A Lusophone World

[Lusitania]

OH BOY IT'S SPAIN TIME

Yes you knew we were not finished with them.

I always believed that Olivenza should have been returned to Portugal after the treaty of Vienna on 1815. But it didn’t, which always perplexed me since it was Portuguese and then the Spanish conquer it in 1801; the Portuguese with British help then in the Peninsular War basically occupied all of Iberia, but still the region was not given back to Portugal, which for me, personally, was stupid.
Portugal should have gotten it back!

Yes, Yes and Yes.
Unfortunely it showed the relative weakness of the Portuguese in relations to other countries that we never were able to get the territory back. Enough said though we got it back.

I have a observation. The break-of-gauge between Portugal (1664 mm) and Spain (1672 mm) always allowed interoperability of trains between both countries.

Yes I read that but the building of the transit railway in Portuguese gauge allowed for faster transportation since it did not require the Portuguese trains to slow down at point of transition.

Great work Lusitania!!
The only thing I found a little ASB is Aragón becoming part of Cataluña.

Ok little background, the revolt against the Fascist Rightwing government in Madrid took place after a relative tense period during the 1950s where tens of thousands were arrested and tens of thousands had fled to France and few thousand to Portuguese Federation. When the revolt took place many of those returned to Spain or rebel control areas such as Aragon ready to bolster the revolt. This also happened in other areas such as Castelon and Teruel that were not loyal to Catalan but to Spain. As the reprisal against leftist and those fighting for democracy increased more and more "refugee" fled to safe areas. When the cease fire was implemented they were in no delusion of what would happen to them if and when they returned to live under Madrid's control. Therefore the people in Catalonia and the other two breakaway regions were left with few choices. Return to Spain, flee Iberian Peninsula or become independent in a democratic country. Even while the negotiations were taking place stories of Spanish security forces and secret police arresting any it considered an enemy of the government spread through the Iberian Peninsula.

So the people voted to leave a repressive ruled Spain for a democratic country. Catalan people soon discovered that they had become a minority in the new country of Cataluña.

As I had indicated many had expected half or more of the regions of Cataluña to vote to return to Spain and that majority in every region voted to reject Fascism and the dire economic conditions of the country was a great shock not only in Spain by in Cataluña. Only the Basque and Galician people really voted on a more nationalistic lines instead of fear and economics. From 1956-1969 over 500,000 Spanish would migrate, flee Spain for its neighbors which now numbered four countries.

 

[Bob Gump]

Thanks for the explanation. I'd suggest to rename Catalonia as Kingdom or Republic of Aragon and Catalonia. Maybe in the future we will see Valencia and Baleares becoming a part of said Republic...

 

[SealTheRealDeal]

the Republic of Basque

Tad disappointed it isn't a Carlist Kingdom.

 

[Lusitania]

I wonder if those assassins from Galicia realized how much chaos they would cause when they killed Franco? Regardless, Portugal now has a firmer grasp on Iberia. Will Spain rename themselves into the Kingdom of Castile or is that too much already?

Thanks for the explanation. I'd suggest to rename Catalonia as Kingdom or Republic of Aragon and Catalonia. Maybe in the future we will see Valencia and Baleares becoming a part of said Republic...

Tad disappointed it isn't a Carlist Kingdom.

The Spanish actually do learn a few things from the debacle of the end of Franco era, with the new leaders opening the country up to foreign investors and get serious in reforming the country. All this while keeping a firm control of the country's government accepting no dissent. The untimely death of Franco actually would prolong the rightwing government well into the 1980s.

As for renaming Spain to Castile, no that would be viewed as negative and step back. So they would state that Spain still claimed Basque, Catalonia and Galicia, even though it recognized their independence. Confused, so is everyone.

The Republic of Catalonia is the country that suffered the greatest identity issues. With majority of its citizens associating themselves as Spanish instead of Catalonian. More than 3/4 of the people spoke Madrid Spanish instead of Catalonian Spanish. The viability of the country was tied to the longevity of the Spain remaining governed by rightwing dictatorship. We will discuss the country, Spain and rest of non-Portuguese Iberian Peninsula more in the decades to follow.

I'm sure Portugal will be pleased with their newly recognized islands in Indonesia, but I wonder how they will use them. Will they be used for tourism, naval yards, and for nuclear bomb testing?

The Portuguese East Indies provinces are too populated and close to other countries to use for nuclear testing. Australia being one of those countries with a large border to the south.

Nuclear development both power and military will be fully discussed in the 1960s and does feature prominently during the Portuguese African wars (sorry but all I can reveal at moment.)

As for their development, it follows a light manufacturing model during the 1950s - 1970s. Tourism industry only really grew starting in the 1970s, while Naval yards had been established in Europe and Africa by the 1950s.

 

[Wendell]

Aragon goes with Catalonia? Interesting.

 

[Lusitania]

Aragon goes with Catalonia? Interesting.

As I had indicated the vote was a surprise too but was in many was one made by majority of people one made out of fear or returning to live under nationalist rule. The agreement on voting was heated debate with many Catalonians and Basque wanting only those who had lived in the rebelling regions before Franco’s death to be able to vote but the government in Madrid hoping that those who had fled would still vote to be part of Spain demanded all those residing in those regions at time of cease fire to be allowed to vote.

Imagine the surprise when over 50% voted to leave. Now Catalonia and evening Basque republics be hard pressed to keep all their regions if Nationalist had been replaced by democracy in the 1960s and 1970s. But things did not go that way. More on the Iberians in future decades.

