Alamgirnama: A Mughal Timeline

[Abd ar-Rahman II]

Right.

I'm back.

I realise it's been a while, so I fully encourage you guys to take a quick refresher and take a look at some of what I'd posted before. As an extra incentive to do so, all past chapters now have relevant supporting artwork, so you should take a look at those just for the arts sake. If you don't feel like it, feel free to ask questions.

The update on the Romanian enlightenment has also had a makeover and it's very much required reading to take another look at that. I realised it didn't make much sense in world as people we call Romanians would call themselves vlachs if the Romanian identity is more tied to the Rum millet.

Expect tomorrow an update on the Holy Roman Empire.

Glad the TL isn’t abandoned

 

[HIM Dogson]

This is a very based turn of events, eager to see what comes next.

 

[EmperorBuaya]

Welcome back, Deval!

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

Renovatio Imperii​

"The Age of Gloire: Europe in the long 18th Century" by Giovanni Marquez

To put it mildly, Christendom was worried by the arrival of Mughal ships and princes in European ports, and while many elites welcomed the opportunity for riches offered by employment in the Mughal apparatus or through their own manufacturing businesses in India, this view was hardly shared by all. The idea that pagans and moors were frequent guests at the courts of Christian princes was scandalising, if not to the enlightened elite, then at least to a great many pious masses. The fear of the anti-Christian spectre, threatening Christendom from the east, the south and now even the west was simply too much to bear. On occasion, these fears resulted in outright violence, such as the much embellished Eid Massacres in Valencia, 1718, when at least 34 Muslim traders from Barbary and India were massacred when they attempted to broadcast the call to prayer. Growing numbers of writers were calling for Christian solidarity, a united leadership who could finally expel the Turk from Europe and hopefully, the world. The most obvious focus for these hopes, was of course the Holy Roman Empire.

Perhaps a quick look at the long duree will prove enlightening- at least the approach of Abbe de St. Pierre, the most articulate of neo-imperialists, hinged on it. In his “Projet Pour Rendre La Paix Perpetuelle En Europe” (Project to Render Perpetual Peace in Europe), he investigated in 18 volumes, with the last published in 1723, why the Empire was Christendoms best hope, and how those hopes could be realised.

For convenience’ sake, mention will only be made here of the most popular formulation of his Projet. He postulated that the Kingdom of Germany was in fact a separate entity from the Holy Roman Empire, which everyone agrees also includes the Kingdom of Bohemia and of Italy. Further, he resurrects the pan-European dimension of the Imperial office, claiming that it is the responsibility of the Emperor to mediate between Christian monarchs to prevent war between Christians. For him, based upon late antique and early medieval understandings, the Empire is an institution common to all Christians, headed symbolically by the Emperor.

As a Frenchman, St. Pierre of course is at pains to make clear the emperor should have no ordinary influence in the internal affairs of the French monarchy- however, he maintains that it is necessary that a superior power be present to prevent abuses of kingly power. The problem this floundered on in the past was that the emperor himself was often far more concerned with his own kingly authority as King of Germany than wider European peace, and as he was not accountable to any pan European assembly paralleling the Reichstags role in the Kingdom of Germany, the Kingdoms were drawn to independence. While the idea of Universal Monarchy was common, French writers generally tended to imagine that Peace in Europe could only be achieved under the Couronne de la France, so St. Pierre was forced to justify why the German King should be Emperor. Of course he briefly mentions Translatio Imperii whether undertaken by papal authority, the authority of the Roman population or sheer military force, but it is really in passing and the crux of his argument lies in the unique qualities of the Reichstag.

The ideal of the Emperor as Policeman of Europe had lapsed in the later medieval period, but an example of a successful Imperial brokerage of peace included Maximillian II helping end the Dano-Swedish war of 1563-70. He notes the numerous times the Reichstag as a collective body had offered to broker peace between European princes. Already, since the Permanent Reichstag had begun, most European monarchies were represented by envoys within the Reichstag, able to informally influence proceedings, making the body the closest thing to an international congress Europe had. The kings of France, Great Britain, Poland, Prussia, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Bohemia, and Sardinia were represented in the Reichstag through possession of fiefs with imperial immediacy, and Spain also possessed fiefs within the Kingdom of Italy, associating them too with the Empire. The Reichstag was confessionally mixed, and thus its very existence was a testament to Christian unity- unlike other kingdoms, should the Kingdom of Germany head the Imperial order, it would not be in service of any particular confession. As was well known, he says, the Germans had never been a single nation. From the Frankish era, it had been acknowledged that Germany was comprised of multiple nations, including the Bavarians, Saxons, Alamanni and others, evidenced by each group having its own code of laws. The Reichstag thus proved that many nations could work together so closely that despite religious disunity, they could present a common front while maintaining princely liberties and preventing tyranny of the Emperor. Further from the strategic point of view, the German kingdom was best placed to maintain European peace due to its central position.

Nonetheless, St. Pierre acknowledges that the Reichstag of the Kingdom of Germany was not sufficient to draw all Europe into the association he so craved, by which means the Turk and Moor could finally be subjugated once and for all. For that more would be needed.

The Imperial Commonwealth as St. Pierre imagined it would be headed by the King of Germany, whoever he might be, deriving from his possession of the German kingship- this would additionally confer on him automatically Italian Kingship. Italian governance itself would be reconstituted on the model of the Reichstag, however resulting from the stronger position of the Italian princes vis a vis the king, the Italian king would possess little in the way of formal power. The Diet of Princes, which would remain permanently in session, would serve to coordinate common economic policies in as much as princes thought it profitable to cooperate, apportion military burdens, and send representatives to Imperial assemblies.

