Almond Tree: The 1848 Revolutions are slightly more successful

[morbidteaparty]

British Prime Ministers (so far)

1) John Russell, Viscount Amberley-Whig Party 1846-1852
2) Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby-Conservative Party 1852
3) George Halmiton-Gordon, Earl of Aberdeen, Free Trade-Whig Coaltion 1852-1855
4) Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston-Whig Party 1855-1858
5) Edward Smith-Stanley, Earl of Derby-Conservative Party 1858-1859
6) Henry John Temple, Viscount Palmerston-Liberal Party 1859-1865

 

[morbidteaparty]

German Chancellors so far

1) Carl, Prince of Leinigen-Independent, 1848
2) Anton von Schmerling-Pro-Austria Party, 1848
3) Heinrich von Gagern-Independent Liberal, 1848-1849
4) Adalbert, Prince of Prussia-Independent, 1849-1850
5 Rudolf von Auerswald-German Liberal Party (DLP)-1850-1858
6) Otto Theodore Manteuffel-Conservative-Christian Democrat coalition, 1858-1860
7) Georg von Vincke-National Liberal Party (NLP)-1860-1863

 

[morbidteaparty]

Chapter X-The Changing Face of European Royalty (1860-69)

[FONT=&quot]Europe’s monarchies would find themselves faced with increasing changes both in membership and holdings. The developing relationship between Britain and Germany was helped by the marriage of the heir to the German throne and the eldest child of Queen Victoria, and while this union would provide eight children, it was the constant longevity of Albert, Prince-Consort of the United Kingdom that would help the relationship remain relatively cordial. Albert was an active participant in state affairs, and his relatively fast recovery from a bout of typhoid fever was miraculous, particularly in the childhood development of his German grandchildren.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]The British royal family and their many relatives found themselves with even more titles on their hands as the decade progressed. Angered by interference from the Great Powers as well as the lack of resolution of the nation’s poor financial state., King Otto of Greece was deposed by parliament and a continent wide search was enacted for a new king. While the Greeks desperately wanted Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh to take the newly vacated throne, the nature of international diplomacy meant that a direct member of one of the Great Powers ruling houses could not take the throne. Eventually the brother-in-law of Queen Victoria was selected, and after due consideration Ernest II of Saxe-Coburg took the Hellenic throne as Alexander I, King of the Hellenes. Alexander abdicated his rule of the Duchy to his nephew Alfred, who left for Germany in 1862, and announced his cousin August of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha as Crown Prince.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Romania, which itself had only emerged as a country in 1859, soon found itself in need of a new ruler, after the native Prince Alexander I was overthrown due to entrenched political opposition to his refusal to grant a new constitution and his radical land reform proposals. After several minor German princelings turned down the offer, the Philippe, Count of Flanders, the younger brother of Leopold II, King of the Belgians took the throne as Ferdinand I, and threw his support behind a new liberal constitution and the liberal party that had fallen into opposition with Alexander, who had gone into exile in France.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Spain, in contrast to Greece and Romania was a long established nation and had until relatively recently been seen as a Great Power, though thanks to successive wars and poor governance her position had long been declining. Following conflict in 1868 between the military and Queen Isabella II over the constant rotation of office between the Liberals and the Conservatives, which enraged the Progressives and Moderates (the two main factions within the military) resulting in her overthrow and exile to France. While the Spanish had made overtures to Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern (a member of the Imperial German family) these had caused a diplomatic incident between the French and the Germans. Following this, the Spanish settled upon the second son of Victor Emmanuel I of Italy, Amadeus, Duke of Aosta who was Catholic, married (ironically enough to Isabella’s eldest daughter Isabella, Princess of Asturias) and had children. These factors saw him unanimously elected by the Cortes, though initially only thanks to the support of the Progressives, which would cause problems later in the reign.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]As these three cases show, the European monarchical landscape was just as tumultuous as the American political system.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot](Extract from: Nineteenth Century Monarchy, by James Harrison (Oxford University Press, 1955) p. 171)[/FONT]

 

[freivolk]

1) Carl, Prince of Leinigen-Independent, 1848
2) Anton von Schmerling-Pro-Austria Party, 1848
3) Heinrich von Gagern-Independent Liberal, 1848-1849
4) Adalbert, Prince of Prussia-Independent, 1849-1850
5 Rudolf von Auerswald-German Liberal Party (DLP)-1850-1858
6) Otto Theodore Manteuffel-Conservative-Christian Democrat coalition, 1858-1860
7) Georg von Vincke-National Liberal Party (NLP)-1860-1863

Just want to say, without Bismarck the german head of goverment wouldn´t be called Kanzler. He wanted to say: "Hey, I´m just Kanzler, means first secretary of the Kaiser. No Premier-Minister, which could be held responsible by the Reichstag!"
Leinigen, Schmerling and Gagern were Ministerpräsidenten, means Premier-Minister and this would be the title in case of a successfull 1849 constitution,

 

[morbidteaparty]

Just want to say, without Bismarck the german head of goverment wouldn´t be called Kanzler. He wanted to say: "Hey, I´m just Kanzler, means first secretary of the Kaiser. No Premier-Minister, which could be held responsible by the Reichstag!"
Leinigen, Schmerling and Gagern were Ministerpräsidenten, means Premier-Minister and this would be the title in case of a successfull 1849 constitution,

Thank you, I'll remember that for future updates. Hopefully the rest of this feels vaguely historical and plausible

 

[morbidteaparty]

