to a Portuguese port and reinforced the old decrepit fortifications.
The Portuguese Army attempted to retake Lisbon with a few thousand men under their Field Marshall, the Marquis de Alvito, a man of great pedigree...whom had never learned how to fire a weapon or command as much of a company of soldiers. Perhaps the most notorious political appointee to such a position in Europe, the Marquis only managed to get his men butchered by the Duke de Belle-Isle.
And this was with only the relatively poor Spanish Army at his disposal. By winter, 6000 French reinforcements would arrive per secret treaty with Spain. Intended to help reduce Gibraltar, the King Ferdinand's ministers (and certainly the French whom did not desire a siege of Gibraltar) would realize that occupying Lisbon and Porto were far better uses of the Spanish and French soldiers' time.
Portugal collapsed under its own impotence. Economically devastated by the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755, the nation's new Queen Maria spent all her time with her Jesuit priests, often putting them in high positions of government. Naturally, their primary concern was regaining the Jesuit lands taken by King Jose and his minister Pombal. Lisbon's reconstruction was extremely slow and both the Portuguese Army and Navy reached new nadirs in their capacities (a remarkable statement indeed).
When the invasion occurred, the Queen reportedly lost her senses for weeks at a time. Her Jesuit priest ministers did little more than pray and the country lacked anything resembling leadership for at least a year.
Fortunately, someone calmed her Majesty down enough to plead with Britain for help.
But King George II would be a bit busy in 1758.
Bohemia
Having conquered most of Saxony in 1756 with little resistance, Frederick II was feeling optimistic as he used the Electorate as a path to invade Habsburg Bohemia. As he expected, the Habsburg war machine was slow to mobilize and he successfully outmaneuvered the Austrians several times before laying siege to Prague. In a devastating three day battle, 25,000 Austrians and 15,000 Prussians were lost...in a strategic draw. Austria may be able to make good such losses but Prussia could not, especially as it was looking like his new Saxon subjects were liable to desert at the first chance. Still, Frederick maintained 60,000 soldiers in his vanguard and tried again to constrict the Austrian forces around Prague (with 45,000 Habsburgs guarding the approaches). This was not his preferred method of warfare. He liked devastating battles of maneuver.
As the summer turned to fall, the King learned of 40,000 further Habsburg troops were marching from the southeast, leaving him in an exposed position. He could turn on one...but that would leave his back vulnerable. What was more, he suspected that even if he took Prague, it would cost him far too many troops to make it a true victory.
Worse, a small army of 25,000 Imperial troops made up mainly of southern Germans from Habsburg allies would march (mainly under French pay) east towards Saxony and commenced aiding the Saxons to rebel.
Only in late summer did Frederick learn of the early insertion of Russian forces in the Kingdom of Prussia as well as the shocking alliance with the Swedes. He had no capacity to send significant reinforcements.
For the first time, Frederick was reconsidering his strategy and wondered if some neutral party was willing to negotiate a truce and an Antebellum Peace.
That didn't even account for what was happening in Western Germany.
1757 - Summer
Hesse, Hanover
As Hanover was held in personal union with Britain under George II (and it was well established that the King preferred his German domain), this put the Electorate in danger by the French whom sought to leverage the King's loyalty to his German people against potential British gains abroad.
However, the initial prospects were good for the British. Parliament, throughout 1756 AND 1757, had utterly refused to ship a single British soldier to the continent. Instead, a coalition of Hanover's army, the troops from Frederick II's scattered western possessions and regiments hired from the tradition mercenary nations (Hesse, Lippe, Waldeck, Brunswick, etc) would form the spine of the army protecting Hanover (and indirectly, Prussia) from a French invasion. Instead of soldiers, the British sent only gold and supplies. Thought the opposition in Parliament bemoaned the expense, it seemed far cheaper than France's only option: funding and dispatching their own army to Germany. This pulled resources away from other theaters of war, thus giving Britain a great advantage in America, India and the high seas.
Leading the defense of Hanover was the King's favorite son, the Duke of Cumberland.
No one was sure if the French would even bother attacking Hanover in 1757. This question was answered in the spring when 60,000 French soldiers marched through northwestern Germany towards the ancestral lands of Hanover. With only 35,000 total men to defend the German state, the Duke was outnumbered...badly. Northwestern Germany didn't even have the advantage of natural defenses like mountains. It would be a war of maneuver.
Little by little, the Germans were pushed back. When reaching the "neutral nations" like Hesse which had rented the majority of their armies to King George II, the Princes were shocked to find that their "neutrality" was not acknowledged by the French whom occupied their little states without hesitation. Several Dukes and Princes and Margraves and etc would seek terms with France, offering to withdraw their forces from the coalition if only the French would evacuate their occupied homelands. The French laughed, knowing that the Duke of Cumberland would not allow a third of his army to just desert because his hirelings' princes called them home. No, these Princes had drawn French blood just as surely as the Hanoverians. They would pay the price with occupation. Most of these local potentates would long remember the devastation and ruin brought to their nations by their foolish belief no harm would come to them.
By the fall, the Duke had suffered several reverses and had been pushed halfway back into Hanover. His army was increasingly surrounded with few opportunities to retreat any further. After one final battle, which cost the lives of 5000 French and 3500 Germans, the Hanoverian Army was breaking. Even the capital city had fallen.
King George II, in a panic, quietly dispatched orders to his favorite son (the other, his heir Frederick was long dead) to make peace if a "favorable settlement" protecting Hanover coud be arranged. Privately, this meant abandoning Britain's Prussian ally. This left some leeway in the Duke's mind and he sought terms. He found the French demands hard but not unreasonable. He would order home all of his hired soldiers to Hesse, Lippe, Brunswick, etc where the French occupiers would command the local princes to disband the proud regiments that were often the only good way for the Princes to make hard currency for their impoverished realms.
The Hanoverian continent of the army would be split in two: half would be disarmed and enter comfortable winter quarters and the other half would remain unmolested in northern Hanover. In return, the French would make no further moves north into Hanover. This would allow greater dispatches of French men and material to the colonies and had the secondary benefit of settling Austrian nerves that France intended to conquer wide swathes of the northwestern Holy Roman Empire. Indeed, the French even dispatched the first French troops to the western border of Prussia since the war began. Without the Army of Hanover to shield it from the west, the Prussian King seemed ever more in danger in the looming winter of 1757/1758.
However, the Duke greatly misjudged his leeway and his father wept in shame that the Duke of Cumberland allowed so much of Hanover to be occupied for an indefinite period and that he gave up half the Hanoverian army along with the local hired Regiments. Cumberland didn't understand his father's rage. In his mind, he'd made the best deal possible to keep any hope of Hanoverian independence. He'd saved much of the army and prevented its total conquest. But the King would hear none of this and summarily removed his son from his command in the most humiliating manner possible.
The King demanded that the British Parliament "do something". However, for much of 1757, Britain's political establishment was in utter and complete chaos. Having collapsed after the fiasco of losing Minorca, the Newcastle government fell. One formed around the popular agitator William Pitt rose but he lacked support in the Commons. After a few months, Pitt's Ministry fell as well. Newcastle was brought back but felt his support was too weak to sustain a government either.
The King stepped in after many months and demanded the two cooperate. Newcastle would remain in charge of the Treasury but the direction of the war would be controlled by Pitt. It was an uncomfortable time as the King demanded that Pitt break his previous vow never to dispatch British troops to the continent. To his shock, Pitt did just that. He not only withdrew his objections but actually offered men and material in quantities that Newcastle never for a moment dared to ask of Parliament. Despite the about-face, the military situation looked grim.
Fortunately, Frederick would win a close battle Rossbach over the Imperial and French armies dispatched west in November. Though not an overwhelming victory, this allowed George II to withdraw his armistice in Hanover the following spring and dispatch 12,000 British soldiers to aid the 10,000 Hanoverians (and a few thousand Prussians) not in prison camps. He also privately requested that the monarchs of Hesse, Lippe, Brunswich, etc return their forces to this new combined army. Assuming that the princes would happily lease out their soldiers again, the King ordered the British to sail to the final fraction of free Hanover as soon as the ice cleared up. He would be disappointed to find that many of the local lords would not put their Duchies and Principalities in harm's way again for British coin.
Hearing rumors of the impending British action, the French would turn many of their forces retreating from Germany northwards again, furious at the betrayal of the armistice.
All was not bad news for the British. The King would be happy to learn that the colonial war was going quite well indeed.
