Due to some readers questions regarding several major events that happened after the war I decided it would be easier for readers if we were to publish the World Section next an then return to the other sections such as economics, Security and Health & Education. The World Section is divided into 3 sections (Europe, Middle East & Asia and South America with special emphasis on Brazil and Argentina).
1940 – 1949 (cont.)
The Post War Years 1945 – 1949 (cont.)
World (2 of 3)
Post War – Middle East
The Middle East saw the first colonies and protectorates gaining independence with the British granting independence to Palestine and Transjordan while the French granted independence to Syria and Lebanon. From 1946 to 1948 thousands of Jews (mostly Holocaust survivors) traveled to British Palestine, with the goal of establishing a Jewish homeland. The British opposed their immigration on fears it would upset the Arabs most of whom were Muslim. By 1947 the arrival of thousands of Jews in Palestine had caused tensions between Jews and Arabs to explode and the British were unable to maintain peace.
In 1948 under a UN plan, Palestine was equally divided between Jewish and Arabs with Jerusalem to be shared between the two. This plan was rejected by Israel’s Arab neighbors and the day following the Jewish declaration of independence they invaded the Jewish state. Portugal provided money and weapons to Israel, but most importantly was the 3 regiments of Portuguese Jewish army veteran volunteers and supplies that the Portuguese Navy transported to Israel. In addition, another 5,000 Portuguese-Jews also travelled to Israel to support the Jewish people in their fight for a Jewish homeland. Israel defeated the Arab invaders and was able to expand by taking 2/3 of the Palestinian lands originally outlined in the UN plan as well as the entire city of Jerusalem. Portuguese recognition of the State of Israel as well as military and financial support provided the foundation of the current Israeli-Portuguese relationship.
Asia
While WW2 had ended war continued to plague Asia following. The continent was being ripped apart by two major civil wars (China and India) meanwhile nationalist forces in French Indochina and the Dutch East Indies fought the returning Europeans who attempted to re-assert their control.
Meanwhile while both the French and Dutch fought against independence movements the US granted Philippines its independence in 1946. The British too moved towards independence for many of its colonies, foremost amongst the territories becoming independent was British India the crown jewel of British Empire which was dismantled into four separate countries (India, Pakistan, Burma and Sri Lanka).
Following the Japanese unconditional surrender all Japanese soldiers were disarmed, and its overseas possessions either granted independence or returned to its rightful owner including all of its pre-war conquest and annexations. Manchuria was returned to China and Korea became independent. Japan also lost the Japanese Kurils and south Sakhalin Island to the Soviet Union.[1] Hundreds of thousands of Japanese were forced to relocate to the Japanese main islands. As punishment for its war actions and to prevent Japan from becoming a military threat again, Japan was de-industrialized with the goal of reducing Japanese standard of living to 1930 and 1934 level.
China
In 1945 with Japan defeated Nationalist Forces and Communist forces once again resumed their long war for dominance and control of China. Before the war, the communists were on the verge of collapse and had retreated deep into central China to regroup, by wars end they were almost evenly matched. The advantage the Communists had over the Nationalist forces was that communist forces were under one unified command, meanwhile the Nationalist forces were under several commands and coordination between the Nationalist forces was problematic at best.
From 1946 to 1948 the Communist and Nationalist forces fought each other at a great cost to personnel and civilians. At end of 1948 the communists launched the Pingjin Campaign in Northern China and by the end of the year they had defeated the Nationalist forces and were in control over all of Northern China by January 1949. In the fighting, the Nationalist forces lost over 1.5 million soldiers many of them veterans of the Japanese Chinese war. With the main part of its army lost the Nationalist government withdrew south of the Yangtze River.