Chapter XI-Italy, Unification, Instability and Expansion

[FONT=&quot]Europe, which was supposedly in the “long era of peace”, would experience three major wars in the 1860s, and the gestation of the major conflict of the early 1870s. These conflicts, like the contemporaneous developments in the United States had a domestic edge to them. The prospect of full peninsular unification, following the successful Unification War against the Austrians in 1859, provided the Northern Italians the excuse to unite the remaining peninsular, as Garibaldi’s volunteers swiftly occupied the flailing Kingdom of the Two Sicilies having been granted tacit support by the British based in the Mediterranean. The United Provinces troops swiftly marched through and defeated the Papal States on their path to Naples, with Central Italy soon under the control of Federal troops.
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]In order to decentralise the strong Sardinian control of the United Provinces, the capital was moved to Florence in the Grand Duchy of Tuscany from Turin, following negotiations between Victor Emmanuel I and Grand Duke Leopold II. The moving of the capital coincided with the successful march into Neapolitan territory and following the crushing of the Neapolitan forces and the successful overthrow of Francis II of the Two Sicilies the peninsular was finally unified, with the United Kingdom of Italy proclaimed: the Two-Sicilies were divided into the Duchy of Naples and County of Sicily (ruled by the deposed King’s younger brothers Luigi and Alfonso), while the Papal States were annexed. However Italy’s chaotic political situation continued unabated despite the promise of stability offered by expansion. The problems inherent in Italy stemmed from the lack of successors to the statesman figure of Cavour: while his moderately conservative Constitutional Party fully dominated political life, the governments were often brought down by brutal factional interests.
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Issues over tax and particular, the role of the central government in regards to the states (an issue that would cause problems in Germany as well) would bring down several governments (with the exception of a brief Liberal minority all were Conservative). Tensions between the newly annexed Papal States and the central government would cause problems throughout the decade as the frequently intransigent Pope Pius IX refused to accept that the Italian capital was now in his city. A plebiscite held after Italian troops quickly occupied Rome following the surrender of the Papal States’ armies (tacitly acknowledged by Napoleon III despite his public protestations) found an overwhelming majority in favour of Rome being annexed to the United Kingdom of Italy: despite the Pope’s opposition the move would be sanctioned due to the high monetary compensation offered by Ricasoli’s government.
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]While this was undoubtedly a success it caused the new unified nation deep problems, particularly economically. While the Northern provinces had long been relatively strong economically, the south was poor and badly managed having been largely left to its own devices under the Bourbons. The loss of traditional Sardinian territory to the French in exchange for military and diplomatic support during the war with Austria also rankled with the hawkish military based in Turin and Milan.
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Italian unification was also, despite the great claims of Victor Emmanuel I and his court was not achieved by the strength of Italian arms and military planning, but through the fortunate allegiance of their allies. In the brutal Seven Weeks War of 1866 which had far more to do with Germany than Italy, the Italians were helped in Veneto, by the tying up of Austrian and their allied forces in Germany; even with numerical superiority as in the Battle of Lissa, the first proper naval engagement of the new state they were destroyed by Austria’s relatively novel tactics, which saw the return of the classical tradition of ramming.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]It would not be until the latter years of the decade that Italy would finally have a Prime Minister in a stable position: Giovanni Lanza who replaced the very brief Liberal government of Rattazi. Having repealed plans for a grist tax he settled establishing a stable financial system by reducing the powers of the constituent states within the kingdom to raise their own taxes (thus increasing the proportion of Treasury revenue) while encouraging further trade relationships with Austria (which had finally ceded Veneto thus unifying the peninsula), France who had been the key backer in the 1850s, Germany and the United Kingdom.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]By the end of the 1860s it felt like Italy was heading for something approaching stable normality, even if that normality came at the expense of the immediate gaining of Great Power status.
[/FONT]

 

[morbidteaparty]

The Chicago Compromise

1860 was a year of heated political debate and social tension. The newest force in American politics, the Republican Party had performed strongly in elections since its foundation in 1854, (having emerged from nowhere to emerge as the fourth biggest party in the House of Representatives following elections in 1854.) By 1860 they had become the second party of American politics having superseded the Whigs and their successors in the Constitutional Union, and having one control of Congress in 1858, they were in a strong position to establish themselves as the new party of government.

In Chicago, Illinois the National Convention was held, and four contenders emerged as the main frontrunners. These consisted of the favourite, William H. Seward, Abraham Lincoln, Salmon P. Chase and Edward Banks. All four of these candidates had problems that prevented them from being unanimously accepted by delegates: Seward had alienated the Radical wing by the moderating of his position, Lincoln was seen as too moderate to implement the party program, Chase as a former Whig had alienated many of the former Democrats present, while Bates was opposed by Southern delegates and those in the border states.

It soon became clear that Seward and Lincoln were the two contenders, though Seward won the first ballot, though with not enough votes to win on the first round, with Lincoln emerging in a credible second place. Seward's campaign was helped by strong business links encouraged by his manager Thurlow Weed began to cultivate the Midwest encouraging the supporters of Bates and Chase over to his side, with the promise of concessions. The strong support of business also encouraged Pennsylvania to transfer its support to Seward, giving him a strong base to work from, which led to the meeting that would result in the famous "Chicago Compromise."

The meeting between Lincoln and Seward was organised by Davis and Weed respectively and resulted in a unification of the moderate and radical wings of the party. Seward offered Lincoln the Vice-Presidency, and his various supporters posts in his administration: these included Leonard Swett, Ward Hill Lamon and David Davis to positions within the federal judiciary, while the two agreed to appoint southerners to key cabinet positions resulting in the appointment to John A. Gilner to Postmaster-General. The fact that the two men got on personally also helped, with Seward being able to appoint Charles Sumner to the position of Secretary of State. Seward also agreed to moderate his political program at the request of Lincoln; these series of talks would result in the compromise behind the first Republican administration.

(Extract from A History of the United States 1789-1901 by Theodore Roosevelt, New York: 1902 pp.107-8)

 

[morbidteaparty]

He was destined for great things

Otto von Bismarck had always been viewed by members of the various conservative movements in Germany as the potential unifying force. A devout Lutheran, he was hostile to the emergence of liberal democracy in the aftermath of 1848 revolutions, and was deeply opposed to the reforms promulgated in Prussia, earning the ire of Prince Frederick and the King's sister-in-law Augusta. Following the eventual acceptance of the liberal crown, Bismarck stood for election in the seat of Erfurt in 1849 and won, joining the Conservative Party of Germany in the process. (1) Upon his move to Frankfurt, he was viewed by many within the KPD (Konservativ Partei Deutschland) as a potential future leader, due to his talent for oratory and writing. Indeed it seemed to be only a matter of time...