Fall, 1757
Louisburg, New France
Lord Loudon had replaced Abercrombie in command of his Majesty's forces in North America. From the day the Scot landed, he'd hated Americans with a passion. However, he had little time to break their wills as the first piece of business was conquering the island fortress of Louisburg.
Utilizing most of the British forces available, he prepped for the invasion for months. Finally, he sailed bearing the majority of the British Army and Navy in the Americas. Rumors of a large French fleet in the area gave him pause. If he were defeated, it would be crushing for Britain's war effort in America. God knew the colonists were useless.
He dithered for quite some time but finally ordered a belated sailing. He'd seen Admiral Byng hang for "failing to do his utmost" in defending Minorca. And with his sponsor, the Duke of Cumberland, apparently losing the war in Germany, Loudon's head was not secure.
The Scot felt he had to fight.
The invasion force spent only a few days breaching the harbor. The large French fleet, if it existed, was not in residence there. A handful of French ships formed a defense and sank or severely damaged several British ships before the harbor was secured. Then the British troops were disgorged onto land and the Royal Navy commenced bombarding the French fortifications as the Army commenced their siege. Five more warships were sank (including a 1st rater which was hit in the powder room by a shell. Two nearby frigates were destroyed in the explosion). Another second rater was blown by bad weather onto the rocks.
Still, the siege continued until, in October, the walls fell. Louisburg had fall.
As the British took prisoners and saw to their conquest, the Royal Navy commander looked about nervously for the rumored French fleet. He knew he could not remain in Louisburg for the entire winter and sailed out, only for severe weather to push much of the fleet about. Several ships were demasted, two were destroyed on the rocks and all were damaged. Then the French fleet made a belated arrival, noted the poor and confused condition of the Royal Navy force...and attacked. A dozen British ships were sunk or taken compared to only four French. The survivors limped for Britain or America. It was perhaps the worst naval defeat for the British in two generations.
The French may have tried to retake Louisburg but lacked the soldiers on hand. Bitterly, the French return to France or Quebec for the winter, leaving the now stranded British army in Louisburg.
1757
Bengal
Though it would take half a year for word to reach Britain, Lord Clive had successfully dethroned the Nawab of Bengal and replaced him with a British puppet.
1757
Southern Brazil
Seeing no real resistance, the Spanish fleet and colonial militia would sail north, conquering ever more northerly coastal towns along Brazil. The official declaration of war between Portugal and Spain had been issued but no Portuguese resistance had been encountered.
1757
Lisbon and Porto, Portuguese port cities
After the 1755 Lisbon earthquake, the already declining Portuguese navy was down to just three serviceable ships-of-the-line and a handful of frigates. The Spanish Navy easily brushed them aside and seized control over the port cities of Lisbon and Porto.
The outdated fortifications fell quickly to the Spanish fleet. Only a handful of British frigates and one 3rd rate ship-of-the-line (which happened to be in their ally's port) put up much of a fight. Though Spain and Britain were not officially at war, the fact was that the British could not stand by and watch their long-time ally fall without resistance. The British were eventually forced out of the harbor and dozens of British merchant ships were seized. More importantly, the easy path of British ships to the Mediterranean was under dire threat.
Rumors of a Spanish siege of Gibraltar were postponed as Spanish forces were rushed to support the conquest of the cities of Lisbon and Porto. With this, the Portuguese were cut off from Brazil...and the rest of the world.
As the Portuguese army had collapsed as well (only 8000 unpaid, starving, ill-equipped and ill-trained soldiers were nominally on the payroll but, in reality, barely 5000 were even healthy enough to be called to arms), the seizure of the cities was shockingly easy. Most of the Portuguese regular forces were along border garrisons near Spain or in Brazil.
This was still a major risk for Spain. Though King Ferdinand had prioritized reforming the Spanish Navy, it still remained far....FAR....behind the huge and skilled British fleet. If the British could dispatch a large enough force, then the Spanish fleet could be ejected from the Portuguese cities and strand the occupying Spanish armies.
But Ferdinand's advisors still felt this was the best way to get a quick settlement from Portugal. Invading the hinterlands would be timeconsuming and eastern Portugal almost impossible to navigate even without resistance.
Less convinced of his Army than his Navy, Ferdinand used his connections in France to request an "advisor" in 1756 to reorganize his poorly functioning army. The Duke of Belle-Isle was a famous as was his second-in-command, the Comte de St. Germain. While not officially in command of the Spanish Army, it was obvious whom was in charge.
The pair each took to a Portuguese port and reinforced the old decrepit fortifications.
The Portuguese Army attempted to retake Lisbon with a few thousand men under their Field Marshall, the Marquis de Alvito, a man of great pedigree...whom had never learned how to fire a weapon or command as much of a company of soldiers. Perhaps the most notorious political appointee to such a position in Europe, the Marquis only managed to get his men butchered by the Duke de Belle-Isle.
And this was with only the relatively poor Spanish Army at his disposal. By winter, 6000 French reinforcements would arrive per secret treaty with Spain. Intended to help reduce Gibraltar, the King Ferdinand's ministers (and certainly the French whom did not desire a siege of Gibraltar) would realize that occupying Lisbon and Porto were far better uses of the Spanish and French soldiers' time.
Portugal collapsed under its own impotence. Economically devastated by the Lisbon Earthquake of 1755, the nation's new Queen Maria spent all her time with her Jesuit priests, often putting them in high positions of government. Naturally, their primary concern was regaining the Jesuit lands taken by King Jose and his minister Pombal. Lisbon's reconstruction was extremely slow and both the Portuguese Army and Navy reached new nadirs in their capacities (a remarkable statement indeed).
When the invasion occurred, the Queen reportedly lost her senses for weeks at a time. Her Jesuit priest ministers did little more than pray and the country lacked anything resembling leadership for at least a year.
Fortunately, someone calmed her Majesty down enough to plead with Britain for help.
But King George II would be a bit busy in 1758.
Last edited:
unprincipled peter
Donor
This section was somewhat confused in writing, but I took it to mean the 'magic' was unexpected Swedish troops/supplies. As the TL contains no reference to wizards/magicians, I think that 'magically' was just a poor choice of words.
I probably should have expanded upon it to make mention that the Swedes were procuring the shot and powder. I've updated the section to reflect this.
Chapter 7 - The Northern Front - Searching for a killing blow
1758 Spring
West Prussia, Polish Commonwealth
As soon as the snows melted (in some cases before) in the spring, the Russian and Swedish forces marched westwards towards Pomerania. They passed through the lands of the Commonwealth (the predominantly Polish Catholic West Prussia) without even bothering to inform Augustus III of Poland. Given that Augustus was also the Elector of occupied Saxony, they figured he wouldn't mind.
The very fact that Prussia invaded his domain of Saxony and STILL the Commonwealth's deliberately dysfunctional government failed to act against Prussia in any way proved without a doubt the incapacity of the nation. The fact was that Russia, Austria and Prussia had used Poland for decades as a harmless buffer....when not chipping off pieces for themselves.
Both the Poles and the kings of the surrounding nations realized that the situation could not remain long. Something had to be done with Poland but that was put off for another day.
By May, the Russo-Swedish Army would push into Pomerania where they met up with more Swedes and supplies. The Swedish Navy had wiped out what little Prussian naval strength still existed. Fortunately, the Royal Navy had not challenged either the Swedes or the Russians in the Baltic as of yet.
But the British had other problems to deal with.
1758 Spring
Copenhagen
Count Moltke, the defacto Prime Minister of Denmark, did his best to hide His Majesty King Frederick V's latest episode of drunken debauchery. The Count enjoyed the King's confidence. Frederick was an alcoholic with little interest in his realms but would know good administrators when he saw them and Moltke was the man for the job.
Educated and cultured, Moltke abhorred war and sought to use all his influence to keep Denmark at peace. He was neither radical or reactionary. Moltke concentrated on liberalizing the economy and increasing trade. For the most part, Frederick's early reign was considered something of a Golden Age of prosperity and peace.
Though he feared that the act may have consequences, Moltke had arranged to trade Oldenburg for the Holstein-Gottorp lands in Holstein, thus effectively bringing most of that region directly under the King's control. Technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, Holstein, like most states, was divided many times over the centuries and authority squandered.
Now with Holstein and Schleswig firmly under control of the Danes, the nation seemed quite secure.