Within the structure of the New Empire, the Emperor would preside but mainly in a ceremonial capacity. Initiative would lie with the council of Envoys, with one envoy for each Kingdom who had joined the Empire, apart from the Kingdom of Germany, which as a result of its pre-eminence would have the right to send two representatives elected by the Reichstag, as well as the representative sent by the Kingdom of Bohemia, chosen by the Emperor. While each kingdom would be able to conduct its own foreign policy in normal circumstances, should a supermajority of two thirds or three quarters (St. Pierre is unsure of the exact number, he leaves it up for discussion upon the actual creation of the New Empire) veto military action by a member state, they could combine their influence to maintain peace. In exchange for this reduction in sovereignty, states received a guarantee that should they be attacked, the empire as a whole would ensure their territorial indivisibility, with the Council of Envoys apportioning the burden as befit the situation.

The main purpose of this whole endeavour, apart from the self evident benefits of peace and the guaranteeing of liberties of the weaker states of Europe was to open the door to a Universal Crusade. In the face of growing demands for tribute from a Barbary backed by India, many European writers grew increasingly hostile to the existence of Barbary, either demanding that its ports should once again by seized by the Iberians, or that it should be conquered outright, to deprive India of its means of meddling in European affairs, and to ensure proper cultivation of such fertile lands. As Barbary threatened piracy against unlicensed shipping, this qualified them as enemies of the peace, and justified war to remove their threat. The Turk too should be exterminated and chased out of Europe and Africa and Asia- a task St. Pierre assures the reader is easier than it seems. This plan was lauded by many acclaimed thinkers, including Voltaire, von Lillenfield and even the Marquis D’Argenson, foreign minister to Louis XV, who praised St. Pierre as “a Greek sage of our times”.

A further side of this ideology, though not one St. Pierre troubled himself with, was concerned with Catholic reform, one of the great matters of the 18th century. While the Papacy and its more enthusiastic supporters were confined within a discourse of absolute authority, this merely served to make them seem ever more ridiculous and irrelevant. While Urban VIII had had one of the grandest baroque courts in Europe, he had left the papacy bankrupt and its subjects rebellious. The average age of the six popes elected between 1721 and 1758 was 72, with Clement XII conducting his entire reign blind and bedridden. As the quality of popes declined, they found their enemies were no longer Protestant heretics but Catholic renegades. As ideas grew that the Emperor should shoulder more responsibility for Christendom, many began to assign to that office primacy in the Catholic world, while other favoured the creation of more national French style churches, directly in service of the monarch. Rome itself was seen as bereft of virtue, and its most influential European visitors came not in the hope of spiritual guidance but in the hope of seeing its ruins before it decayed into nothingness. Many Protestants gleefully predicted that the Papacy as an institution would end before the century closed. Even as a centre of Catholic pilgrimage, Rome nearly lost its primacy as the Ottoman state and the Patriarchate of Jerusalem worked to promote that city as the primary Christian pilgrimage, with all the troubles that entailed.

In Spain, the kingdom of the Catholic Monarchs, the Papacy had alienated the Bourbons by supporting the Habsburgs in the war of Spanish Succession, and as a result Philip V had cut diplomatic ties with Rome from 1709 onwards. While some Spaniards worried they were in the same situation as England in the days of Henry VIII, others welcomed the opportunity for change. One such group, bizarrely, was the Jesuit order which had previously been noted for their pro Papal attitudes, which the Spanish government used to govern parastates in the Americas, and recently in Africa too, for the Jesuits had invested a huge amount of effort into creating reductions in the Kingdom of Kongo which had collapsed falling the abandonment of its capital San Salvador. It was through Jesuit action that the Kingdom maintained any semblance of unity and political organisation- once again marking the irreverent attitude towards the Papal boundaries proclaimed in Tordesillas, as even though the Spanish monarchy had no formal power in the congo, its informal influence skyrocketed and Spanish replaced Portuguese as the European language that Kongolese nobility learned.

Until 1734 ,every Maundy Thursday, the Bull in Coena Domini was intoned, threatening excommunication for any attack on papal privileges. Though long contested, they had not yet been abandoned, as the Grand Duke of Tuscany discovered when he forced all communications from Rome to undergo his personal approval in 1734. While a medieval pope would have been able to mobilise princes against this brazen move, the 82 year old Clement XII proved friendless. On the contrary, his adversary proved overwhelmed with support as Louis XV seized papal enclaves in France, the Spanish king seized enclaves in Naples. In 1739, on the accession of Luis I, the Crown went even further and in the Concordat of that year, gained control of essentially all church lands in Spain. In Castile, this amounted to about a seventh of all cultivated land.

In Coena Domini was never proclaimed again.

While Catholic reform could have conceivably occurred without any effect on the Empire as an institution, it mixed with that movement in those manifestations that emphasised universal church councils as being more important than national councils- the common drive to return to the early church did after all emphasise the role of Emperors in calling and presiding over these councils. As late as the 15th century, when the Emperor’s transnational authority had been rejected in almost all quarters, it was conceded by some authors that should a pope prove unfit or unable to call a universal church council, that duty fell to the emperor. With the more representative currents that grew from the “Projet Pour Rendre Paix”, where the Emperor is primus inter pares of Christian kings, many authors proposed that the Emperor, when backed by a majority of Catholic kings, had the right to call and preside over a universal church council, but that each monarch could call a national council as it pleased them. Whatever happened, reformists were agreed that the Papacy was an outdated institution that should only serve as symbolic figurehead of the Catholic church.