By 1858, the Conservatives finally came into power with the support of the Catholic Christian Democrats and Bismarck became a junior minister within the cabinet of Manteuffel. (2) There has been much speculation as to why Bismarck was not appointed to a higher position given the relative esteem that he was held by the Conservative parliamentarians, with most historians focussing on the strained relationship he had with both Friedentahl (3) (who served as Finance Minister) and the Christian Democrat leader Ludwig Windthorst (4), who viewed him as deeply hostile towards Catholicism. Regardless of the reasons, Bismarck spent two years as Minister for Railways before the coalition government collapsed over a finance vote, and returned to the opposition benches as the Liberals returned to power. Here was the critical juncture in his political development; Friedentahl was easily elected leader of the Conservative Party and his hostility towards Bismarck removed the chance of Bismarck being able to return to a ministerial position. By 1862, 13 years after becoming a parliamentarian (and in the process having moderated his anti-democratic impulses) Bismarck was spent. Fed up with party politics and derisory of Friedentahl's leadership he resigned as Representative for Erfurt and left the Conservative Party terming it a "nest of vipers." Despite his exit from parliamentary politics his stint in government had not gone unnoticed.

Prominent financier Hermann von Dechend, a member of the Senate and owner of Der B[FONT=&quot]ürger[/FONT][FONT=&quot] [/FONT][FONT=&quot](The Citizen) had taken notice of Bismarck and his views seeing him as the pragmatic voice that Germany needed to hear. The two arranged to meet for dinner and over the course of four hours, Bismarck was subtly coerced and persuaded (hard to believe given his later reputation) into becoming the editor of [/FONT]Der B[FONT=&quot]ürger which Dechend saw as the Conservative equivalent to Die Zeiten (The Times.)

Many in parliament were dismissive of this, with several prominent former colleagues of Bismarck's dismissing him as a Junker upstart who had found his true calling peddling to the masses. How spectacularly wrong they were to prove in this; Bismarck was a pragmatic conservative and structured his arguments to appeal to the widest audience. While many predicted his decline, [/FONT]Der B[FONT=&quot]ürger [/FONT][FONT=&quot]would end the decade as the prominent conservative newspaper.

(1)Bismarck won election to the Prussian Landtag in OTL during this year. ITTL he stands for the vacant Frankfurt seat in Erfurt as an independent and wins. His move to Frankfurt sees him become a prominent member of the ultraconservative Young Germany faction, though he would leave this grouping due to its extremism.

(2) Otto Theodor von Manteuffel was Prussian Minister President and Foreign Minister in OTL, helping to negotiate the Punctuation of Olmutz. In this timeline he becomes leader of the Conservative Party of Germany and Leader of the Opposition from 1850 onwards eventually becoming Minister-President in 1858 at the head of a coalition cabinet with the Christian Democrats. Due to his weak leadership, however Karl Rudolf Friedentahl is the real power.

(3) Friedentahl was a conservative statesman who served in Bismarck's cabinet from 1874-79 before resigning over Bismarck's economic policy. ITTL he becomes Conservative Finance Minister and eventual Minister-President. I exaggerated the level of conflict between him and Bismarck for my own aims.


(4) Ludwig Windthorst was the founding member of the Centre Party and deeply opposed to Bismarck's policies as Chancellor, particularly the persecution of minorities and the Catholic Church. ITTL he becomes the key coalition partner because his Christian Democrats are centrist enough to compromise with either the National Liberals or the Conservatives. He later founds the centre-right German Peoples Party (Deutche Volkspartei DVP) in the 1880s and serves as Minister-President on two separate occasions (1878-81, 1884-86).[/FONT][FONT=&quot] [/FONT]

 

[morbidteaparty]

Optimism Reigns Supreme: American Poitics 1864-1869

By 1864, the American Civil War was winding down, with the Union in the ascendancy militarily and the Republicans popular with the general public, an incumbent victory seemed certain for President Seward: having announced that Abraham Lincoln would be made Secretary of State, he announced that Major-General Benjamin Butler would be his running mate. While this appeased the more Radical Republicans, the Democrats elected a pro-war ticket, of George B. McClellan and James Guthrie in an attempt to split the Republican vote. The election would result in a decisive victory for Seward/Butler who won by a ten percent margin of victory. Equally useful for the Republicans was the overwhelming majority they secured in the House of Representatives, which combined with their Senatorial seats gave them a comfortable Congressional Majority.

The Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 had paved the way for a radical rewriting of the rights of African-Americans as well as the abolition of slavery. The comprehensive defeat of the south and its military occupation under the terms of surrender allowed the Seward administration to pursue a policy of Reconstruction: while the South was gradually allowed to re-enter the Union, it did so having to comprehend that not only were slaves now freedmen, but African-American men now had the same rights and freedoms as white men. This was largely thanks to the fierce oratory and desire of Seward to not only abolish slavery but to bring equality to the States. Having issued an amnesty for the general citizens of the former Confederacy, he and the overwhelmingly Republican congress passed the 1866 Civil Rights Act, which not only granted the full rights of citizenship to the newly emancipated African-Americans but granted full voting rights and federal protection to Black voters. This would not only prove to be a great stepping stone on America's path to full democracy, but also provided the Republicans with a much wider support base, as the newly enfranchised black voters overwhelmingly supported the party that had freed them. While this amendment did not actually guaruntee all of its provisions, future Civil Rights Acts would bring all of its provisions into the United States Constitution.

In foreign affairs, Seward also vetoed the proposed sale of Alaska from the Russian Empire to the United States as an "overpriced folly", especially since the country's economy had taken a battering in the years of war. Diplomatically Seward's administration sought close ties with the European powers, primarily for trade, while also expanding their influence into the Pacific and Eastern Asia, having established diplomatic relations with Japan at the start of the decade.

By 1868 Seward was exhausted; having become the first President to complete two full terms since Andrew Jackson, he had finally resolved the Southern Question, as well as achieving the long term aims of the abolitionist movement and finally setting into gear, the equality measures that would come to define America as a genuinely democratic place come the arrival of the twentieth century. He would retire to great acclaim and would soon have a monument named after him in Washington D.C.

While Seward's path had been clear his succession was not. The Republicans were widely expected by the popular press to win, with Samuel Clemens, writing in The San Francisco Express penned a famous editorial claiming that if the Democrats won it would be "akin to Moses parting the Red Sea." The question for many people was not whether a Republican would be occupying the White House, but who that Republican would be.