Until that damned Prince Peter of Russia abandoned his future throne (how Elizabeth must have loved THAT) only to find his hereditary castle already flying the Danish flag. He'd immediately run to Frederick II of Prussia begging/demanding for the King to aid him. Exactly why he'd think Frederick II would do anything for anyone but himself was a mystery puzzling much of Europe. Instead, the Prussian had made the idiot a General, perhaps in hopes that Peter may yet regain the Russian throne. As Prussia and Russia were already at war, he had nothing to lose. Moltke doubted that Peter would ever set foot upon Russian soil in his lifetime...or at least not for long as Elizabeth had pronounced him a traitor and everyone knew what happened to traitors. Elizabeth was famous for not executing a single person during her reign but was reportedly willing to make an exception for her own nephew.
Naturally, with the outbreak of war, Denmark had been approached by both parties (Prussia-Britain and France-Austria) to partake. The French, able to read a map, desired that Denmark cut off the supply of gold, munitions and reinforcements from Britain to the continent. Britain naturally desired that the Danes protect the supply line and even put their army at Britain's disposal. Moltke refused both...then demanded "subsidies" from both. For Britain, he allowed supplies to flow through. For France, he provided cannon, shells and powder to the allies (including helping to supply the Swedish-Russian force entering Pomerania).
At one point, both alliances were sending money to Denmark, effectively paying for their neutrality.
The British, for the most part, ignored the Danish profiteering until it became apparent that the Swedish-Russian force may well conquer Pomerania and thus threaten Hanover...which was still largely under French occupation except for a small northern portion. This was enough to pass through the gold and supplies sustaining the Prussian war effort If Hanover fell...so would Prussia. Frederick II, while desperately commencing his spring maneuvers, would beg the British to do something. Once Pomerania fell, only a tiny coastal area in Hanover with access to the sea would allow for a supply line. Rumors abounded that France and Austria were trying to bribe Denmark with land in Hanover if only the Danes would cut that supply line either by blockading the coast (against the Royal Navy, not the best idea) or with the unused Danish Army.
In truth, this was a lie made up by Frederick in hopes of prompting their ally to greater involvement on the Continent (the First British troops were already sailing for Hanover to revoke the surrender negotiated by the disgraced Duke of Cumberland).
By happenstance, a British frigate would intercept a Russian courier blown off course by a spring storm. He carried a concrete offer from the Czarina offering lands from the "Protestant Allies" in return for Danish military aid.
In truth, every major power on the Continent had done the same including Britain but this came quickly on the heels of Frederick II's accusation. George II was in a panic and demanded his new ruling coalition of the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt "DO SOMETHING".
West Prussia, Polish Commonwealth
As soon as the snows melted (in some cases before) in the spring, the Russian and Swedish forces marched westwards towards Pomerania. They passed through the lands of the Commonwealth (the predominantly Polish Catholic West Prussia) without even bothering to inform Augustus III of Poland. Given that Augustus was also the Elector of occupied Saxony, they figured he wouldn't mind.
The very fact that Prussia invaded his domain of Saxony and STILL the Commonwealth's deliberately dysfunctional government failed to act against Prussia in any way proved without a doubt the incapacity of the nation. The fact was that Russia, Austria and Prussia had used Poland for decades as a harmless buffer....when not chipping off pieces for themselves.
Both the Poles and the kings of the surrounding nations realized that the situation could not remain long. Something had to be done with Poland but that was put off for another day.
By May, the Russo-Swedish Army would push into Pomerania where they met up with more Swedes and supplies. The Swedish Navy had wiped out what little Prussian naval strength still existed. Fortunately, the Royal Navy had not challenged either the Swedes or the Russians in the Baltic as of yet.
But the British had other problems to deal with.
1758 Spring
Copenhagen
Count Moltke, the defacto Prime Minister of Denmark, did his best to hide His Majesty King Frederick V's latest episode of drunken debauchery. The Count enjoyed the King's confidence. Frederick was an alcoholic with little interest in his realms but would know good administrators when he saw them and Moltke was the man for the job.
Educated and cultured, Moltke abhorred war and sought to use all his influence to keep Denmark at peace. He was neither radical or reactionary. Moltke concentrated on liberalizing the economy and increasing trade. For the most part, Frederick's early reign was considered something of a Golden Age of prosperity and peace.
Though he feared that the act may have consequences, Moltke had arranged to trade Oldenburg for the Holstein-Gottorp lands in Holstein, thus effectively bringing most of that region directly under the King's control. Technically part of the Holy Roman Empire, Holstein, like most states, was divided many times over the centuries and authority squandered.
Now with Holstein and Schleswig firmly under control of the Danes, the nation seemed quite secure.
Until that damned Prince Peter of Russia abandoned his future throne (how Elizabeth must have loved THAT) only to find his hereditary castle already flying the Danish flag. He'd immediately run to Frederick II of Prussia begging/demanding for the King to aid him. Exactly why he'd think Frederick II would do anything for anyone but himself was a mystery puzzling much of Europe. Instead, the Prussian had made the idiot a General, perhaps in hopes that Peter may yet regain the Russian throne. As Prussia and Russia were already at war, he had nothing to lose. Moltke doubted that Peter would ever set foot upon Russian soil in his lifetime...or at least not for long as Elizabeth had pronounced him a traitor and everyone knew what happened to traitors. Elizabeth was famous for not executing a single person during her reign but was reportedly willing to make an exception for her own nephew.
Naturally, with the outbreak of war, Denmark had been approached by both parties (Prussia-Britain and France-Austria) to partake. The French, able to read a map, desired that Denmark cut off the supply of gold, munitions and reinforcements from Britain to the continent. Britain naturally desired that the Danes protect the supply line and even put their army at Britain's disposal. Moltke refused both...then demanded "subsidies" from both. For Britain, he allowed supplies to flow through. For France, he provided cannon, shells and powder to the allies (including helping to supply the Swedish-Russian force entering Pomerania).
At one point, both alliances were sending money to Denmark, effectively paying for their neutrality.
The British, for the most part, ignored the Danish profiteering until it became apparent that the Swedish-Russian force may well conquer Pomerania and thus threaten Hanover...which was still largely under French occupation except for a small northern portion. This was enough to pass through the gold and supplies sustaining the Prussian war effort If Hanover fell...so would Prussia. Frederick II, while desperately commencing his spring maneuvers, would beg the British to do something. Once Pomerania fell, only a tiny coastal area in Hanover with access to the sea would allow for a supply line. Rumors abounded that France and Austria were trying to bribe Denmark with land in Hanover if only the Danes would cut that supply line either by blockading the coast (against the Royal Navy, not the best idea) or with the unused Danish Army.
In truth, this was a lie made up by Frederick in hopes of prompting their ally to greater involvement on the Continent (the First British troops were already sailing for Hanover to revoke the surrender negotiated by the disgraced Duke of Cumberland).
By happenstance, a British frigate would intercept a Russian courier blown off course by a spring storm. He carried a concrete offer from the Czarina offering lands from the "Protestant Allies" in return for Danish military aid.
In truth, every major power on the Continent had done the same including Britain but this came quickly on the heels of Frederick II's accusation. George II was in a panic and demanded his new ruling coalition of the Duke of Newcastle and William Pitt "DO SOMETHING".
Chapter 8: The Western and the Eastern Front - Prepondernance of Resources
1758 - Spring and Summer
Bohemia
Embarrassed by his failure to take Prague in 1757, King Frederick II would redouble his efforts to crush Bohemia. However, he discovered himself facing a rejuvenated Austrian Army which had, by now, two years to rearm. This was the reason why Frederick had been so intent on a quick victory. His realms, those still unconquered, were significantly outnumbered by Austria alone much less their allies of Saxony, Bavaria, Russia, France, etc, etc.
With Russia and Sweden having already seized East Prussia and now reportedly marching on Pomerania and the French, Bavarian, Imperial Army aiding the Saxons to revolt, the Kings resources were constrained to say the least. That didn't even account for what was happening in Hanover. The only good news Frederick had was that the British had reportedly renounced their armistice with the French and were reportedly now shipping troops to unoccupied Hanover. Hopefully, that would prevent a full French army from marching on his nigh-undefended western flank.
Still hoping to conquer Bohemia (and thus drive Austria from the war), the Prussia split off what he could to Pomerania and Saxony and pushed the bulk of his army into the hills and mountains of Bohemia.
Several sharp battles ensues as the Prussia King attempted to avoid long sieges or attacking into the teeth of Austrian defenses. However, flanking attacks were not always possible in the topography. The battles were largely won by the Prussians but no decisive blow could be leveled against Von Daun, the Austrian General.