Needless to say, there was endless disunity over how the plan should be carried out- should protestant kingdoms be allowed to join? Should larger kingdoms have more votes than smaller ones? Should Spain’s viceroyalties be counted as separate kingdoms? Should Spain’s or Britain’s constituent kingdoms, so newly abolished, be counted as separate for these purposes? Should kingdoms be forced to join, or should it be completely voluntary? If it was voluntary, would the project be crippled by opposition from larger kingdoms that abstain from joining? Would it be more successful in the goal of renewing the catholic faith and subjugating the infidel than measures taken by individual kingdoms? Should Monarchs submit at all to any dissipation of their sovereign authority, granted to them by God? It was this discourse that dominated the first half of the 18th century, with everyone and their mother either being vociferously for or against some or all of this Project.

Significantly, it was Charles Albert of Bavaria who really ran with this reformist vigour, patronising people like John Jacob Moser, who was instrumental in winning over the prince-bishoprics and smaller imperial estates, and providing a conceptual framework that distinguished his candidacy from that of the House of Lorraine, where Francis Stephen was more orthodox and less willing to potentially turn France against him by indicating that he would attempt to force the French crown to submit to an organisation headed by the Emperor, if not the Emperor himself. That France supported Charles Albert came as a shock to some, and indicated either that Louis XV did not believe the Bavarian would have the political skill to establish the Imperial Commonwealth, that he did not believe he could force France to submit to it, or that he thought France could use it to further her own interests. In any case, once he had won the Imperial Crown and relocated his court to Vienna, Charles Albert was mostly busy reconciliating those who had supported the Lorraine candidacy, sorting out his precarious finances and dealing with Antioch Khantemir’s bid for primacy in the Balkans- now that he had exiled his sister-in-law Maria Theresa to be Queen of Hungary, would familial and religious ties draw him to aid her in retaking Transylvania, or would he risk international infamy by attempting to oust her from Hungary too?

As it was, he would not get the opportunity to fulfil the promise of Renovatio Imperii, as he died just as the 9 Years War began. For serious reform attempts to begin, with every step contested and many tactical retreats, Europe would have to wait for his son, Emperor Maximillian III of House Habsburg-Wittelsbach to ascend to the throne.

So, we have our first proper update in a while! I'm mainly focusing on the ideological changes, because you cant really look at political changes without looking at the intellectual context those changes happened with. Catholic reformism is a lot stronger ITTL, because the fear of a resurgent Barbary and Islamic visitors puts greater emphasis on keeping society free from heretical impurities- it also increases the common ground between Jesuits and Jansenists etc, who OTL proved too intolerant of each others doctrines to allow catholic reformism to succeed in Spain.

There are still quite a few hooks that should provide some ideas about whats going on in the world, but mostly i'd like to leave you guys with questions. Do you think this imperial proto EU has a shot? Do you guys have any speculation on what might happen in the 9 years war? By this point, the novelty of Mughal visitors has worn off, and what's left might not be too friendly.

 

[Rajveer Naha]

Finally an Update after so long. I have a feeling that finally this upcoming war will make the Mughals look across the seas, intervention or protection of commercial interests. An ocean going Mughal navy escorting merchant ships will transform the Mughal outlook of the world. The empire can't let some pesky Europeans cause serious harm to their business.
I think against the behemoth that is rearing its head both the Brits and French may join hands to maintain the status quo. The Russians can join this alliance too and at the end of the day Germany is not a nation but a geographical expression 😉 and there is no reason that it should not continue to be the case. Don't we have a Bourbon on the Spanish throne? This Bavarian act was a shock as they were one of the most loyal allies of the French. I don't see how the UK and France can allow themselves into a disguised face HRE .

 

[Beacon]

I think the decline of the papal authority in the HRE would need a bit more time than the 1730s. OTL Febronianism took hold in the HRE during 1760s with the aim of reducing papal authority and nationalizing catholicism. And that was mainly due to a book published around early 1760s and the some secularizations of church authority happened in 1803 (but not a complete secularization - the pope & church were still powerful figures in christendom). I think it would be interesting to see german reactions (especially that of Kant) to St. Pierre's works.

Also, I don't think proto-EU would last (or even happen at all). Even today's EU is constantly threatened by secession by its member-states and it has mainly held together because it is in the interest of the people living in those member-states to remain members. The monarchs of europe have no such shared interest. In fact, their interests are opposed to each other. The existence of the mughals & barbary might be a shock, but its definitely enough to bring across something like the concert of europe. We needed Napoleon and the french revolution for that!
(And this doesn't even take into account the high level of technology and communication required to ensure that the EU works )

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

ocean going Mughal navy escorting merchant ships will transform the Mughal outlook of the world.

I actually hinted a little bit as to how this is arranged in the chapter- essentially there's collaboration with Barbary, with the Mughals supplying the ships and the two combining to supply sailors. This means that the traditional "tribute" European governments gave Morocco to protect themselves from piracy has also increased on the whole, though different places bear the brunt based on politics.

Germany is not a nation but a geographical expression 😉 and there is no reason that it should not continue to be the case.

That was never the case- the empire remains a healthy institution, not yet hamstrung by the later developments of otl Austro Prussian rivalry. Estates use the Kreis framework to collaborate on policing, roadworks, they pay taxes on the matricular system and contribute to the imperial army.

Don't we have a Bourbon on the Spanish throne?

We do yeah, and the Spanish bourbons did a lot better than otl, managing to snag the entire Spanish inheritance apart from the Netherlands. Thus they've still got Naples and the Stato da Presidi in Tuscany.

I don't see how the UK and France can allow themselves into a disguised face HRE

No- but should the version of the Projet that actually happens not seem like a threat to the Netherlands or shipping, Britain very well might support its development and pressure other governments to join it. After all, the King of Britain is the Elector of Hanover as well, and one of the three candidates for leadership of the Protestant estates. If the system promotes the Reichstags international influence, it thus also promotes Britain's international influence, except Britain bears none of the costs as it doesn't join at all. Also, it deprives France of its opportunities for continental expansion, which the British public will never be against.