The straight fight was between Secretary of State Lincoln and war hero Ulysses S. Grant, and the Republican National Convention would reflect this; Grant would eventually win, but only on the decision to keep Lincoln in his administration as Secretary of State. The Democrats were so in disarray that it took twenty-two ballots to elect George Pendleton as the candidate; unfortunately for the Democrats he run a poor campaign and was heavily defeated by Grant.

Having started the decade in political turmoil and warfare, by 1869 the United States could look forward to the 1870s with some optimism, however short-lived that would prove to be.

(Extract from The Republicans in Power 1860-1876 by J.F. Kennedy)

 

[Darth_Kiryan]

Lincoln as Secretary of State is something i do not think i have actually seen before.

 

[morbidteaparty]

1860-1862

[FONT=&quot]1860[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January-The Catholic newspaper L’Univers (The Universe) is suppressed by the French government for its strong ultra-montane (Papal supremacy) position. Its founder and editor Louis Veuillot went into exile in Rome.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]January 10-The Pemberton Mill collapses in Lawrence, Massachusetts killing 146 workers and injuring several hundred more.
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[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]January 13-Spanish victory under General Leopoldo O’Donnell, Duke of Tetuanat over the Moroccans at the Battle of Tétouan in the Spanish-Moroccan war.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]January 20-The Count of Cavour is recalled as Prime Minister of Italy.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 23-The Cobden-Chevalier Treaty (also known as the Anglo-French Treaty) is signed between the United Kingdom and the Empire of France reducing tariffs on goods traded between the two nations. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February-Mary Elizabeth Bradden decides against retiring from acting and instead chooses to give up writing. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 28-The Artists Rifles is established as a volunteer brigade of the British Army with its headquarters located in Middlesex. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 6-William H. Seward gives a speech protecting the rights of workers to strike.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]March 9-The first Japanese embassy to the United States arrives in San Francisco. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]March 17-The First Taranaki War begins at Waitara, New Zealand when Maori refuse to sell land to British settlers.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]March 22-Following discussions between the Tuscan Grand Duke and Italian King Victor Emmanuel I, an agreement is formed for the national capital to be moved to Florence.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]April 2-The Italian capital is moved from Turin to Florence. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]April 4-A new uprising erupts in Palermo.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 4-Mary Ann Evans, better known by her pseudonym “Marian Pearson” publishes the first novel under her own name The Mill. Like her previous work it is first serialised in Geneva and then later published in London. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]May 1-Pretoria becomes the capital of the South African Republic. [/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]May 6-Guiseppe Garibaldi and his troops depart from Quarto on the Expedition of the Thousand.[/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]May 9-The Constitutional Union Party nominates Sam Houston as its Presidential candidate following its convention in Baltimore. [/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]May 15-The Battle of Calatafimi: Garibaldi’s forces defeat Neapolitan troops.[/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]May 17-The German association football club TSV 1860 München is founded.[/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]May 18-William H. Seward is elected Republican nominee for President and following the “Compromise of Chicago” selects the moderate Abraham Lincoln as his running mate.[/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]May 27-Garibaldi’s forces take Palermo, the capital of Sicily.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]May 28-One of the worst storms ever seen in the region hits the east coast of England, sinking more than a 100 ships and killing 40 people.[/FONT]
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[FONT=&quot]June 12-The State Bank of Russia is founded.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]June 18-The Democratic National Convention nominate Stephen A. Douglas for President and Benjamin Fitzpatrick for Vice-President.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]June 30-The Oxford evolution debate: Samuel Wilberforce and Thomas Huxley debate the theories of Charles Darwin at the Oxford Museum of Natural History. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]July 2-Vladivostok is founded in Russia.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]July 11-Mutsuhito, becomes crown prince of Japan.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
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[FONT=&quot]July 20 – Battle of Milazzo: The forces of Giuseppe Garibaldi defeat royal Neapolitan forces near Messina, bringing nearly all of Sicily under Garibaldi's control. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 20-The Mueller-Blandowski Exhibition leaves Melbourne on its expedition to map the Australian interior from the south to the north. The two had experience in exploration and after much debate were finally nominated by the Exploration Committee of the Royal Society of Victoria. The expedition would ultimately be successful in its aims. [/FONT][FONT=&quot][/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 22 – Assisted by the British navy, the troops of Giuseppe Garibaldi cross from Sicily to the Italian mainland.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 1-Construction begins on the Canadian House of Commons.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 3-5-The First International Chemistry Congress, is held in Karlsruhe, Germany.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 7-Garibaldi’s forces conquer Naples. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 10-United Provinces forces, invade the Papal States hoping to link up with Garibaldi’s forces in Naples.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 18-Battle of Castelfidardo: Northern Italian troops decisively defeat Papal forces, reducing the Papal States to the area around Rome, allowing them to continue their march into Neapolitan territory.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 24-Battle of Guayaquil: Ecuadorian troops capture the city from Peruvian backed forces.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October-John Speke and James Grant leave Zanzibar to seek the source of the Nile.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 1-Garibaldi defeats the last organised Royal Neapolitan army at the Battle of Volturno. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 18-The Convention of Peking officially ends the Second Opium War.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 18-21-Peking’s Old Summer Palace is not burned to the ground despite British orders, since due to miscommunication the orders would never reach the soldiers concerned. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 19-A new Maori revolt begins in New Zealand.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 22-Franz Liszt is granted honorary German citizenship in the city of Weimar following a celebration of his career and work. Liszt would emigrate to Munich the following year.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 26-After suffering two defeats to the forces of Garibaldi, Naples surrenders and is given to Victor Emmanuel I, by Garibaldi recognising him as the King of Italy.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]November 3-The combined forces of Garibaldi’s volunteers and the Italian Army besiege Francis II of the Two Sicilies in Gaeta. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]November 6-U.S. Presidential Election: William H. Seward defeats John C. Breckinridge, Stephen A. Douglas and John Bell to become the first Republican President of the United States. Abraham Lincoln becomes Vice-President.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 1-Charles Dickens’ novel Great Expectations is serialised in his magazine All Year Round.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 7-Max Müller wins the election to become Boden Professor of Sanskrit at Oxford University, just defeating Monier Williams in a very close contest. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 12-Riots erupt in the Victorian goldfields between European and Chinese miners.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 20-South Carolina becomes the first state to secede from the Union.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Date unknown[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Albert Edward, Prince of Wales tours Canada for two months. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Indentured Indians arrive as sugar workers in Natal. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Christians and Druzes clash in Syria and Lebanon.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Buenos Aries secedes from the Argentine Confederation provoking conflict between the Federalists and the centralist rebels.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Britain produces around 20% of the worlds industrial goods.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]1861[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 1-Benito Juárez captures Mexico City.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 1-President-elect William H. Seward declares slavery in the