By late summer, the casualties continued to mount and the Austrians would win a crushing engagement west of Prague. Having taken more casualties than ever before, the battered Prussian Army was forced to withdraw back into northern Saxony. The Austrians followed down from the hills with an army 100,000 strong to merge with the 50,000 French/Austrian/Saxon/Bavarian/Imperial force which controlled much of southern Saxony. This allowed Frederick to merge his forces as well but his forces totaled no more than 85,000 and that included 5000 Saxons drafted into his army. Their regiments had proven to be...unreliable...to say the least in the past. Most of the Saxon levees he promptly ordered north to Pomerania in hopes they would be more useful against the Russians and Swedes to the north.
He could only hope his generals in Pomerania could slow down the Russians and the British/Hanoverians could hold in Hanover...or at least keep the French from dispatching a major army east.
1758 Spring
Hanover
Only the northern tip of Hanover had escaped occupation in the previous armistice. 10,000 Hanoverian troops remained in arms while most of Hanover, the western possessions of the King of Prussia (Cleves, etc) and the "neutral" states which had leased Regiments to the British still lived under the French yoke.
With the Armistice, the French slowly withdrew their forces with the intent of using them against Prussia, in the colonies or in a potential invasion of Britain. This allowed the British to use the winter of 1757/58 to ship 12,000 British soldiers to the Continent and merge with the remnant of the Hanoverian forces. This represented the flower of the relatively small British Establishment. While high quality soldiers, the British army was small, perhaps 45,000 at its highest peacetime ebb and that was usually the high estimate. A real roll call would have resulted in closer to 40,000 and 5000 of those were invalids not capable of actual warfare (wasted by illness or injury) whom existed more on the King's charity than for actual use. The 35,000 healthy regulars were actually scattered from Britain to Ireland to America (about 6000 in 1758) to the West Indies (a death sentence) even as far as India.
Yes, recruitment was up as a war with France resulted in patriotic fervor. But it took years for a civilian to turn into a usable soldier (2 years was the standard) and the Royal Navy historically received first choice in terms of manpower. Given the British hatred of standing armies (for fear that it would make the King a dictator), there were many restrictions upon drafting for the army (certainly fewer for the Navy).
Thus the 12,000 British soldiers dispatched to the continent made for the lion's share of the effective military power of the nation. More so, the best officers nigh fought over the right to fight on the continent as service in the colonies was considered less honorable.
Immediately upon rescinding the Armistice in February, the British attempted to break out the Hanoverian soldiers in French detention. This failed miserably as the French commander wisely tripled the guards to avoid a mass escape north.
Calls for the British to their "allies" of Hesse, Brunswick, etc would go for nought as much of their territories remained under occupation as well. Those "mercenary" regiments hired out to the highest bidder were either forcibly dispanded by the French or, perhaps more cleverly, hired away by the French themselves to garrison Portugal or the West Indies. Indeed, of the 15,000 German mercenaries forcibly returned to their homelands, 6000 were promptly shipped abroad by the French per "treaty" with the Margraves, Princes etcetera whom both needed the currency AND very much desired to encourage the French to withdraw from their nations.
In short, there was little to no hope coming and, besieged on three fronts, the King of Prussia could hardly be expected to send troops.
Frederick von Sporken commanded the Hanoverian troops while the overall command of the British-Hanoverian army fell to Earl Waldegrave who delegated the cavalry to Lord Sackville. The German was highly experienced but the British soldiers were both young (though talented). In truth, there seemed to be no obvious British soldier for command and, after much agonizing, the King opted for two men with few ties to his disgraced son, the Duke of Cumberland. This was difficult as most of the high ranking soldiers in the British establishment reached that position by cronyism to the Duke over the past decade (Braddock, Loudoun, Abercrombie, Monro and others were prominent in the Americas).
With 22,000 men at his disposal, Waldegrave did not fancy his chances. Though the French had withdrawn much of their previous army and were also forced to garrison much northwestern Germany, they still managed to march 44,000 men into Northern Hanover by late spring. Waldegrave considered his men superior to the French but perhaps not TWICE as good. Reportedly, the King of France was so livid at the revocation of the armistice that he ordered his Generals not to stop until they pushed the British back into the North Sea and damn the casualties.
The only positive was that holding that sliver of northern Hanover ensured that the supply line to Frederick (from Britain to Prussia) remained open for the summer campaign thus allowing Frederick the gold, munitions, etc to maintain his own army. Without those provisions....
Bohemia
Embarrassed by his failure to take Prague in 1757, King Frederick II would redouble his efforts to crush Bohemia. However, he discovered himself facing a rejuvenated Austrian Army which had, by now, two years to rearm. This was the reason why Frederick had been so intent on a quick victory. His realms, those still unconquered, were significantly outnumbered by Austria alone much less their allies of Saxony, Bavaria, Russia, France, etc, etc.
With Russia and Sweden having already seized East Prussia and now reportedly marching on Pomerania and the French, Bavarian, Imperial Army aiding the Saxons to revolt, the Kings resources were constrained to say the least. That didn't even account for what was happening in Hanover. The only good news Frederick had was that the British had reportedly renounced their armistice with the French and were reportedly now shipping troops to unoccupied Hanover. Hopefully, that would prevent a full French army from marching on his nigh-undefended western flank.
Still hoping to conquer Bohemia (and thus drive Austria from the war), the Prussia split off what he could to Pomerania and Saxony and pushed the bulk of his army into the hills and mountains of Bohemia.
Several sharp battles ensues as the Prussia King attempted to avoid long sieges or attacking into the teeth of Austrian defenses. However, flanking attacks were not always possible in the topography. The battles were largely won by the Prussians but no decisive blow could be leveled against Von Daun, the Austrian General.
By late summer, the casualties continued to mount and the Austrians would win a crushing engagement west of Prague. Having taken more casualties than ever before, the battered Prussian Army was forced to withdraw back into northern Saxony. The Austrians followed down from the hills with an army 100,000 strong to merge with the 50,000 French/Austrian/Saxon/Bavarian/Imperial force which controlled much of southern Saxony. This allowed Frederick to merge his forces as well but his forces totaled no more than 85,000 and that included 5000 Saxons drafted into his army. Their regiments had proven to be...unreliable...to say the least in the past. Most of the Saxon levees he promptly ordered north to Pomerania in hopes they would be more useful against the Russians and Swedes to the north.
He could only hope his generals in Pomerania could slow down the Russians and the British/Hanoverians could hold in Hanover...or at least keep the French from dispatching a major army east.
1758 Spring
Hanover
Only the northern tip of Hanover had escaped occupation in the previous armistice. 10,000 Hanoverian troops remained in arms while most of Hanover, the western possessions of the King of Prussia (Cleves, etc) and the "neutral" states which had leased Regiments to the British still lived under the French yoke.
With the Armistice, the French slowly withdrew their forces with the intent of using them against Prussia, in the colonies or in a potential invasion of Britain. This allowed the British to use the winter of 1757/58 to ship 12,000 British soldiers to the Continent and merge with the remnant of the Hanoverian forces. This represented the flower of the relatively small British Establishment. While high quality soldiers, the British army was small, perhaps 45,000 at its highest peacetime ebb and that was usually the high estimate. A real roll call would have resulted in closer to 40,000 and 5000 of those were invalids not capable of actual warfare (wasted by illness or injury) whom existed more on the King's charity than for actual use. The 35,000 healthy regulars were actually scattered from Britain to Ireland to America (about 6000 in 1758) to the West Indies (a death sentence) even as far as India.
Yes, recruitment was up as a war with France resulted in patriotic fervor. But it took years for a civilian to turn into a usable soldier (2 years was the standard) and the Royal Navy historically received first choice in terms of manpower. Given the British hatred of standing armies (for fear that it would make the King a dictator), there were many restrictions upon drafting for the army (certainly fewer for the Navy).
Thus the 12,000 British soldiers dispatched to the continent made for the lion's share of the effective military power of the nation. More so, the best officers nigh fought over the right to fight on the continent as service in the colonies was considered less honorable.
Immediately upon rescinding the Armistice in February, the British attempted to break out the Hanoverian soldiers in French detention. This failed miserably as the French commander wisely tripled the guards to avoid a mass escape north.
Calls for the British to their "allies" of Hesse, Brunswick, etc would go for nought as much of their territories remained under occupation as well. Those "mercenary" regiments hired out to the highest bidder were either forcibly dispanded by the French or, perhaps more cleverly, hired away by the French themselves to garrison Portugal or the West Indies. Indeed, of the 15,000 German mercenaries forcibly returned to their homelands, 6000 were promptly shipped abroad by the French per "treaty" with the Margraves, Princes etcetera whom both needed the currency AND very much desired to encourage the French to withdraw from their nations.