France might be a lot more against the Projet, given that their imperial estates are worth a lot less in the empires hierarchy than Britain's, and that this would be a much greater threat to their own territorial expansion.

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

I think the decline of the papal authority in the HRE would need a bit more time than the 1730s.

You make a fair point, I have sped things up a bit here. So far the only things I've said have actually happened (In Coena Domini being abandoned, Italian rulers subjugating papal missives to their approval, the Spanish monarchy seizing control of church benefices etc) are all things that happened from the early 1750s to the mid 1760s- I've chosen to speed things along a bit, because I thought the added threat of Mughal power would strengthen reformist movements to meet this challenge. After all, Clement XII was 78 when elected pope- that man cannot be the Bastion of Christ. The argument can be made that the Spanish monarchy needs greater control over its church lands because it needs to direct more effort southwards. You're right though, the papacy still has quite a few defenders, and for some people the Mughal threat has driven them back to their perceived fount of orthodoxy in Rome. I said reformists were all agreed the papacy must be humbled- that doesn't mean the reactionary movement is negligible. Otl actually, St. Pierre expressed concern for the pope, feeling that Christendom should unite to defend the pope from the Turk, who still sees the pope as lord of Europe.
It remains to be seen which side will win in the end, but for the moment, there's been a drive to subject the church to greater secular control.

The monarchs of europe have no such shared interest. In fact, their interests are opposed to each other.

I'd disagree- membership protects them from aggressors, ensures they keep sovereignty over all their land and protects them from illegal rebellion. Sure France might not find this attractive, but Poland? Besieged on all sides, needing somebody to come preserve their liberties while keeping almost complete sovereignty for the Commonwealth? Poland might just jump at the chance.

As for the bureaucracy, it's not like this is an economic and financial union that needs masses of people to standardise quality controls and subsidies and everything the EU does- at the moment it's purely military.

 

[Nurhaci]

So there're many Europe princes see Mughal as a real threat in middle 18th century? 9 Years War look like 7 Years War in ITTL,What about the factions planned now?And will Mughal play a important role in the war?

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

So there're many Europe princes see Mughal as a real threat in middle 18th century?

It's largely hysteria of course, mansabdars as a whole aren't attempting any real conquests in Europe, even ignoring the fact it'd be impossible. That doesn't stop Europeans from frantically warning of potential Ottoman returns to Hungary or Moroccan seizure of Sicily.

9 Years War look like 7 Years War in ITTL,What about the factions planned now?

There are elements of the seven years war that could still find parallels but the wars being driven by different dynamics, so it'll have different factions, different stages and different outcomes. Like the 7 years war though, it'll be fought on a global scale- any thoughts about where fronts could open up?

 

[Rajveer Naha]

It seems this war will be analogous to the Bourbon Habsburg wars OTL. The Bourbons need to keep Russia distracted. If Russia(although it seems too weak at the moment) joins the Habsburg then it's likely game over for the Bourbons and nearly a repeat of the War of Austrian Succession which it can be to restore Maria Theresa. Poland and even Sweden can be Bourbon allies and help crush the Goliath that is the HRE. Domination by Baverians may not sound appealing to many, Sweden won't understand the Muslim threat. France and Spain are actively downplaying it. In any case the Bourbons will be the first to face the Muslims if invading from the south or west.
It's the Royal Navy that I am interested in as Britain may jump in to maintain the balance of power. They could do something stupid like a blockade and incur the wrath of the Mughals for injuring their trade. Oops I need a better word as their are three Mughal states any idea what would be an appropriate name? The Shahjahanabad Gurkanis may decide to respond. They have been focusing a lot on Central Asian affairs recently and we're content seeing their superiority in the Indian Ocean. Maybe we see that the Mughals round Africa and surprise everyone like the Russians once rounded Europe and surprised the Ottomans.
You could have a front in the Americas where the Brits try to take back New Sweden while facing the Spanish and the French they can hope for a massive rebellion in New Sweden.
The indirect border of the Mughals seem to be at the Russian border. Are there any plans to head to the Arctic?
In the Asia Pacific I doubt the war making capacity of anyone but the Spanish. Again here if anyone stirs up trouble surely the Chinese or the Shahjahanabad Gurkanis maybe even the subedar of Mataram may feel compelled to respond before Shahjahanabad.
I wish to ask is the settlement I see in Australia in the 1750 map the Bengalis and the Yazidis who once left? And what is the state bordering Mozambique? Zanzibar or Isfahan Gurkanis. If Zanzibar is it the same dynasty as Oman?
A suggestion- I wouldn't mind a counter federation of the Bourbon states maybe like the Mughal-Four Oirat federation

 

[Nurhaci]

UK can easily use Russia and Prussia against Sweden,then they go to take Newengland in North America.Bourbons will become Nemesis of UK.Due to geopolitics the big game will still open between Russia and Mughal in Inner Asia.Will Mughal-Qing War become part of 9 Years War?

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

It seems this war will be analogous to the Bourbon Habsburg wars OTL.

Would it even be the 18th century if we didnt get a few good Bourbon-Habsburg wars.

If Russia(although it seems too weak at the moment) joins the Habsburg then it's likely game over for the Bourbons and nearly a repeat of the War of Austrian Succession which it can be to restore Maria Theresa.

id actually imagine Russia's looking like a fairly good ally, in that poland doesnt seem like it cares much about the fact that the Empire seems willing to protect territorial boundaries as they are. In any case, I think Russia's had long enough focusing on trade and religion- time for some good old fashioned jingoism.

The Shahjahanabad Gurkanis may decide to respond. They have been focusing a lot on Central Asian affairs recently and we're content seeing their superiority in the Indian Ocean. Maybe we see that the Mughals round Africa and surprise everyone like the Russians once rounded Europe and surprised the Ottomans.