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[FONT=&quot]Confederate States unlawful.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 2-Frederick William I of Germany dies, and is succeeded by his brother William I.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 9-The American Civil War begins with the secession of the southern states over the issue of slavery.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 16-Ferdinand Lassalle founds the socialist magazine The Worker (Der Arbeiter) in Berlin. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 21-Jefferson Davis resigns from the United States Senate.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 27-February 3-Legislative elections in the new United Kingdom of Italy result in the conservative Constitutional Party winning a majority [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 29-Kansas is admitted as the 34th state of the Union.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February-Construction on the Palmerston Forts begins in the United Kingdom, as part of a reform of British national defence. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 8-The Confederate States of America are formed comprising the first six break-away states.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 9-Jefferson Davis is elected as the Provisional President of the Confederate States.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 13-The Siege of Gaeta: The last Neapolitan forces under Francis II surrender, with Francis going into exile. The United Kingdom of Italy is proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy becoming the first king of the new state (which had existed de facto since 1859.)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 24-Battle of Ky Hoa: Franco-Spanish troops defeat the Vietnamese.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 27-Russian troops fire into a crowd protesting for increased rights for Poles within the empire, killing five and wounding a dozen.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 28-Colorado becomes a U.S. Territory.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 2-Serfdom is abolished in Imperial Russia, earning Alexander II the epithet of ‘The Liberator of the Serfs.’[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 2-Nevada becomes a U.S. Territory.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 4-William H. Seward is sworn in as President succeeding James Buchanan. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 11-The constitution of the Confederate States of America is proclaimed.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 20-An earthquake completely destroys Mendoza, Argentina.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 21-Alexander Stephens is prevented from addressing a crowd in Savannah, Georgia due to ill-health. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 30-William Crookes announces his discovery of Thallium.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 7-United Kingdom census takes place. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 12-The American Civil War begins in earnest with the bombardment of Fort Sumter which surrenders the day after.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 12-As a side effect of the Civil War, the Lancashire Cotton Depression begins, due to the lack of available cotton from the southern United States. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 14-A major flood hits Montreal, Quebec.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 17-Virginia secedes from the Union.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 20-Robert E. Lee resigns from the United States army to lead the Virginian forces. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 24-Russian peasants protest economic and social conditions in the aftermath of the liberation of the serfs. In response the Russian government sends troops to the Kazan governorate where they open fire upon the protestors killing 200 and wounding 350 out of a group of 5,000.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 8-Richmond, Virginia is named the capital of the C.S.A.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 13-Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom issues a ‘proclamation of neutrality’ which recognises the Confederates as having belligerent rights.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 9-Lebanon is granted separate provincial status within the Ottoman Empire, with a governorate established in Beirut. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 15-Benito Juárez is elected president of Mexico, and temporarily suspends the payment of foreign debt.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 25-Abdulmecid I, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1839-1861) dies and is succeeded by Abdulaziz I.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 29-Elizabeth Barrett Browning dies in the arms of her husband and fellow poet Robert Browning in Florence.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 1-French and Imperial Chinese troops defeat Taiping forces at the Battle of Shanghai. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 6-Robert Palin, charged with violent burglary escapes authorities in Western Australia, who planned to use Ordinance 17 Victoria Number 7 (which allowed capital punishment for a crime not normally punishable as such.) [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 12-Edward Stafford resigns as Premier of New Zealand after his coalition government collapses over the issue of Maori affairs, with his five years in office making him the then longest serving Premier. He is succeeded by the Federal Party leader William Fox who becomes Premier for the second time. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 21-The First Battle of Bull Run: the first major conflict of the war results in a Confederate victory.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 26-George B. McClellan assumes command of the Army of the Potomac, following the disastrous defeat at Bull Run.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 2-The United States introduces an income tax to pay for the war against the Confederacy. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 6-Criminal Law Consolidation Acts is passed by the House of Commons, with the death penalty limited to murder, embezzlement, piracy, high treason and acts of arson perpetuated on docks or ammunition stores; the age of consent is codified as 12. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 27-The last execution for attempted murder in Britain is carried out in Chester.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September-The Argentine Confederation defeats Buenos Aries separatist leader Bartolomé Mitre re-establishing the constitution of 1859 and annexing Buenos Aries back to the republic. Mitre would be arrested and executed for treason, with Santiago Derqui remaining Argentine President.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 16-Post Office Savings Bank opens. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October-Robertson land acts passed in New South Wales, reforming land ownership.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 20-Poet and dramatist Apollo Korzeniowski is arrested for his political activities and is imprisoned in Warsaw.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 24-HMS Warrior, the world’s first ocean going iron armoured battleship is commissioned and completed. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]November 11-Peter V (Pedro V) of Portugal (1837-1861) dies and is succeeded by Louis I (Luis I)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 14-Prince Albert, Consort of Queen Victoria survives a bout of typhoid fever.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Date unknown[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Newfoundland general election results in a Conservative victory with Hugh Hoyles becoming Premier (and as such the first native-born leader of Newfoundland.)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]The British Empire establishes bases in Lagos to prevent the slave trade. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]
[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Paul Cézanne and his friend Émile Zola arrive in Paris.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Édouard Manet has his first paintings accepted by the Paris Salon.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]The Bombay Times and Commerce becomes The Indian Times.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]31 year-old John Edward Taylor becomes editor and sole proprietor of the Manchester Guardian.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]1862[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 1-Britain annexes Lagos Island in Southern Nigeria. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 6-French, Spanish and British forces arrive in Mexico, beginning the French Intervention in Mexico.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 10-Leland Stanford becomes the 8th Governor of California, succeeding Milton Latham, and becoming the first Republican governor of California. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 30-The first US Ironclad warship, the USS Monitor is launched.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 6-16-Ulysses S. Grant secures the first Union victories of the Civil War in Tennessee.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 20-Former Prime Minister Ángel de Saavedra, Duke of Rivas is appointed the Director of the Royal Academy of the Spanish Language (La Real Academia Española de la Lengua.)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 22-Jefferson Davis is inaugurated as the first President of the Confederate States for a six year term.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 7-The Confederates are pushed out of Missouri, following the Battle of Pea Ridge.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 9-The first battle between two ironclad warships, the USS Monitor and the CSS Virginia begins at Hampton Roads.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 13-The Federal Government bars all Union officers from returning fugitive slaves, effectively annulling the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 and preparing the way for the Emancipation Proclamation. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 1-The British and Spanish, end their alliance with France in the French Intervention in Mexico.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 6-Ambrose Bierce participates in the Battle of Shiloh, later the subject of a bestselling memoir: journalist and explorer John Rowlands fights on the other side and later records a similar memoir.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 7-United Kingdom-United States Treaty for the Suppression of the African Slave Trade is signed.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 13-Government of Vietnam is forced to cede the territories of Biên Hòa, Gia Định and Dinh Tuong to France.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]April 25-Forces under the command of Union Admiral David Farragut capture, the Confederate city of New Orleans, Louisiana.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 5-Battle of Puebla: The Mexican Army defeats the invading French army, with the French pushed back further northwards.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 11-The CSS Virginia is scuttled in the James River, northwest of Norfolk, Virginia.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 15-Victor Hugo publishes Les Misérables. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 20-The “Great Coalition” government of John Macdonald and George Cartier in Canada collapses. Interprovincial trade is guaranteed by the crown. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 4-Following the evacuation of Fort Pillow on the Mississippi river by Confederate forces the Union captures Memphis, Tennessee.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 4-John Rowlands, switches sides and fights for the Union. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 5-Treaty of Saigon: Emperor Tu Doc of Vietnam cedes Saigon, Côn Sơn Island and the province of Cochinchina to the French Colonial Empire.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 12-[/FONT][FONT=&quot]John Winter Robinson, the Secretary of State of Kansas, is convicted and removed from office as the result of a bond scandal, becoming the first state executive official to be impeached and removed from office in American history.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July-Marian Pearson serialises her historical novel Firenze in Cornhill Magazine, the first of her works not published in Geneva first.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 1-Princess Alice, the second daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom marries Prince Albert (Albrecht) of Germany.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 1-Russia’s first free public library opens in Moscow.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 6-Wiliam Fox resigns as Premier of New Zealand following the loss of a vote of no confidence and is succeeded by independent Frederick Weld. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 28-August 30-Confederate forces inflict a crushing defeat on the Union forces of John Pope, resulting in George B. McClellan being reinstated as commander-in-chief.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 17-Battle of Antietam-The Union defeats the Confederates in the bloodiest day of fighting during the entire conflict (22,000 casualties.)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 22-Otto von Bismarck resigns as a member of the Federal Chamber of Deputies citing disillusionment with parliament and the state of politics in general.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 23-Leo Tolstoy marries Sophia Behrs in Moscow. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 30-Former Representative Otto von Bismarck meets with leading Conservative financier and banking figure Hermann von Dechend and agrees to become the editor of Der Bürger (The Citizen) a newspaper founded to espouse conservative Protestant views in contrast to the perceived “liberal bias.”[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 23-Otto I is deposed as King of Greece, following several months of simmering discontent.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December-Louisa Alcott becomes a nurse at the Union hospital in Georgetown, D.C. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 13-The Union Army suffers massive casualties at the Battle of Fredericksburg and as a result give up on their attempt to capture the Confederate capital, Richmond, Virginia.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Date unknown-Smallpox sweeps through the Fort Victoria and the length of the northwest coast killing an estimated 200,000 Indian people. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]1863[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 1-[/FONT][FONT=&quot]William H. Seward signs the Emancipation Proclamation during the third year of the American Civil War, making the abolition of slavery in the confederate states an official war goal. It proclaims the freedom of 3.1 million of the nation's four million slaves, and immediately frees 50,000 of them, with the rest freed as Union armies advance.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 4-The New Apostolic Church, a Christian and chiliastic church, is established in Hamburg, Germany.[/FONT][FONT=&quot][/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 7-In the Swiss canton Ticino, the village of Bedretto is partly destroyed, and 29 killed, by an avalanche.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 9-The first section of the London Underground Railway (Paddington to Farringdon Street opens officially.)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 10-The Metropolitan Railway, the world’s first underground railway is opened in London, the United Kingdom. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 21-Adam Opel founds Opel AG.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]January 22-[/FONT][FONT=&quot]The January Uprising breaks out in Poland, Lithuania and Belarus. The aim of the national movement is to liberate Russian Poland from Russian occupation.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 1-Radicals in Lithuania, Belarus, Latvia, northern Ukraine and western Russia join the January Uprising.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 7-[/FONT][FONT=&quot]HMS Orpheus sinks attempting to enter Manukau Harbour in New Zealand, with the loss of 189 lives.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 10-Alanson Crane patents a fire extinguisher. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]February 17-First meeting of the "Committee of the Five" in Geneva, Switzerland, regarded as the foundation of the International Committee of the Red Cross, following the lead of humanitarian businessman Henry Dunant.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 10-Albert-Edward, Prince of Wales marries Princess Anna of Hesse and by Rhine, despite the objections of Victoria, Princess Royal.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]March 30-Ernest II of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha is elected by the Hellenic Parliament as Alexander I, King of the Hellenes; upon acceptance of the crown, his nephew Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh becomes Alfred of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 8-Granadine Confederation becomes the United States of Colombia under President Tomás Cipriano de Mosquera.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 12-Richard Wagner moves to Austria. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]May 23-Ferdinand Lassalle founds the Allgemeiner Deutscher Arbeiterverein (General German Workers' Association, ADAV), the first socialist workers party in Germany.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]June 7-French forces enter Mexico City.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 1-Slavery is abolished in the Dutch colonies of Suriname and Curaçao [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]July 1-3-Union forces under George G. Meade turn back a Confederate invasion by Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg, the largest battle of the war (28,000 Confederate casualties, 23,000 Union.)[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]August 11-Cambodia becomes a protectorate of France.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 15-Georg von Vincke, is dismissed as Chancellor by Emperor William I and is replaced by Theodor Mommsen.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]September 19-October 1-Legislative elections in Austria result in the Conservative government of Ferenc Deák (the first non-Austrian Head of Government) being returned with a decreased majority.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 26-The Football Association is founded in London.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 26-29-The Geneva Convention of 1863 results in 16 countries agreeing to form the International Red Cross.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]October 30-Frederick Weld resigns as Premier of New Zealand and is succeeded by Federalist Alfred Domett.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]November 15-The death of Frederick VII and his succession by distant cousin Christian IX marks the beginning of the Second Schleswig-Holstein crisis.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]November 18-King Christian IX of Denmark signs the November constitution, which declares Schleswig to be part of Denmark, regarded by the Empire of Germany as a violation of the London Protocol of 1852, leading to the German–Danish war of 1864.[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 7-The Chesapeake Affair-Confederate sympathises in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia capture the Union ship Chesapeake, but are later arrested by British troops. [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]December 29-An estimated 7,000 people attend the funeral of William Makepeace Thackeray [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]Date unknown[/FONT]
[FONT=&quot] [/FONT]
[FONT=&quot]The École des Beaux-Arts (School of Fine Arts) is founded in Paris. [/FONT]