In short, there was little to no hope coming and, besieged on three fronts, the King of Prussia could hardly be expected to send troops.
Frederick von Sporken commanded the Hanoverian troops while the overall command of the British-Hanoverian army fell to Earl Waldegrave who delegated the cavalry to Lord Sackville. The German was highly experienced but the British soldiers were both young (though talented). In truth, there seemed to be no obvious British soldier for command and, after much agonizing, the King opted for two men with few ties to his disgraced son, the Duke of Cumberland. This was difficult as most of the high ranking soldiers in the British establishment reached that position by cronyism to the Duke over the past decade (Braddock, Loudoun, Abercrombie, Monro and others were prominent in the Americas).
With 22,000 men at his disposal, Waldegrave did not fancy his chances. Though the French had withdrawn much of their previous army and were also forced to garrison much northwestern Germany, they still managed to march 44,000 men into Northern Hanover by late spring. Waldegrave considered his men superior to the French but perhaps not TWICE as good. Reportedly, the King of France was so livid at the revocation of the armistice that he ordered his Generals not to stop until they pushed the British back into the North Sea and damn the casualties.
The only positive was that holding that sliver of northern Hanover ensured that the supply line to Frederick (from Britain to Prussia) remained open for the summer campaign thus allowing Frederick the gold, munitions, etc to maintain his own army. Without those provisions....
Chapter 9: India
1758
Chinsurah, Bengal
At the battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar betrayed the previous Nawab of Bengal and aided the British East India Company Army under Clive to crush the Bengali army. As a reward, Jafar was put on the throne himself. However, the East India Company proved rapacious. Millions upon millions of rupees were demanded by the Company directly as well as individual officials. In less than a year, they had bled the richest Kingdom on the subcontinent dry.
Realizing this would never end, the new Nawab would reach out to the vanquished French and the "neutral" Dutch East India Company for aid as it was obvious that the British counterpart would soon demand that Bengal's markets be closed to all but themselves. Refusing to be a puppet, the Nawab intrigued with the French and Dutch to form an army of 2000 Europeans and local levees to attack the British factories in Bengal.
Under Francis Forde, the British (with roughly the same number) would march upon the Dutch first at Chinsurah, Bengal. Forde felt confident as the Dutch East India Company had not been a real rival for years. Plus, he received word that his Bengali "allies" were marching.
No one found it odd that the British and Dutch East India Companies were at war while their respective nations were not. But that was common as the Companies were pseudo-independent anyway.
Forde commenced his attack as 8000 Bengalis arrived under Mir Jafar. It was common for the Europeans to bear the brunt of the attack as they were deemed superior (particularly by the Europeans). Forde also wanted to show the uppity Mir Jafar his place.
Initially, the attack went well. At least, it went well under the bulk of the Bengali Army attacked his rear, scattering his lines. Within moments, the impending victory became a route. For the second time, the Nawab betrayed his ally on the field of battle (for which he would be remembered).
In the aftermath, Mir Jafar would order attacks on other British factories in Bengal. Most of the British East India Company forces which had fought at Plassey had already been withdrawn and the actual British presence in Bengal was nominal and largely restricted to traders. Jafar had them all rounded up on thrown in bestial prisons where they died by the thousand.
By the time word of the Bengali betrayal reached Robert Clive in Madras, the overthrow was effectively complete. Though he longed to retaliate, Clive lacked the troops for a total invasion of Bengal and was somewhat busy marching against French positions in southeastern India. Beyond a year of remarkable looting, the British East India Company reduction of Bengal to a tributary state had come to nothing.
Chinsurah, Bengal
At the battle of Plassey, Mir Jafar betrayed the previous Nawab of Bengal and aided the British East India Company Army under Clive to crush the Bengali army. As a reward, Jafar was put on the throne himself. However, the East India Company proved rapacious. Millions upon millions of rupees were demanded by the Company directly as well as individual officials. In less than a year, they had bled the richest Kingdom on the subcontinent dry.
Realizing this would never end, the new Nawab would reach out to the vanquished French and the "neutral" Dutch East India Company for aid as it was obvious that the British counterpart would soon demand that Bengal's markets be closed to all but themselves. Refusing to be a puppet, the Nawab intrigued with the French and Dutch to form an army of 2000 Europeans and local levees to attack the British factories in Bengal.
Under Francis Forde, the British (with roughly the same number) would march upon the Dutch first at Chinsurah, Bengal. Forde felt confident as the Dutch East India Company had not been a real rival for years. Plus, he received word that his Bengali "allies" were marching.
No one found it odd that the British and Dutch East India Companies were at war while their respective nations were not. But that was common as the Companies were pseudo-independent anyway.
Forde commenced his attack as 8000 Bengalis arrived under Mir Jafar. It was common for the Europeans to bear the brunt of the attack as they were deemed superior (particularly by the Europeans). Forde also wanted to show the uppity Mir Jafar his place.
Initially, the attack went well. At least, it went well under the bulk of the Bengali Army attacked his rear, scattering his lines. Within moments, the impending victory became a route. For the second time, the Nawab betrayed his ally on the field of battle (for which he would be remembered).
In the aftermath, Mir Jafar would order attacks on other British factories in Bengal. Most of the British East India Company forces which had fought at Plassey had already been withdrawn and the actual British presence in Bengal was nominal and largely restricted to traders. Jafar had them all rounded up on thrown in bestial prisons where they died by the thousand.
By the time word of the Bengali betrayal reached Robert Clive in Madras, the overthrow was effectively complete. Though he longed to retaliate, Clive lacked the troops for a total invasion of Bengal and was somewhat busy marching against French positions in southeastern India. Beyond a year of remarkable looting, the British East India Company reduction of Bengal to a tributary state had come to nothing.
Chapter 10: America
1758 - Summer
Quebec
General William Keppel was of a honored lineage of service to the Hanoverian Kings. Perhaps more importantly, he was not particularly close to the Duke of Cumberland. Thus when Lord Loudon was "recalled" to be congratulated for taking Louisburg (and being reassigned to Scotland), Keppel was placed in command of all North American forces. Ordered by Pitt to "strike a death blow", Keppel was given 4000 additional British troops (resented by the King whom desired all to be shipped to protect Hanover) to the 5000 already present in America. Most of these would be billeted throughout the winter of 1757/58 in Louisburg (well trapped given the disastrous battle at sea following the conquest of the island fortress) or New York or Boston.
Keppel had received orders to "gain what he could" for it was feared that, should Hanover fall (again), then only the return of a number of colonial possessions would France be enticed to hand George II back his patrimony. Not particularly familiar with colonials, Keppel was nevertheless wise enough not to point this out to the Americans. In the previous war, a colonial effort conquered Louisburg only to be handed back to France in exchange for Madras. Reportedly, the King was burned in effigy the length of the colonies for this "betrayal".
Keppel was granted leeway. He could attack whatever he felt was appropriate, valuable and reasonable. Some mentioned Florida as an easy target...or New Orleans. But he did not consider these much of a boon. No, only Havana (Britain and Spain finally got around to declaring war upon one another) and Quebec were worthy of returning Hanover. With his elder brother Augustus commanding the American Fleet, he knew that army and navy would cooperate well.
The Americans were a different matter. Huge amounts of supplies were require for an invasion of such a well-defended port as Havana or Quebec. The Americans seldom offered much and usually demanded payment (or at least the promise thereof). Fortunately, Pitt had made some vague promises in hopes of getting American help and this had galvanized the population to a sudden sense of Patriotism. While short on hard currency, food and other provisions were swiftly gathered as well as large numbers of merchant ships to convey the King's forces where they needed to go.
Keppel, not particularly desiring to attack a tropical target in summer (who would?), opted for Quebec. There were only a few thousand French regulars in the area and these were already spread out of hundreds of miles along the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes to the Mississippi. The colonials were handling expeditions to the small fortifications of the interior. This would make a good distraction.
The British regulars would handle the heavy-lifting.
And Quebec would be a great task indeed. Knowing he must initiate the invasion by summer (as the weather turned quickly in the region to ice), the General would rush large numbers of soldiers from New York, Boston and Louisburg to the St. Lawrence. Only the late arrival of siege equipment would delay the assault. Still, by late June, the British convoy would arrive under the protection of a huge Royal Navy fleet bearing 7000 British regulars and 1500 colonial volunteers including the 1st Virginia regiment back under command of Colonel George Washington.