Maybe-id suggest keeping in mind the fact that the Shahjahanabad Mughal court is an incredibly diverse beast, and individual factions and princes can act essentially as they like at such a distance.

Again here if anyone stirs up trouble surely the Chinese

yeah i think old Qianlong is far too focused on the west to care about the spanish presence.

And what is the state bordering Mozambique? Zanzibar or Isfahan Gurkanis. If Zanzibar is it the same dynasty as Oman?

Well i originally said the Isfahanis established a presence in oman and so indirectly got zanzibar as well, but i dont actually see that lasting very long, i cant lie.

I wish to ask is the settlement I see in Australia in the 1750 map the Bengalis and the Yazidis who once left?

Thats the core of the settlement yeah- i dont think theyll have made any significant towns or anything yet, but I have a chapter lined up on how colonisation works, basically extending the arrangements that saw bengal get colonised in the 1670s-1740s.

The thing is I actually have so much thats largely about setting the scene and extra random bits that catch my interest (my notes page reached 50,000 words this week)- I always think oh cool, ill insert this into the narrative when we get there, but like the narrative itself loses steam becauses I've put so much energy into idk talking about coinage or garden design or whatever. I think I'm gonna try and release the scene setting I've already got at a steady rate and try and just focus on the core narrative in the work i put in from now on, but there is so much that I find interesting and want to talk about. Theres a whole world to play with.

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

"The Lived Experience at the Centre of the Mughal Court"​

Excerpt from the visitors booklet at Mandala Mahal, written by acclaimed historian Shireen Moosvi.

It is interesting to note the similarities and differences between the lifestyle of the emperor himself as described by Abu Fazl in the 16th, Chandar Bhan Brahman in the 17th and Sanjay Subrahmanyan in the 18th centuries. Well before the concept of the Enlightened Despot had been imported to Europe, Shah Jahan had been perceived of as both being desirous of the company of philosophers and scholars but also of devoting his administration for the good of the peasants and cultivators through a hands on approach- the Platonic ideal of a philosopher king. While of course, Aurangzeb diverged from his fathers model through his distaste for entertainment, incredibly long campaigns and time spent earning his own salary, in other ways his lifestyle was actually relatively similar. Nevertheless, the damage he had done to one of the core ideological foundations of the Mughal state- sulh I kul (peace to all-essentially that rivals who submit after defeat are to be honoured with high powered positions and any service done to the emperor is repaid many times over) meant that on the one hand Azam Shah and Jahanzeb Shah had to work to rebuild trust in the munificence of the emperor and instate many of the nobles of newly conquered territories that Aurangzeb had neglected into the mansabdari system and lavish honours on them, but they also had to show that they were a return to the empire of Shah Jahan and then Prithvi Narayan Shah largely clung to the model of his admired predecessors out of insecurity about his own ability to rule.

Thus the 18th century emperors began in prayer, with some time devoted to reading the Quran. Next, while Jahanzeb Shah followed the Shah Jahani model and went fruit

picking in his gardens, which was an opportunity for favoured nobility to join him and enjoy the privilege of proximity to the imperial person in such an informal setting, with all the opportunity that entailed. Prithvi Narayan Shah however, is not recorded to ever have picked his own fruit and he certainly didn’t invite nobles to join him; instead he went straight to breakfast, which was usually a variety of juices and other drinks, as well as a selection of fruit imported from all over India and its surrounding regions; melons from Balkh, plums from Kashgar, pears from Samarqand, apples from Yazd, peaches from Kard, mangoes from Gujarat, pomegranates from Thatta, watermelons from Kashmir, pineapple, sugarcane, figs, mulberries, oranges and strawberries and by the 18th centuries tomatoes from Bengal were also regular fixtures at imperial breakfasts. There was a co-ordinated system for bringing ice down from the mountains as well.

After breakfast, the emperor dispensed certain special favours in private and then made his way to the public balcony, the Jharoka-I darshan, which overlooked a square in the city often used for elephant fights, theatre, poetry and dance as well as providing an opportunity for any citizen to directly petition the emperor without being vetted for entry into the court proper. After the darshan, the emperor would move onto the Divan-I Khass o Amm, or the Hall of Special and Public Audience, where the main daily business of court happened- audiences with officers who were being posted to a new assignment or returning from a campaign; the reading of imperial edicts, newsletters and memoranda; the receiving of diplomats and other distinguished visitors; the dispensing of patronage for artists, literati, scientists and intellectuals; and so on. Prithvi Narayan Shah is recorded to have once stayed there for 7 hours. The emperor entered to the sound of booming kettledrums and witnessed a military parade of horses and elephants in full regalia. The Divan-I Amm was filled with attendees of various ethnicities (tabaqat-I mukhtalif):
“from Arabia and ‘Ajam, Turks, Tajiks, Kurds, Tatars, Russians, Africans, Circassians, Afghans, and Rajputs and others from the lands of Anatolia, Egypt, the Levant, Iraq, Arabia, Ajam, Persia, Gilan, Mazandaran, Khurasan, Transoxiana, the Qipchaq steppes, Turkistan, Georgia, Kurdistan, Karnataka, Assam, Udaipur, Tibet and Kishtvar… and the class of captains of commerce (malik al-tujjar) represented by various merchants, profiteers and suppliers from every quarter of Iraq, Khurasan, Anarolia, the Levant, China (chin) Greater China (ma chin), Cathay (khata), Hotan (khutan), Turkistan, Europe (farangistan) and various other far off countries (mamalik I baida)”