 

[morbidteaparty]

Blood, Stability and Internation Recognition: Germany and the 1860s

Germany, following two years of weak government under Otto Theodor von Manteuffel's Conservative government (propped up by Catholic deputies), found itself with a liberal Prime Minister (Minister-President), Georg von Vincke [1], who had emerged from a brutal leadership struggle with Rudolf von Auerswald in 1859, and following the collapse of Manteuffel's cabinet, he was asked to form a government by Regent William [2]. Vincke, would pursue a policy of economic liberalism with the German government pursuing favourable economic relations with the British, Americans, Italians and Austrians, while pursuing a foreign policy aimed at neutrality, thus avoiding the need for costly wars.

In 1861, the reactionary figurehead Frederick William I, died three years after his incapacitating stroke, and was succeeded by his more politically neutral brother William I [3]. The coronation would provide the nascent state a chance to celebrate both its nationalism and its survival. [4] Vincke's economic policies would prove popular with the burgeoning urban middle classes, and he would his lead his party to victory in the parliamentary elections of 1862, though with a slender majority. [5] Von Vincke, would reach the height of his popularity in 1862 following the marriage of Princess Alice to Prince Albert of Germany and Prussia, which was seen as cementing the cordial relations between Britain and Germany, seen as vital to counteracting the threat of France. [6]

This state of affairs, would not last long however. Von Vincke's economic policy would come under severe criticism following a sudden downturn in the nation's finances, following the collapse of several merchant banks in Frankfurt, Hamburg and Berlin. Under intense pressure from the National Assembly and members of his own cabinet, he resigned in 1863, and was succeeded by Justice Minister Theodor Mommsen. [7] Mommsen, who came into office at the tail end of 1863, would soon find himself running a country at war. [8] Rising German nationalism viewed the disastrous defeat to Denmark in the 1850s, as a festering sore that needed to be purged, hopefully with the result of Schleswig-Holstein being incorporated into the empire. The immediate cause however, was the signing of the November constitution of Denmark by King Christian IX, which declared Schleswig-Holstein to be a fully incorporated part of the Danish state, in violation of the London Protocols of 1852. [9]

War itself, would not be declared until February, with the intervening months spent attempting to hammer out a compromise. A combination of Danish stubbornness and German (backed by the Austrians) nationalism would see the last chance of peace, the January Ultimatum [10] fail, and on the 1 February 1864, the Austria and Germany declared war upon the Danes. Unlike in 1848, the German army was much better organised and equipped and a force of 57,000 Allied troops invaded Denmark, defeating the Danes at the Battle of Dybbøl, in April, inflicting heavy casualties in the process. [11] The Germans advanced far into Denmark, though they would suffer a setback at the Second Battle of Heligoland, with the Danish navy defeating them. [12] After several months of prolonged fighting, the Danes would surrender in October 1864, with the Duchies of Schleswig, Holstein and Lauenberg renounced into joint Austro-German administration, a high watermark for relations between the two during the decade. [13] This sadly was not too last...

Mommsen, having dealt with the longstanding desire to revenge the First Schleswig Wa, focussed his attentions on social reform, passing a number of laws aimed at improving the right of both industrial and agricultural workers, which would prove contentious to the Conservative and Catholic factions in the assembly. [14] Following the elections of 1866, which surprisingly resulted in a hung parliament [15], Mommsen's liberal government was replaced by a shaky coalition of Conservatives and Catholics, under the leadership of Karl Rudolf Friedentahl, which would also find itself embroiled in war. [16]

The German Civil War of 1866, would prove to be a significant turning point in the relations between states and the federal government in Germany. Ostensibly a conflict between Germany and Austria over the administration of the newly acquired Danish territories, it represented a conflict between the North and the South. [17] Germany found itself divided as the southern battalions of the federal were withdrawn by their respective state governments (the very same situation which cost the Austrians so dearly in 1848-49.) [18] The tensions between the south and north, were largely down to the omnipresent Prussian position in the empire, both militarily and culturally, and what was seen as unfair territorial dominance of the state. [19]

The war was predicted to result in a quick Austrian victory, given their larger army. The Germans, while supported by the Italians [20], had a numerical disadvantage, and possessed an army largely reduced thanks to the southern defections. Despite this however, the German federal army would win an amazingly quick victory, firstly crushing a Bavarian force at Lagensalza, before more importantly, crushing the Austrians at Königgrätz, and swiftly leading to a victory for loyalist forces. [21] The Treaty of Prague would officially end the war, with Austrian influence in Germany ended, but the real aftermath of the war would be seen in the formation, at Crown Prince Frederick's instigation, of the Federal Committee for Territorial Reformation, which aimed to redraw the German territorial boundaries so as to alleviate southern grievances and prevent the chance of a second civil war. [22]

Despite his popularity in winning the war against Austria, Friedentahl would lose a vote of confidence over a finance bill and resigned in 1868. [23] Mommsen, who was broadly popular, returned to power firstly at the head of a liberal minority government. Mommsen, began a policy of integration towards the ethnic minorities within the empire, which while well intentioned, caused tension with the Polish population, who viewed his integrationist policies as eroding their culture. [24] Following elections in 1868, resulting in a Liberal majority, Mommsen abandoned the integrationist policy, and instead promoted a policy of autonomy, with the first new states established by the Federal Commission, the Grand Duchies of Posen and Schleswig-Holstein granted minority language rights. [25]

The decade had seen seismic shifts in German domestic and international politics, and can safely be seen as the decade which firmly placed Germany on the path to world power.