The latter, despite his ardent requests, STILL had not been granted a British commission. Fortunately, British policy had changed allowing for a less humiliating order of ranking. Now, only regular army Majors and above may give orders to Colonels or "Generals" in colonial Regiments or militias. This was still somewhat insulting to the Americans but at least wealthy colonial politicians commanding Corps were no longer obligated to be ordered about by 16 year old pimply faced ensigns.
Quebec
General William Keppel was of a honored lineage of service to the Hanoverian Kings. Perhaps more importantly, he was not particularly close to the Duke of Cumberland. Thus when Lord Loudon was "recalled" to be congratulated for taking Louisburg (and being reassigned to Scotland), Keppel was placed in command of all North American forces. Ordered by Pitt to "strike a death blow", Keppel was given 4000 additional British troops (resented by the King whom desired all to be shipped to protect Hanover) to the 5000 already present in America. Most of these would be billeted throughout the winter of 1757/58 in Louisburg (well trapped given the disastrous battle at sea following the conquest of the island fortress) or New York or Boston.
Keppel had received orders to "gain what he could" for it was feared that, should Hanover fall (again), then only the return of a number of colonial possessions would France be enticed to hand George II back his patrimony. Not particularly familiar with colonials, Keppel was nevertheless wise enough not to point this out to the Americans. In the previous war, a colonial effort conquered Louisburg only to be handed back to France in exchange for Madras. Reportedly, the King was burned in effigy the length of the colonies for this "betrayal".
Keppel was granted leeway. He could attack whatever he felt was appropriate, valuable and reasonable. Some mentioned Florida as an easy target...or New Orleans. But he did not consider these much of a boon. No, only Havana (Britain and Spain finally got around to declaring war upon one another) and Quebec were worthy of returning Hanover. With his elder brother Augustus commanding the American Fleet, he knew that army and navy would cooperate well.
The Americans were a different matter. Huge amounts of supplies were require for an invasion of such a well-defended port as Havana or Quebec. The Americans seldom offered much and usually demanded payment (or at least the promise thereof). Fortunately, Pitt had made some vague promises in hopes of getting American help and this had galvanized the population to a sudden sense of Patriotism. While short on hard currency, food and other provisions were swiftly gathered as well as large numbers of merchant ships to convey the King's forces where they needed to go.
Keppel, not particularly desiring to attack a tropical target in summer (who would?), opted for Quebec. There were only a few thousand French regulars in the area and these were already spread out of hundreds of miles along the St. Lawrence to the Great Lakes to the Mississippi. The colonials were handling expeditions to the small fortifications of the interior. This would make a good distraction.
The British regulars would handle the heavy-lifting.
And Quebec would be a great task indeed. Knowing he must initiate the invasion by summer (as the weather turned quickly in the region to ice), the General would rush large numbers of soldiers from New York, Boston and Louisburg to the St. Lawrence. Only the late arrival of siege equipment would delay the assault. Still, by late June, the British convoy would arrive under the protection of a huge Royal Navy fleet bearing 7000 British regulars and 1500 colonial volunteers including the 1st Virginia regiment back under command of Colonel George Washington.
The latter, despite his ardent requests, STILL had not been granted a British commission. Fortunately, British policy had changed allowing for a less humiliating order of ranking. Now, only regular army Majors and above may give orders to Colonels or "Generals" in colonial Regiments or militias. This was still somewhat insulting to the Americans but at least wealthy colonial politicians commanding Corps were no longer obligated to be ordered about by 16 year old pimply faced ensigns.
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Surely it would be British. The Royal navy was full of Irish and Scots
Chapter 11: The Northern and Western Front
1758 - July
Hanover
Despite commencing their spring campaign with the element of surprise (France starting 1758 on the assumption that Hanover's armistice remained in effect), the gains made by the Earl Waldegrave did not amount to much. With only 22,000 British and Hanoverians on hand to start the campaign (they were hamstrung when those Hanoverians in detention were marched south by the French and the assorted "allied" Duchies refused to give back their forces given they were occupied by the French), the minions of King George II would gain several tactical victories but no significant movement on the flanks. As summer wore on and the French forces massed, the Earl was pushed back again and again to the northern frontier. He cried out for reinforcements as a French force more than twice the size of his own and was pushed north to the River Elbe leaving only a fraction of the already small Electorate under the King's control.
Waldegrave had suffered 5500 casualties, 3200 captured and at least 1000 deserted since the summer. This accounted for nearly half his army. The batter survivors, buoyed only by two thousand new troops from Britain (raw and largely untrained), would dig in from behind the Aller and prepared to fight to the death....all the while hoping that the Royal Navy would be spotted at the mouth of the Elbe or Aller to carry them off.
As the summer turned to fall, Waldegrave heard odd rumors only to be substantiated later. It involved Denmark.
1758 - August
Copenhagen
Over the past two years, all parties involved in the war had exerted pressure upon the Danes to declare war on their side. While a small state, Denmark-Norway-Schleswig-Holstein was wealthy, possessed a mid-tier Navy (and a more moderate army) and, most importantly, was strategically situated.
Under King Frederick V, Count Moltke had worked very hard to keep Denmark neutral in the countless European conflicts. A man whom despised war out of principle, he also saw them as generally losing propositions for small states like his. Instead, he leveraged both sides to respect Danish "neutrality" at sea even when the Danes shipped war material to both sides. At one point, he even negotiated subsidies....again....FROM BOTH SIDES...to maintain neutrality.
In effect, both France and Britain were paying Denmark to be neutral even as they knew the "neutral" state was shipping weapons, powder and shells to both parties.
Moltke was happy to let the matter sort itself out. However, the rapid destruction of the British-Hanoverian force and the Russian-Swedish invasion of Prussian Pomerania had threatened to not only wipe out Hanover but completely cut off the King of Prussia from the sea...and thus all payment and supply from Britain.
Worse, the rumors (exaggerated) that Russia, Austria and France had promised land in Hanover to the King of Denmark if he would sever the connection between Britain and Prussia would panic George II. While King Frederick of Denmark (and his ministers) had never evidenced any interest in expansion beyond settling the Holstein matter, the fact was that even the modest Danish Navy and Army could probably sever this last link...IF they chose to do so.
Though he loathed the decision, William Pitt was forced to act decisively. He would dispatch a squadron of Royal Navy vessels to Denmark with an ultimatum: Denmark must formally declare war upon the French-Russia-Austrian coalition immediately (with generous British subsidies)...or turn over their Navy and key military posts to the British for the duration of the war. This was such a shocking and impudent command that even the pacific Moltke could not be diplomatic in his refusal. Once King Frederick V was sobered up, he went upon an hour long rant aimed at the British representatives.
The commanding admiral, a cold-blooded man named Jervis, would quietly listen to the man prattle on in German and simply responded by bowing and walking out. He then ordered the British squadron to open fire upon the Danish fleet which was massed in Copenhagen harbor. Over the course of several hours, much of the Danish fleet was destroyed. However, the city defenses were powerful enough to eventually drive off the British fleet (most of the ships being damaged in the process). Several stray shots had resulted in a fifth of Copenhagen burning to the ground.
Outraged, King Frederick, in a rare moment of activity not related to alcohol or orgies, would command the small (and not terribly effective) Danish army to march...southwest....and cut off the besieged British and Hanoverian Army. While the allies could probably defeat the poorly trained and armed Danes in direct battle, they could not hope to do so with 50,000 French on their flanks. Trapped between two forces which outnumber them more than three to one, the British-Hanoverian Army would retreat again and again towards the coastal city of Bremerhaven at the mouth of the Weser River). There, they would find that French and Danish Artillery had ringed the town and, more importantly, driven off the Royal Navy forces from the area. The British and Hanoverians, seeing their transports sail off and enemy artillery leveling the small northern town around them, would be forced to surrender in October for lack of powder and provisions.
The flower of the British Army had just been destroyed.
1758 - September
The Elbe
In an ironic twist, bombardment of Copenhagen would coincide with the conquest of Pomerania by the Russian/Swedish forces. In a last ditch attempt to support their ally in Prussia, Britain had dispatched the subsidies to Prussia intended to support their upcoming campaigns down the Elbe.
The attack on Copenhagen would spur local forces in Schleswig and Holstein to attack British shipping along the Rivers. By sheer happenstance, a small Danish patrol would seize several ships bearing 800,000 lbs. sterling of gold and silver intended for Frederick II's 1759 campaign (if he survived that long).
The funds would be a good start of Moltke's rebuilding of Copenhagen.