This was framed in the Chahar Chaman by Chandar Bhan as almost a goal of Mughal rule rather than a byproduct- the creation of a pluralist and cosmopolitan atmosphere treated as a foundation of the dynasty. Further, it was an advertisement for the widespread readership of the Chaman that in India all are welcome and granted opportunities. By Prithvi Narayan Shah’s darbar, this had grown to include traders and diplomats from practically every country in the world with long distance traders. Moreover, it was here that royal titles such as sultan, maharaja, raja, ray, ray-I rayan, rana and other epithets were bestowed by his majesty the Caliph to bureaucrats and nobles, while important government posts relating to the provinces such as the regional and city qazis, judges, inspectors, qanun gos, chaudhris, and others were appointed by the Imperial presence. While the expansion of the empire meant that Jahanzeb Shah began to grant favoured subahdars the power to appoint and dismiss officials, and Prithvi Narayan Shah, with his abundance of children turned the task over to them,, it remained an imperial obligation to conduct a formal review process where “on one side stood the various governors and administrative heads who had been assigned by his Majesty to the various provinces, districts, cities and towns, while on another side stood those who had been in charge of this or that governmental post but had been relieved of that duty. Having arrived at the court that is the refuge of the world, they were there to reap the appropriate reward or punishment resulting from their good or bad performance”. Some of those who had done especially well were given the privilege of a “blessed pat on the back” (dast-I muqaddas bar pusht miguzaranand).

Thus even with the devolution of certain powers to lower officials, the administration of the empire was an ongoing process in which the emperor had to be constantly engaged. During the darbar, officials could directly consult with the emperor on matters of state and were usually given an answer right there and then, and the emperor also announced the distribution of various types of charity for the poor, and charitable land grants. The office of sadr al-sudur was expanded by Prithvi Narayan Shah into the beginnings of the modern welfare service, with a new wing of the bureaucracy dedicated to ensuring that those without any income were given a basic living wage, which was different in each subah, with specific sums designated for the support of poorhouses and food-kitchens in every village and town to support the poor, the unemployed, widows and sheltered women, as well as the formation of job centres to help connect labour to employers, although he personally supervised much of it and continued to give charitable grants to scientists and philosophers. This wing was dedicated to the maintenance and upkeep of travellers inns and hospitals, though upkeep of schools had been handed over to the department of education.

With the darbar over, the emperor would retreat to the ghusl-khana (literally the bathhouse, so called for its position between the royal apartments and the baths) for consultations with the navvazirat and other trusted advisors. Shah Jahan typically conducted business in the ghusl-khana until just after midday, while Jahanzeb Shah and Prithvi Narayan Shah would vary their working hours based on season and location, although they too tended to follow the formers model. The first order of business was to continue the work of the darbar, with a summary agenda prepared by the vakil reviewed by the emperor. He would give directions on the most pressing of matters, go through written requests from high level princes, nobles and governors and orders and edicts were drafted and reviewed here as well. Chandar Bhan gives special admiration to Shah Jahan for his proficiency in engaging in bureaucracy and administration and while Jahanzeb Shah would often be content to let his navvazirat do as they pleased with mere supervision, Prithvi Narayan Shah in the beginning of his reign would take an incredibly active role, only later relinquishing control as he grew ill. Nevertheless, both of these kings were qualified to perform any role in the navvazirat through years of extensive schooling and could step in for any member if needed, or even any accountant, given their schooling in mathematics- this was obviously an incredibly demanding position and credit must be given for their ability.

The ghusl-khana was more than a place of business however- it was also a salon where private entertainment could be hosted for the inner circle of the emperor. At times, it served as a sort of boutique showroom, where especially luxurious or exotic merchandise such as fine jewellery and art were brought in for private browsing. While Shah Jahan preferred books, Jahanzeb Shah was more enamoured with goods from Europe and Prithvi Narayan Shah had a taste for chinoiserie. The ghusl khana was also host to intellectual debates by philosophers from around the world, with the established precedent in the 18th century being that those who had won debate competitions in the ibaadat-khana of Pataliputra, Delhi, Agra or Lahore winning the chance to argue in front of the emperor. Meanwhile, eloquent poets from across the indo-persian world showed off their talents, and in a nearby room the Academy of Medicine would compare medical traditions from around the world and authorise legal and illegal treatments.

Brahmans, Jains, Zoroastrians, intellectuals of every discipline, artists, mathematicians and designers engaged in all manner of theoretical and practica

l discussion.​

After a morning filled with attention to state business, the emperor retreated from the ghusl-khana to the royal apartments, rest, enjoy some private time and engage in his afternoon prayers. After that, lunch was served and the emperor took a nap before returning to the ghusl-khana for another round of business. In afternoon sessions, meetings were scheduled with his chief army record keepers, heads of equipment and material, the superintendent of imperial infrastructure, and top revenue officials. These officials gave reports on overall state of the economy, expenditures for salaries, the account balances with respect to jagirs, the inventories of imperial supplies and infrastructure and so forth. Also it was here that welfare and charity was scrutinised to ensure that it was reaching the people that really needed it, as well as the more traditional irregular grants were decided on. Further it was here that emperor’s would hold audience with people claiming to have techniques to improve agricultural productivity and approve major infrastructure projects such as canals, wells and gardens, despite much of this having been handed off to private mansabdar firms by Jahanzeb’s time with the emperor assigning and withdrawing contracts as he chose, and private infrastructure projects by mansabdars being likely to lead to an increase in mansab.
As evening approached, the emperor would wind up his afternoon meetings with financial advisors and then head out from the ghusl-khana to attend twilight prayers, the time when the city officials would have the streetlights lit in richer cities of the empire. The emperor would then have a predictably sumptuous dinner and stage various forms of entertainment. As a matter of ritual, the first of these was the hearing of marvellous tales and interesting anecdotes, the recital and discussion of reliable books of global history (though with focus of course, on the Persianate world despite figures from the Hellenic and Christian tradition being part of the public imagination from Shah Jahan’s time and in Jahanzeb Shah’s time with a constant focus on recent history). At least once a year, the Baburnama, and Akbarnama would be read from as a model for the emperor to emulate. Evening entertainment also usually included listening to captivating and delightful Kashmiri, Hindi, Nepali, Bengali and Gujarati songs until well into the night, accompanied from the aesthetically minded Shah Jahan’s time with performances of traditional Indian dance forms, and with the tawaif missions of Jahanzeb Shah’s reign, women would bring knowledge of dance styles from all over the world with Thailand and France being especially notable in the eyes of Meeta Begum. A product of the Mughal incorporation of south india was the import of the southern dramatic tradition of yakshagana, as southern mansabdars strove to achieve imperial favour and support among the wider nobility by producing persian, hindustani and marathi yakshagana's for the first time. Many of these were defiantly multilingual, to the extent that some even ended up being about multilingualism, including all languages of the mughal court, as well as those from farther afield. It was partly through its use in this form that Sanskrit made its temporary return to relevance in Mughal imperial culture, as the director would traditionally introduce himself and the play in sanskrit.