In April 1949, the communist forces crossed the Yangtze River and the Nationalist forces retreated further south establishing their provisional capital in Canton. The communists continued their southward advance and in November the Nationalist forces and 2 million civilians north of the Pearl River crossed the Taiwan Strait and retreated to Taiwan. The remaining Nationalist forces south of the Pearl River and 500,000 civilians retreated to the island of Hainan. On 1 October 1949 Mao proclaimed the People Republic of China with its capital in Beijing.
China – Portugal Relationship
Following the surrender of Japan, Portuguese forces returned to Macau and reestablished Portuguese sovereignty over the territory. Portugal also re-occupied the Chinese islands of Lapa, Dom Joao and Montanha (Wanzai, Small and Large Hengqin). Nationalist China objected to the Portuguese occupation and demanded Portugal withdraw its troops. The new Portuguese Ambassador João de Barros Ferreira da Fonseca offered the Nationalist Chinese government a compromise, Portugal would withdraw from the island of Lapa but continue its presence on the islands of Dom Joao and Montanha. The status of the two islands would be differed to a later date in return Portugal committed to provide the Nationalist forces who were locked into a civil war with Communists with weapons and ammunition. From 1945 to 1948 Portugal provide millions of dollars in military support to the Nationalists. In 1948 the sovereignty of the islands was transferred to Macau in return Portugal cancelled all Chinese debts owed to Portugal while Portuguese would continue its support to the Nationalist fight against the communist rebels. In 1949 the communists won the Chinese Civil War and the Chinese Nationalists forces withdrew to the islands of Hainan and Taiwan. Following the fall of mainland China to the communists, Portugal worked with the UK to guarantee the safety of both Macau and Honk Kong. Troop strengths and Naval presence were strengthened but other than that no other action was taken. At end of 1949 Portugal did not have diplomatic relationship with Communist China and re-established relationship with Nationalist China who had moved their capital to the island of Taiwan.
Macau and China 1948
Original Macau (green),
Territory occupied 1938 – 1947 (Red),
Territory gained 1938 (olive green)
India
In 1946, Indian leaders such as Gandhi led civil disobedience movements against those in power (British and Nationalist leaders) as well as against the continued attacks against civilians by communists and anarchists.[2] The non-violent independent movement and Indian resistance to British Rule finally forced the British to adhere to Indian demands and in March 1947 the British Parliament passed the Indian Independence Act granting Independence to Pakistan and India.
In 1946, the situation in British India became very dangerous as the independence movement gained ground and civil action escalated. Meanwhile communists continued their attack on the British as well as Indian Nationalists figures.[3] On 18 February 1946, the Indian Royal Navy mutinied in Bombay. Indian Communists stole aboard the HMIS Akbar docked at the Bombay harbor and set explosives in the ammunition storage. The explosion ripped apart the ship as well as 12 other ships in the harbor and the resulting fire damaged almost half the harbor. Casualties were estimated over 5,000 with three times that number injured. Indian Communists were blamed and both Nationalists Indians and British targeted the communists with renewed vigor.[4]
On 4 April 1947, communists launched an attack on the Indian Congress while Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel as well as most of the India’s Congress members were in attendance. All the guards and several members of Congress were killed in the attack. When the Indian army attempted to storm the congress, the communists blew themselves up as well as detonated the bombs they had planted in building.[5] Almost all Indian politicians died in blast and over next several days communist integrated into the army throughout the country revolted against the Indian National government. While majority of the communist members in the military were defeated several units especially in the Indus valley were taken over by communists and they began battling Nationalist forces.
On 5 June 1947 Pakistan took advantage of the Indian Civil war and attacked India in an attempt to capture parts of Bengal and Kashmir. By 1949 when a cease fire was negotiated India had lost half of the state of Bengal and entire state of Kashmir.
On 2 July 1947, Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar, ruler of Princely State of Mysore survived a communist assassination. DGS agents working in Mysore capital convinced him that he should follow Hyderabad State’s example and declare Mysore Independent.[6]
In October 1948 DGS began providing support and weapons to Pratap Singh Rao Gaekwad, ruler of princely state of Baroda in its attack on communists and other princely states as it attempted to unify Baroda’s various areas. By 1949, the Kingdom of Baroda forces had united the princely states three major areas into a single area of control including control of several major ports in Gujarat Western India. They continued their attacks into the Kathiawar peninsula as well as battling communists and several princely state holdouts to the east and south.