[1] Georg von Vincke was a Prussian liberal, who was virulently anti-Polish, and who also dueled Otto von Bismarck in 1852, ITTL he shifts the National Liberals to the centre, while pursuing broadly free-trade policies in line with his British counterparts.
[2] William I, served as Imperial and Royal Regent following his brother's stroke in 1858.
[3] William I, while a conservative is a more pragmatic figure ITTL, and is fairly happy to leave day to day affairs in the hand of elected officials.
[4] Both of which were in doubt at the time of the empire's foundation.
[5] The Liberals would generally prove to be the most frequent part of government during this period, and were able to govern competently even with small majorities.
[6] A nightmare scenario for the Germans was a hostile France on its border, with no European allies to really prop them up. Hence the importance of good relations to Britain.
[7] Mommsen, was a relatively left-leaning liberal, who also emerged as a leading classicist of the nineteenth century.
[8] The Second Schleswig War same as OTL
[9] Also IOTL
[10] The demand for Denmark to repeal the constitution.
[11] Out of a force of 11,000 the Danes lost 5,700 dead or wounded.
[12] The Germans still hadn't quite figured out naval warfare.
[13] Austria and Germany have had cool relations since 1848.
[14] Mostly for being borderline socialist, with plans for an 8-hour week, unionisation and workers rights.
[15] Mostly due to the contentious policies outlined above.
[16] The conservative government of Friedentahl (1866-1868) was frequently referred to as the "Ministry of Disagreement" (Ministerium für Uneinigkeit) due to the frequent policy clashes between cabinet ministers.
[17] Northern and Southern Germany had been in frequent disagreement since the formation of the empire, mostly relating to the position of the Catholic Church and the relations of the states to the federal government.
[18] The German Army was caught flatfooted when the legislatures and monarchs of the southern states withdrew their forces from the federal army.
[19] Prussia may have agreed to a liberal empire, but it dominated the federal military, covered 67% of German territory and it's government's hostility towards the Catholicism of the Polish minority made the Catholic south understandably uncomfortable.
[20] The Italians viewed a third conflict with Austria as a chance to finally conquer Veneto, and fully unify the peninsula. Being opportunists they viewed the conflict between Germany and Austria as an excellent chance to do just that.
[21] The German federal army had been completely reformed since the debacle with Denmark in 1848-1851. Thanks to improved railway infrastructure they were able to fully mobilise two weeks before the Austrians, and were able to easily defeat a poorly organised Austrian army, before marching into the Czech lands of the empire, forcing the Austrians to the negotiating table.
[22]The committee was formed in order to redraw what were perceived as unfair state boundaries. It would take a decade to fully reorganise the various boundaries, but it would result in a more evenly balanced Germany.
[23] The opposition and the junior Catholic Christian Democratic coalition partner vetoed Friedentahl's plans to reduce federal spending in exchange for an increased military budget.
[24] Fairly similar to German imperial policy in the 1870s and 1880s, with German used as the primary language of education, and government.
[25] In response to demands for increased autonomy by the Polish and Danish minorities, Mommsen would approve the creation of the Grand Duchy of Posen and Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein which would allow linguistic autonomy in both education and government. These would be the first two states to be founded after the commission's findings.

 

[morbidteaparty]

I realise there's a huge amount of TL posts on this thread, but I would really appreciate some feedback, fellow alt historians

 

[Mumby]

I realise there's a huge amount of TL posts on this thread, but I would really appreciate some feedback, fellow alt historians

I would recommend hyperlinking your TLs in your signature. That way, wherever you post people can access your TLs.

 

[Faeelin]

This timeline is surprisingly convergent, at least in Europe. There's still a Six Weeks War in 1866 even though Germany was unified in 1848?

 

[morbidteaparty]

It does diverge a bit after the 1860s, I can promise that much

 

[morbidteaparty]

the next three updates will deal with the British, Austrians and the German colonial development in Africa, all of which are fairly different to OTL

 

[morbidteaparty]

the only other thing I can say in my defence, is that this is my first ever timeline, and while I'm familiar with both history and alternate history, I'm bound to slip up from time to time

 

[Mumby]

the only other thing I can say in my defence, is that this is my first ever timeline, and while I'm familiar with both history and alternate history, I'm bound to slip up from time to time

A lot of people lurk but don't comment. Don't worry too much. And don't put too many posts lacking content up. Your subscribers may think there is an update and be disappointed.

 

[morbidteaparty]

Austria Beats to a New Drum: Reform

Following the assassination of Francis Joseph I [1], Austria seemed a nation on the brink. Following humiliating setbacks in both Italy and Germany, many observers, both internal and external viewed the Hapsburg monarchy as heading towards collapse. They reckoned however without the reforming zeal that characterised the new Emperor Maximilian I.[2] Maximilian following his coronation, perceived reform as the way to deal with the empire's wayward minorities. In his first act as emperor he issued a general amnesty to the rebels of 1848 allowing some such as Lajos Kossuth [3] to return. More importantly, Maximilian and his Liberal Chancellor [4] Anton von Schmerling [5] promulgated a new liberal constitution in 1854 which established parliamentary democracy with the franchise extended to all men aged 25 and over, while also granting the three principle regions (Austria, Croatia and Hungary) more powers of governance. As part of his reforms, minority rights including those of education and language became protected. [6] The new liberalisation of the regime led to several firsts for the country: Ferenc Deák became the first non-Austrian to hold the position of Chancellor, the first of many.[7]

[1] He is assassinated by a Hungarian nationalist in 1853.
[2] He is as liberal as he was in our timeline so Austria becomes slightly less reactionary.
[3] He becomes a leading figure in the Radical Party.
[4] Similar to the German office.
[5] Briefly also German Minister-President in 1848.
[6] In order to establish a more decentralised Austria.
[7] More details as the timeline progresses.