The Panchabh

ashavilasa (game of five languages) , a multilingual yakshagana play written under the patronage of the Marathas of Tanjore in 1744 was dedicated to the emperor, and features princesses from Hindustan, Andhra, Tamil, the Deccan and Greece, who have all fallen in love with the god Krishna after seeing him in a wedding. They all meet in a park, announced in their respective languages by an attendant, after which they begin to quarrel, each speaking their own languages (the greek princess is a stand-in for the vague idea of pre-christian europe, and in different performances different european languages are used) . After much confusion, Krishna sends his friend Mr. All-languages, who at first tries to speak to them in sanskrit , but only manages to calm them after speaking to them in their own languages. Finally, Krishna appears himself and sings and dances with each princess in her own language, or alternatively five krishna's appear, one for each princess, depending on the production.

The number of celebrations officially celebrated by the imperial court was constantly increasing, as they visited local celebrations and gave imperial patronage to them. It was after all thanks to Mughal patronage that holi, in the guise of eid- gulabi (Pink/ Rose Eid) became a popular celebration throughout the middle east. As with the imperial breakfast, one of the aims of royal celebrations was to showcase the range of exotic materials at the emperors disposal- Shah Jahan imported velvets from Kashan, Gujarati brocades, rubies from Badakhshan, porcelain from China and mirrors from Aleppo, and Jahanzeb Shah’s reign saw an unprecedented rise in European imports such as tables from France and musical instruments from Italy. The piano made its indian debut not two decades after its first invention and is praised specifically in Naubat Khan’s edition of the Raga Darpan.Ornately decorated muskets were produced as luxury goods and works of art; cannon cast in fanciful shapes to resemble dragons or nagas may have struck western observers as ridiculous but the place of firearms as status symbols shows how much value was given to military innovation in imperial culture.

 

[haider najib]

Noice, got some questions have russians always been at the mughal court or is that a thing in the tl?

Btw which european power has the best relationship with the mughals im guessing france? Both were close in real life and trading alot it seems here.

Btw where do the pashtuns fit in the empire?

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

have russians always been at the mughal court or is that a thing in the tl

As far as I remember, we've only got one actual testimony from an orthodox priest in Mughal India and he wasn't super connected with the court. But I think it just makes sense.

Btw which european power has the best relationship with the mughals im guessing france?

The official position might be France, but you've got to remember mansabdars and especially princes will form alliances with whoever they want with little thought to what the imperial position is. That's gonna become especially important as we get to a big succession struggle.

Btw where do the pashtuns fit in the empire?

As a source of military power. Especially with the conquest of the south, there's been a good stream of Pashtun (as well as Hindustani more generally) immigrants to support the bureaucratic apparatus etc etc. They've really always been a diaspora community, with the richest pashtun groups being spread out across the subcontinent.

They've had a long and complicated history with the imperial throne, and for the majority, if a Pashtun wants to get in with the court, he assimilates completely to the Persian- Hindi court culture.

This began to change otl at around this point with the rise of big Afghan empires- still the first Pashtun dictionary we have was written to stop people assimilating to a more general Indian Muslim identity. It's still up in the air how the dynamics of it will work ittl.

In terms of mansabs, theyre similar to the Marathas in that there's a lot of them, but generally not a lot in the highest ranks.

 

[souvikkundu25140017]

Will we see reform movement within Hinduism against caste system and untouchability? What the status of four monasteries made by Shankar?

Is there any wide scale conversion happened due to Buddhist missionaries? Is mahabodhi temple and other Buddhist sites restored?

What is the status of Portuguese and Goa?

Are there any attempt made by Europeans to convert mughals and nobility!

 

[haider najib]

I got some more questions.

How do europeans act in court and feel about it? Have any european nations tried make offically closer ties alliances etc? Also as Poster above are they still using missionaries?

What language do mughals use with Europeans and vice versa?

How are ottoman and mughal relations? Does the ottoman caliph have influence in the empire? Does the mughals recognise and pay homage?

Are the russians trying to build stronger ties as well the trade and all that will they push south now to get a border with the empire?

What is the capital again? The red fort?

Btw how do the rajputs fare? Are they now losing their favoured status due to all the new cultures and people?

 

[Madhukar_Shah]

Will we see reform movement within Hinduism against caste system and untouchability?

Nope- Hinduism can't be reformed because it doesnt work as an identity in that sense. Individual Hindu groups (which includes Sikhs and other Nirguna sects), all have their own opinions on caste, ranging from the Brahmin dominated attitudes prevalent in the deccan and the south, where the bureaucracy is mostly made of brahmins, to more liberal attitudes in the Panjab, Bengal and Gujarat.