On 30 January 1848 Gandhi was assassinated by Hindu extremists. The Indian government tried to pin the murder on the communists but failed. On 5 March 1948 General Kodandera Madappa Cariappa, leader of Indian army proclaimed himself as President of India and declared Marshall Law.
On 15 November 1948 Bombay fell to Indian communist forces led by Rashtriya Mazdoor Mill Sangh. Indian forces were forced to withdraw north leaving a power vacuum in Western India. On 5 March 1949 Rashtriya Mazdoor Mill Sangh and several of his top deputies were killed by rival communists in a power struggle splintering the communists in Western India. Following the fall of Bombay, the only independent Indian forces left in Western India were those under the command of General Cowasji Jehangir who by March 1949 had assembled a force of 20,000 soldiers around Pune. He also opposed President Cariappa and supported a democratic India. In October, he signed several agreements with the Portuguese government in Goa, the Nizam Osman Ali Khan of Hyderabad and Jaya Chamarajendra Wadiyar of Mysore. All three countries pledged to support General Jehangir with money and weapons.[7]
On 15 June 1949 communists led by V. S. Achuthanandan overthrew Travancore’s government executing its king, Chithira Thirunal Balarama Varma. Over the next few years Travancore would become the source of many communist attacks in Madras and Malabar.
At end of 1949 the Indian army was locked in battle with communist forces along the Indus River basin. It was also battling separatist forces in Northern India and in central India against Hyderabad. The defeat to Pakistan and the loss of Bombay to the communists was a major blow to the Indian government of President Cariappa and many people complained and were unhappy with the government. President Cariappa responded by banning demonstrations and had opposition leaders arrested.
From 1949, onward the number of DGS agents in India surpassed the number in Portuguese India as Portugal attempted to influence the Indian Civil war and various factions in a way that did not prejudice or hurt Portuguese India.
East Indies – Dutch East Indies
During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies, Indonesian forces under Sukarno collaborated with Japanese forces. When Japan surrendered, the Indonesian forces seized the Japanese weapons and declared the Independence of Indonesia encompassing all of the Dutch East Indies as well claiming Portuguese East Indies and British territory on Borneo.
In 1946, the Dutch government sent forces to the East Indies in an attempt to regain control but instead the forces found themselves fighting the Indonesia rebels for control. From 1946 to 1947 both Australia and British provided troops while US and Portugal provided support to the Dutch as it battled the Indonesian rebels. In 1947, the Dutch doubled the number of troops to 60,000 but by then it was too late and too little. Large part of the Dutch east Indies was in the hands of the rebels. Rebels confident in their victory attacked Portuguese in Sumbawa and the British in Borneo.
In 1948 Indonesia leaders and forces were attacked in island of Java by communist forces. Sukarno and several other senior leaders were captured and executed. By end of 1948 Indonesia Nationalist forces had recaptured most of the land from the communists and also reduced the amount of land the Dutch control on the island to just the capital Jakarta and the surrounding territory. In January 1949 Indonesia Nationalist forces and government came under the control of General Sutomo. The Nationalists controlled most of the island of Java, about half the island of Borneo and the southern part of the island of Sumatra.
On the island of Sumatra, the Indonesia Nationalist forces were also battling the Riau forces. To the north in Aceh the rebel forces there decide to stay neutral and wait to see the result of independence struggle elsewhere. On island of Bali Colonel Gusti Ngurah Rai who had survived near death experience following several battles with the Dutch and assassination attempt by Nationalists forces loyal to Sutomo united the island and declared Bali independence.