1758 - October
Pomerania
By October, the final decisive battle had been settled in Pomerania as the Duke of Brunswick, with only 26,000 troops, had finally been cornered after a campaign season into a decisive battle. He was crushed by 75,000 Russian and 5000 Swedish troops. Suffering over 8000 casualties, the Duke retreated south towards Brandenburg where the King of Prussia was desperately trying to rebuild his army.
1758 - November
Brandenburg
By November, Frederick II of Prussia knew the war was likely lost. Despite several brilliant victories in 1758 (and one crushing defeat), he had been pushed of Bohemia completely and over half of Saxony. Indeed, several small pieces of Silesia had been lost as well though these came at great cost to Maria Theresa.
Learning of Hanover's fall and of Brunswick's defeat, Frederick II offered to negotiate with Empress Maria Theresa and the Czarina Elizabeth. He intimated that he would retreat from Saxony and was even willing to "discuss" the Silesia situation. Both turned him down cold. They hated the little Prussian and wanted him utterly crushed.
Frederick was down to perhaps 75,000 men and expected to face at least three times that many in the Spring, maybe four times of Austrians, Russians, Swedes, Saxons, French, Bavarians, etc. Given that Brandenburg itself possessed no natural defenses, the prospects looked poor for the Prussian King whom would certainly face them alone.
Great Britain would have its own problems.
Hanover
Despite commencing their spring campaign with the element of surprise (France starting 1758 on the assumption that Hanover's armistice remained in effect), the gains made by the Earl Waldegrave did not amount to much. With only 22,000 British and Hanoverians on hand to start the campaign (they were hamstrung when those Hanoverians in detention were marched south by the French and the assorted "allied" Duchies refused to give back their forces given they were occupied by the French), the minions of King George II would gain several tactical victories but no significant movement on the flanks. As summer wore on and the French forces massed, the Earl was pushed back again and again to the northern frontier. He cried out for reinforcements as a French force more than twice the size of his own and was pushed north to the River Elbe leaving only a fraction of the already small Electorate under the King's control.
Waldegrave had suffered 5500 casualties, 3200 captured and at least 1000 deserted since the summer. This accounted for nearly half his army. The batter survivors, buoyed only by two thousand new troops from Britain (raw and largely untrained), would dig in from behind the Aller and prepared to fight to the death....all the while hoping that the Royal Navy would be spotted at the mouth of the Elbe or Aller to carry them off.
As the summer turned to fall, Waldegrave heard odd rumors only to be substantiated later. It involved Denmark.
1758 - August
Copenhagen
Over the past two years, all parties involved in the war had exerted pressure upon the Danes to declare war on their side. While a small state, Denmark-Norway-Schleswig-Holstein was wealthy, possessed a mid-tier Navy (and a more moderate army) and, most importantly, was strategically situated.
Under King Frederick V, Count Moltke had worked very hard to keep Denmark neutral in the countless European conflicts. A man whom despised war out of principle, he also saw them as generally losing propositions for small states like his. Instead, he leveraged both sides to respect Danish "neutrality" at sea even when the Danes shipped war material to both sides. At one point, he even negotiated subsidies....again....FROM BOTH SIDES...to maintain neutrality.
In effect, both France and Britain were paying Denmark to be neutral even as they knew the "neutral" state was shipping weapons, powder and shells to both parties.
Moltke was happy to let the matter sort itself out. However, the rapid destruction of the British-Hanoverian force and the Russian-Swedish invasion of Prussian Pomerania had threatened to not only wipe out Hanover but completely cut off the King of Prussia from the sea...and thus all payment and supply from Britain.
Worse, the rumors (exaggerated) that Russia, Austria and France had promised land in Hanover to the King of Denmark if he would sever the connection between Britain and Prussia would panic George II. While King Frederick of Denmark (and his ministers) had never evidenced any interest in expansion beyond settling the Holstein matter, the fact was that even the modest Danish Navy and Army could probably sever this last link...IF they chose to do so.
Though he loathed the decision, William Pitt was forced to act decisively. He would dispatch a squadron of Royal Navy vessels to Denmark with an ultimatum: Denmark must formally declare war upon the French-Russia-Austrian coalition immediately (with generous British subsidies)...or turn over their Navy and key military posts to the British for the duration of the war. This was such a shocking and impudent command that even the pacific Moltke could not be diplomatic in his refusal. Once King Frederick V was sobered up, he went upon an hour long rant aimed at the British representatives.
The commanding admiral, a cold-blooded man named Jervis, would quietly listen to the man prattle on in German and simply responded by bowing and walking out. He then ordered the British squadron to open fire upon the Danish fleet which was massed in Copenhagen harbor. Over the course of several hours, much of the Danish fleet was destroyed. However, the city defenses were powerful enough to eventually drive off the British fleet (most of the ships being damaged in the process). Several stray shots had resulted in a fifth of Copenhagen burning to the ground.
Outraged, King Frederick, in a rare moment of activity not related to alcohol or orgies, would command the small (and not terribly effective) Danish army to march...southwest....and cut off the besieged British and Hanoverian Army. While the allies could probably defeat the poorly trained and armed Danes in direct battle, they could not hope to do so with 50,000 French on their flanks. Trapped between two forces which outnumber them more than three to one, the British-Hanoverian Army would retreat again and again towards the coastal city of Bremerhaven at the mouth of the Weser River). There, they would find that French and Danish Artillery had ringed the town and, more importantly, driven off the Royal Navy forces from the area. The British and Hanoverians, seeing their transports sail off and enemy artillery leveling the small northern town around them, would be forced to surrender in October for lack of powder and provisions.
The flower of the British Army had just been destroyed.
1758 - September
The Elbe
In an ironic twist, bombardment of Copenhagen would coincide with the conquest of Pomerania by the Russian/Swedish forces. In a last ditch attempt to support their ally in Prussia, Britain had dispatched the subsidies to Prussia intended to support their upcoming campaigns down the Elbe.
The attack on Copenhagen would spur local forces in Schleswig and Holstein to attack British shipping along the Rivers. By sheer happenstance, a small Danish patrol would seize several ships bearing 800,000 lbs. sterling of gold and silver intended for Frederick II's 1759 campaign (if he survived that long).
The funds would be a good start of Moltke's rebuilding of Copenhagen.
1758 - October
Pomerania
By October, the final decisive battle had been settled in Pomerania as the Duke of Brunswick, with only 26,000 troops, had finally been cornered after a campaign season into a decisive battle. He was crushed by 75,000 Russian and 5000 Swedish troops. Suffering over 8000 casualties, the Duke retreated south towards Brandenburg where the King of Prussia was desperately trying to rebuild his army.
1758 - November
Brandenburg
By November, Frederick II of Prussia knew the war was likely lost. Despite several brilliant victories in 1758 (and one crushing defeat), he had been pushed of Bohemia completely and over half of Saxony. Indeed, several small pieces of Silesia had been lost as well though these came at great cost to Maria Theresa.
Learning of Hanover's fall and of Brunswick's defeat, Frederick II offered to negotiate with Empress Maria Theresa and the Czarina Elizabeth. He intimated that he would retreat from Saxony and was even willing to "discuss" the Silesia situation. Both turned him down cold. They hated the little Prussian and wanted him utterly crushed.
Frederick was down to perhaps 75,000 men and expected to face at least three times that many in the Spring, maybe four times of Austrians, Russians, Swedes, Saxons, French, Bavarians, etc. Given that Brandenburg itself possessed no natural defenses, the prospects looked poor for the Prussian King whom would certainly face them alone.
Great Britain would have its own problems.
In this case, it is intended as a Britain-Bashing but Prussia is a necessarily casualty to get there.
Chapter 12: Britain and America
1758 - November
London
King George II wept openly in court. The gamble intended to liberate the Hanoverian domains resulted in total defeat and occupation. The ancestral homeland of the House of Hanover was in French hands.
Pitt and Newcastle's gamble had failed to pay off. The King was furious and in mourning. He almost demanded their seals of office but knew that there was no one else capable of carrying on the war. A change in administration, if successful, would paralyze the government for months, maybe longer. Pitt promised (as Pitt usually did) with such ardor that he could regain Hanover by negotiation that the King was forced to leave the duo in office.
Indeed, just as Hanover formally fell, the wonderful news that of Quebec's fall arrived.
The nation was jubilant at the victory. Though much of Britain lamented the attachment of the House of Hanover to their ancestral homeland, they could not bring themselves to rejoice in the fall of the best of the British Army in Germany. Perhaps more importantly, they realized this defeat would constrain Britain's future actions even as Pitt promised further campaigns in America, the West Indies, Brazil, Portugal and Africa.