Is there any wide scale conversion happened due to Buddhist missionaries? Is mahabodhi temple and other Buddhist sites restored?

I did in a prior update initially say there was a good amount of conversion, but I've actually gotten rid of that now, as I think it goes against the spirit of the age. I've kept the bit about the Mahabodhi temple being restored as it serves as a method of political control by which the Mughals can influence the Buddhist societies around them, and while increasing contact probably does lead to greater knowledge, I think as Buddhism in no way could be described as monotheistic, I could even see the jizya being introduced on and off for Buddhist populations in Nepal and Sri Lanka- not that the state can know what religion people actually follow, but self-identifying as Buddhist to the exclusion of more orthodox practices would definitely be cause for sanction. This would be in Sri-Lanka from around the 1720s onwards and in Nepal from the 1740's onwards, introduced whenever the emperor feels the need to remind people of his role as guardian of orthodoxy and rescinded to show favour to particular buddhist groups. That means that Sri Lanka is more likely to be forced to pay Jizya than Nepal, because the Oirats would be able to leverage their homage and symbolic acts of submission for political favours for Tibetan buddhism in a way Theravada buddhists cant.

Do we think that if Tibetan buddhists began missionary activity in the Sri Lanka they'd have greater success than the Hindu community of the Island, who'd be bolstered by waves of immigration associated with conquest?

What is the status of Portuguese and Goa?

Goa was conquered by the Mughal state, but the Portuguese governor and the faction that turned the city over without a massive seige were recognised as mansabdars deserving of relatively high rank in compensation. The Portuguese crown wasnt too happy, but they managed to work out an arrangement which i do want to save for talking about the altered context of the 9 years war.

Are there any attempt made by Europeans to convert mughals and nobility!

Oh yeah of course! Ever since the Jesuits in Akbar's reign, the Mughals have been permissive of missionaries and Catholic influence- once a Jesuit priest in Shah Jahan's Lahore snuck in to do the Azan and added in Isa ibn Allah (Jesus son of God), which according to Jesuit sources wasnt . Akbars sons briefly became Catholic as well, so theres history as well that Jesuits in the 18th century use to convince the emperor to keep this stance. Their status is contested, as local populations very often are hostile, and force specific missions to be shut, and the Emperor frequently supports the anti-christian forces. As for the nobility, christians are a small minority, with one family from Akbars time and most being recent immigrants who offer services, technology and gifts to the Mughal state with the money of a European king in return for entrance to the nobility.

What language do mughals use with Europeans and vice versa?

Which europeans? With Russia, the common language is Chagatai Turkic which is the Turkic literary language patronised by Russian Turks, both christian and muslim, as well as the original language of the Mughal court. With western Europe, communication from the Mughal emperor himself is always in Persian, but communication is much more frequent from mansabdars, who might use combinations of Braj, Persian, Marathi, Telugu, Latin, French or English. It depends precisely who is talking, and to which European country, why they're communicating and what networks they're using to communicate. For example, a communication that uses a Jesuit missionary as an ambassador from a Maratha court to the court of France might use French, but Latin if the same missionary is an agent to a German court, or Braj or Marathi if there is a specific member of the french court who is interested in Indian culture.

How are ottoman and mughal relations?

Politically, pretty frigid at the moment, after Nader Shah's embarrassing of the Ottoman army, and the developments in Iran we'll see now aren't super conducive to cooperation either.

Does the ottoman caliph have influence in the empire?

Does the king of france have influence in the empire? They're both people with lots of resources that can treat diplomatically as relative equals with the emperor, but in terms of religious power, not in the slightest. As far as Jahanzeb Shah is concerned, he's the caliph, Delhi is the home of the caliphate, not Istanbul. There's a decent sized Rumi community in Gujarat and larger cities of the empire, and they all have to use the name of the Great Mogor in the khutba, not the Grand Seignior of Istanbul.

Are the russians trying to build stronger ties as well the trade and all that will they push south now to get a border with the empire?

Oh yeah- Russia's not expanded west massively, but a lot of that effort has gone into expanding trade, policing the overland routes from central asia to Russia, and with a police presence comes a claim to sovereignty. Whether they manage to displace the Dzunghars as The great central asian force, remains to be seen.

What is the capital again? The red fort?

The capital is wherever the emperor is, most of the time in camp (remember the massive 800,000 people conglomeration?), but a specific city is generally regarded as the Dar- al Khilafat, and that's Shahjahanabad-Delhi.

Btw how do the rajputs fare? Are they now losing their favoured status due to all the new cultures and people?

I think details are something I'm going to need to leave for later, considering its gonna be very important as Prithvi Narayan Shah's sons search for allies, but Rajputs in Jahanzeb Shah's reign were still very culturally and economically significant, but their political significance was a lot smaller than it was in Jahangir's time.

 

[souvikkundu25140017]

I think Tibetan missionaries will focus on area near to them like current meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland, Assam and parts of East Bengal. I think they will focus on Dalits and lower castes who remain outside caste system In traditional sense. Why would they focus on Sri Lanka where Buddhist faith currently exists rather than parts where they will not have to compete with them?

Maybe not Hindu reform In traditional sense. I mean much of neo vedanta was constructed by swami Vivekananda using adi shankar's teaching and his gurus philosophy which reforged Hinduism to deal with west. To deal with Muslims various counter measures was taken and It also led to cross pollination which created Sufi and bhaki. Now Hindus are encountering other religions will not force them to deal with various challenges? Will we see some royal interference like akber's ban of sati? Will we see charismatic religious leaders to create movements against caste system? Social mobility is far greater compared to canon, it is certainly fertile ground for reform and at least restructuring.