At the end of war, the Portuguese approached the Dutch about Portuguese occupied Dutch East Indies and Portuguese claims to several of the occupied islands. The Dutch had refused to negotiate with Portugal and demanded that it withdraw all forces to Portuguese Timor but lacked the ability to force the issue. In 1946 Portugal agreed to provide the Dutch with assistance and agreed to hold its occupied territory so rebel forces would not seize it. In 1947, the Dutch forces in the Dutch East Indies were increased again and Portugal provided the Dutch with naval, air support as well as sold them weapons. Portugal continued to support the Dutch and blocked Indonesia Nationalists diplomatically from gaining UN recognition.
East Indies – Portuguese East Indies
The outbreak of the Indonesia War of Independence in 1945 caught the Portuguese government and the DGS by surprise. The Portuguese thinking at end of WWII was that they would have a few years to mold and “Lusophonize” the recently occupied Dutch East Indies. The original thinking was that Portugal would return all islands back to the Dutch with the exception Western Timor, Flores and the smaller islands of (Roti, Alor and Wetar). The outbreak of Independence War in the Indies meant that instead the Portuguese were forced to pacify all Portuguese occupied islands and where possible provide the Dutch with assistance.
On 22 March 1947, Portuguese forces came under fire from Indonesia guerillas for first time. Attacks on the island of Sumbawa killed 22 Portuguese soldiers in three separate attacks and Portugal responded with re-enforcements and large-scale sweeps of the island. In several clashes over 126 suspected guerrillas were killed. Portuguese military intelligence and DGS responded by arresting and interrogating known supporters of the Indonesia independence movement. Following the attacks, the Portuguese navy and air force increased their patrols of waters around the Portuguese controlled islands. In 1948 Dutch forces abandoned Lombok and Indonesian forces had a secure base close to Sumbawa to launch their attacks. DGS sweeps and interrogations generated few leads. Also, worrying to the Portuguese and DGS was the direction the war was taking as the Dutch forces were being losing the ground to rebels on more and more islands.
On 15 August 1947 abandoning all hope that the Dutch would prevail against the Indonesian rebels the DGS began a two-pronged strategy to deal with the growing independence movement of Sukarno. First it started to try to pinpoint Indonesia’s independence leader Sukarno and other senior members of the Indonesia Rebels location and secondly it established contact with rival organizations that were not only fighting the Dutch but also the Indonesian Nationalists rebels led by Sukarno.[8] The DGS started providing weapons where required, training but mostly support and where possible nudged the different movements towards independence:[9]
- On the island of Sulawesi – the northern part of the island Minahasa Nationalist sought to break free of not only Dutch but also Jakarta’s control;
- On island of Sumatra – In the center the people of Riau (Malaysian) demanded independence from both Dutch and Jakarta. In the north, the people of Aceh maintained their independence from the Dutch and supported an independent Indonesia;[10]
- South Moluccas (Seram, Ambon, and Buru) – locals on these islands were fighting the Dutch forces and wanted to declare an independent state;
- Northern Moluccas (Tindore, Sula and Halmahera) – Christians which comprised over 50% of population felt uneasiness of being controlled by Muslims;[11]
- Island of Bali – Hindu’s feared that their rights and freedoms would not be respected in a Muslim majority country;
In June 1948, the Indonesia Communist Party launched an attack on the Indonesian republican forces capturing Sukarno and several other senior Republic Indonesian leaders (Prime Minister Sjarifuddin and Haji Agus Salim) on the island of Java. A show trial was held, and the Sukarno and rest of Republic leaders were executed. In October 1948, the communist’s location was betrayed, and they were defeated by a republic counterattack.[12]
On 20 July 1948, the Indonesia rebels attempted to invade Sumbawa. The Indonesians launched hundreds of fishing boats filled with fighters. The Java Sea battle pitted the Portuguese navy against hundreds of fishing boats crammed with thousands of Indonesians rebels. Portuguese ships and planes destroyed many of ships and the waters were filled with desperate men and most perished by drowning or to sharks. Still thousands of rebels landed on the western shore of Sumbawa where Portuguese army and marines were waiting. The rebels fought for over six hours trying to hold on to their small beachheads but in the end the Portuguese forces supported by air force were too strong, and the last rebels surrendered in late afternoon. Portuguese casualties were listed at 79 killed and 456 wounded. The true number of Indonesia rebels killed at sea was not known but 1,245 rebels were captured, and 2,950 bodies were recovered from the beaches and the sea.