How was this possible, even remotely?
It seemed unlikely the Royal Navy could manage such a feat and a dead certainly the British army could not.
Worse, over the winter, the word arrived that the 1757 subjugation of Bengal to the British East India Company had been overturned. While this was not technically a "British" asset rather than a Company domination, the public seldom bothered to see the differentiation.
In the end, Britain had suffered another set back.
1758 would prove even worse for Portugal, which still awaiting help from their "ally".
1758 - December
Portugal
With Spain and France's seizure of the port cities of Portugal, the entire country would effectively collapse. Lacking any army of significance or capacity to wage war, it seemed Portugal would soon fall completely. Spain would dispatch forces into the hinterlands across the border only to be shocked by the viciousness of the rural Portuguese peasant resistance. Even lacking arms, the militias harried the Spanish so badly that, less than a year into the invasion, the King's ministers opted to withdraw solely to the cities.
Queen Maria, whom appeared to have lost her senses, remained wandering throughout the hills between the Spanish border and the occupied cities of Lisbon and Porto. Effectively, the government above the province level had ceased to exist.
While the Portuguese had been vicious in defending the hills, they lacked the siege machinery to retake the fortified cities and the harbors became quiet lakes for the French and Spanish navies.
1758 - December
Brazil
Taking advantage of the defacto collapse of the Kingdom of Portugal and astonishingly rapid rot of her navy, the Spanish forces in Rio Plata would methodically move north taking the small coastal towns of southern Brazil one by one. Though lacking the forces to attack the larger coastal cities like Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo or further north to Salvador or Recife, the Spanish quickly established control over sparsely populated regions long contested (in some cases for a quarter millennia) between Spain and Portugal.
1758 - December
Belem, Amazon Delta
Having focused the majority of their colonial resources upon the lucrative sugar trade of northeastern Brazil and later the coffee plantations and mining of southeastern Brazil, the Portuguese Empire had done little to consolidate their hold over the far north or the entrance to the vast Amazon Basin.
A Spanish-Granadan force sailed from Cartagena and seized the port city of Belem, the gateway to the Amazon for Spain.
1758 - December
The Bahamas
Bearing a population of only a few thousand souls, the Bahama Island Chain was among the forgotten outposts in the west Indies. Bearing no capacity for sugar or other tropical product farming, the islands were probably best known economically as pirate havens of the past and for modest industries producing salt, fish and "wrecking" (salvaging shipwrecks).
The Governor of Cuba would hastily put together a small expedition and seize the three most populated islands for the King of Spain. This would be used as a preliminary action for future invasions of British territory like the islands of St. Christophers and Nevis (nearby) or helping to defend against a possible invasion of Spanish Florida (or even French New Orleans).
1758 - December
Dominica
Like his Spanish counterpart, the governor of the French island of Martinique would seek to put his British rivals on the defensive by assaulting Dominica, a lightly populated British island perched precariously between the vastly more populated French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe. With no real defenses, the island fell quickly.
This allowed the Governor to cast his eyes onto the TRULY valuable British possessions in the Caribbean, the rich islands of Jamaica and Barbados. For the moment, however, the Governor lacked the resources to assault such well-defended targets. A request was sent to France for a fleet and perhaps a few regiments of Regulars.
Eventually, the French governor would communicate with his counterpart in San Dominique (the preeminent French possession in the West Indies which possessed its own governor) as well as (without official permission) Spanish officials in San Dominic, San Juan and Havana for a possible joint operation. The allies vastly outnumbered the British in the region and, it was thought, a campaign bringing their manpower and resources to bear may result in the breaking of the British power in the West Indies.
London
King George II wept openly in court. The gamble intended to liberate the Hanoverian domains resulted in total defeat and occupation. The ancestral homeland of the House of Hanover was in French hands.
Pitt and Newcastle's gamble had failed to pay off. The King was furious and in mourning. He almost demanded their seals of office but knew that there was no one else capable of carrying on the war. A change in administration, if successful, would paralyze the government for months, maybe longer. Pitt promised (as Pitt usually did) with such ardor that he could regain Hanover by negotiation that the King was forced to leave the duo in office.
Indeed, just as Hanover formally fell, the wonderful news that of Quebec's fall arrived.
The nation was jubilant at the victory. Though much of Britain lamented the attachment of the House of Hanover to their ancestral homeland, they could not bring themselves to rejoice in the fall of the best of the British Army in Germany. Perhaps more importantly, they realized this defeat would constrain Britain's future actions even as Pitt promised further campaigns in America, the West Indies, Brazil, Portugal and Africa.
How was this possible, even remotely?
It seemed unlikely the Royal Navy could manage such a feat and a dead certainly the British army could not.
Worse, over the winter, the word arrived that the 1757 subjugation of Bengal to the British East India Company had been overturned. While this was not technically a "British" asset rather than a Company domination, the public seldom bothered to see the differentiation.
In the end, Britain had suffered another set back.
1758 would prove even worse for Portugal, which still awaiting help from their "ally".
1758 - December
Portugal
With Spain and France's seizure of the port cities of Portugal, the entire country would effectively collapse. Lacking any army of significance or capacity to wage war, it seemed Portugal would soon fall completely. Spain would dispatch forces into the hinterlands across the border only to be shocked by the viciousness of the rural Portuguese peasant resistance. Even lacking arms, the militias harried the Spanish so badly that, less than a year into the invasion, the King's ministers opted to withdraw solely to the cities.
Queen Maria, whom appeared to have lost her senses, remained wandering throughout the hills between the Spanish border and the occupied cities of Lisbon and Porto. Effectively, the government above the province level had ceased to exist.
While the Portuguese had been vicious in defending the hills, they lacked the siege machinery to retake the fortified cities and the harbors became quiet lakes for the French and Spanish navies.
1758 - December
Brazil
Taking advantage of the defacto collapse of the Kingdom of Portugal and astonishingly rapid rot of her navy, the Spanish forces in Rio Plata would methodically move north taking the small coastal towns of southern Brazil one by one. Though lacking the forces to attack the larger coastal cities like Rio de Janeiro or Sao Paulo or further north to Salvador or Recife, the Spanish quickly established control over sparsely populated regions long contested (in some cases for a quarter millennia) between Spain and Portugal.
1758 - December
Belem, Amazon Delta
Having focused the majority of their colonial resources upon the lucrative sugar trade of northeastern Brazil and later the coffee plantations and mining of southeastern Brazil, the Portuguese Empire had done little to consolidate their hold over the far north or the entrance to the vast Amazon Basin.
A Spanish-Granadan force sailed from Cartagena and seized the port city of Belem, the gateway to the Amazon for Spain.
1758 - December
The Bahamas
Bearing a population of only a few thousand souls, the Bahama Island Chain was among the forgotten outposts in the west Indies. Bearing no capacity for sugar or other tropical product farming, the islands were probably best known economically as pirate havens of the past and for modest industries producing salt, fish and "wrecking" (salvaging shipwrecks).
The Governor of Cuba would hastily put together a small expedition and seize the three most populated islands for the King of Spain. This would be used as a preliminary action for future invasions of British territory like the islands of St. Christophers and Nevis (nearby) or helping to defend against a possible invasion of Spanish Florida (or even French New Orleans).
1758 - December
Dominica
Like his Spanish counterpart, the governor of the French island of Martinique would seek to put his British rivals on the defensive by assaulting Dominica, a lightly populated British island perched precariously between the vastly more populated French islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe. With no real defenses, the island fell quickly.
This allowed the Governor to cast his eyes onto the TRULY valuable British possessions in the Caribbean, the rich islands of Jamaica and Barbados. For the moment, however, the Governor lacked the resources to assault such well-defended targets. A request was sent to France for a fleet and perhaps a few regiments of Regulars.
Eventually, the French governor would communicate with his counterpart in San Dominique (the preeminent French possession in the West Indies which possessed its own governor) as well as (without official permission) Spanish officials in San Dominic, San Juan and Havana for a possible joint operation. The allies vastly outnumbered the British in the region and, it was thought, a campaign bringing their manpower and resources to bear may result in the breaking of the British power in the West Indies.
Ah, thanks. I got the name for a map on Wikipedia (below) from the invasion of Hanover page. Apparently, it was not a current map.
Maybe "Lehe" would be the correct term?
Per the Bremenhaven page on Wikipedia, there was a Lehe village at the time in the area.