On 22nd of August, the Portuguese forces launched an amphibious attack on the Indonesian forces in Lombok. For next two months Portuguese pushed the Indonesian forces steadily west taking the city of Mataram on 21st of October. Indonesia forces were driven back to the Volcano Mount Rinjani. In November 1948, the Portuguese brought fresh troops to the island. The arrival of the Angolan 5th division allowed the Portuguese to launch a two-prong attack on the rebels. On 22 January 1949, the last of the rebels surrendered. The Portuguese military began planning for the invasion of the island of Bali, but on 3rd of February Hindu separatists seized the island of Bali. For the next six months, Portuguese forces waited while political and military events unfolded in Indonesia. On 1 October 1949, a cease fire went into effect.
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[1] The Soviets had moved troops onto the Japanese Kurils and south Sakhalin following Japanese surrender and annexed the territories. The Americans had not protested the Soviet move.
[2] Till that moment the largest and deadliest attack was the Bombay harbor explosion.
[3] The Indian Communists congress in 1942 rejected civil disobedience and advocated an armed struggle against all imperialistic forces.
[4] This was the first action that was performed by Portuguese agents within the Communist and Independent movements in order to focus British and Nationalist forces on the Communist threat in the subcontinent.
[5] Portuguese DGS became aware of plot in mid-March following the approval of the Indian Independence Act by British parliament and the splitting of British India into India and Pakistan. But the information was only passed to the British on 4th of April when it was too late to intercept them. Inquiries by British Intelligence failed to uncover this fact and the British took Portuguese at their word that they had only become aware of the plot the night before and informed them ASAP.
[6] Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar was prepared to sign the Indian ascendency act which would have brought Mysore into Indian union.
[7] Portuguese weapons, as well as British, American and French weapons were unloaded in Portuguese and Madras ports and transported to the Indian forces under General Jehangir command as well as both Mysore and Hyderabad forces.
[8] Sukarno wanted to create a unified country of all the Dutch East Indies plus several neighboring islands. Many people in the outlying islands believed that Dutch oversight and domination would be replaced by Jakarta’s oversight and sought to establish their own independent country.
[9] While Portuguese where the first to make contact with these groups but were not the only ones that supported them. Communist states as well as the US, UK and Australia all supported these movements at different stages as it became clear that Dutch control was numbered, and that the Nationalist lacked the strength to gain control of all the Dutch East Indies.
[10] Teungku Daud Beureueh and his religious Ulama party controlled the northern part of the island
[11] Of the independence movements, the Northern Moluccas were the least organized.
[12] DGS agents secretly worked with both communists and the nationalists. It provided information on Sukarno position to the communists and then provided the nationalists the location of communists (after the execution of Sukarno) but were not responsible or had any involvement in either the communist insurrection or Republican counterattack.
In this post I wanted to elaborate on the several sections; China - we have two major changes. National China has been able maintain Hainan Island, while the Portuguese were able to leverage support for Nationalist China to its ability to double Macau size. What happens in the 1950s we will have to see. In Asia we have two former colonies British India and Dutch East Indies collapsing into civil wars. These civil wars actually continued well into 1950s .
Questions / Comments?
In two weeks on September 15 we will return with part 3 of the Post War world section (As we start discussing two very important Portuguese allies and friends who together with the Federation would be dubbled the "Three Amigos" by American press in the 1970s.)