 

[Lusitania]

1950 – 1959 (cont)

World (cont)

Africa​

Africa during the 50s was in transition as both Britain, France and Belgium either started granting their colonies and protectorates independence or prepared their colonies for independence. All of this of course was in stark contrast to the Federation and its attempt in integrating its former overseas provinces into single country. Meanwhile in North Africa the Arabs either threw off the shackles of colonialism with several countries joining Egypt as independent country or rebelled against the Europeans

Britain
At the forefront of the decolonization process was Britain who during the 1950s granted independence to some of its African protectorates and colonies namely Sudan, Libya, Egypt and Ghana (Gold Coast).[1] During the 1950s while Britain was committed to decolonization, locals living in the colonies were involved in several wars and struggles against European African rule. Foremost amongst those struggles was the Kenyan colonial war and the Rhodesian European Assimilation attempt.

Kenya had a large British settler community due to its good agricultural land but like in rest of world the settlers had obtained the land from the natives and after WW2 political pressure against the injustices and malpractice erupted into the armed struggle by Kamba and Maasai peoples who fought against the white European colonist-settlers in Kenya, the British Army, and the local Kenya Regiment (British colonists, local auxiliary militia, and pro–British Kikuyu people). It became known as the Kenya Emergency, or the Mau Mau Revolt, and lasted till 1959 when majority of its leaders had been killed and remnants of the rebel forces retreated deep into forests and bush. During the war the British had moved substantially in the direction of granting Kenya independence and in 1957 the first direct elections occurred in Kenya. At the end of decade the British colony had achieved peace and an agreement was signed to grant Kenya complete independence on 1 July 1960.

In Southern Africa the 1950s saw a concerted British government and moderate white Southern Rhodesian effort to unite the self-governing British colony of Southern Rhodesia and the British protectorates of Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland into a single country called Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland or better known as Central African Federation, (CAF). These British territories were surrounded by Portuguese Federation to the east and west and South Africa to the south. The British government and several white Rhodesians such as Sir Reginald Stephen Garfield Todd in an attempt to counter act the Nationalist Apartheid policies of South Africa and afraid of the Portuguese Federation thought a united country comprising of Rhodesia colony and the two northern protectorates would be both economically and politically stronger. It included an interesting and novel feature, the African Affairs Board, set up to safeguard the interests of Africans and endowed with statutory powers for that purpose, particularly in regard to discriminatory legislation.

CAF was unfortunately under attack from its inception in 1952 and ultimately collapsed at end of the 1959. Afrikaners were against the idea of providing blacks with any additional powers and looked upon South Africa model as way to go. Meanwhile Africans were not satisfied with half measures and Europeans retaining in control of the government.

Economically the new country was successful with its economy growing at over 10% a year for the first years. But economic disparity between Europeans and blacks continued to grow and many Africans saw this as an injustice. Many Africans though were admitted into government and some became junior ministers. In 1956 Sir Roland "Roy" Welensky became Prime Minister and under his government liberalizations and policies that benefited blacks were curtailed. While opposed to the SA apartheid system, he was against the Portuguese Federation and its granting of equal political control to Africans.[2] Coinciding with the new government was a stronger demand for more political power by many of the country’s Africans while at same time the country’s economy slowed down. CAF during the first part of the decade had tied its economy to the Portuguese Federation with imports and exports growing over 20% a year. A backlash by Afrikaners starting in 1955 had demanded greater trade with SA and an abandonment of the Federation. At same time copper prices which was a huge export decreased and FRN economy growth decreased substantially.

In 1958 several prominent African political figures returned to CAF and led a campaign for greater African control and development. The Europeans reacted angrily and with fear at these demands. CAF had a population of just over 7 million people of which 200,000 were white and majority lived in Southern Rhodesia. As the decade ended CAF seemed to be on life support, the British for their part were not interested in supporting it while whites looked upon the prospect of African control with fear.

France
Meanwhile France continued trying to figure out what to do about its colonies. In 1946 it had replaced the French Empire with the French Union which in its opinion provided educated blacks with self-rule and a voice in how each colony was governed. But in reality, it had provided very little power to the Africans and the Europeans in the colonies remained in charge. At same time France was battling communist rebels for control of French Indochina. In the mid-1950s France suffered a double blow; following the loss of French Indochina France was rocked by the outbreak of war of independence in Algeria. Algerian Muslims started a violent armed struggle against the French, who regarded Algeria as part of Metropolitan France, they reacted angrily and with conviction against the rebels and become involved in a bloody war till 1960.

France’s two protectorates Tunisia and Morocco also demanded independence and after much hesitation France reluctantly granted Tunisia independence in 1957 and Morocco 1958. The independence of Tunisia was accomplished without any problems but Morocco soon after independence became locked into a diplomatic spat with the Federation regarding the fate of Portuguese Morocco. When the Federation refused Morocco’s demands war broke out between the two countries. The war quickly went Federation’s way and cease fire was agreed but failed to resolve the issues and tensions between Morocco and Federation, who technically continued at war, separating the two countries was a demilitarized zone patrolled by UN.[3]

The turmoil in France and the colonial difficulties proved too much for the French 4th Republic which collapsed in August of 1957 and Charles de Gaulle, French WW2 leader, was asked to return and lead the country. He was appointed President of Council of Ministers drafted a new constitution which was approved by the French in November 1957.[4] In the spring of 1958 all colonies except Guinea voted to join the French Community. Guinea under the leadership of Ahmed Sékou Touré who turned his back on France and its heritage of colonialism and aligned Guinea with the Soviet Union. Under his control Guinea instituted a communist style government and attacked political opponents. In 1959 Ahmed Sékou Touré was killed in an attack and the country was plunged into anarchy. Attempts by France to re-establish order were botched and the country split into three separate countries.[5]

The decade ended with the French scrambling to deal with the fall out of the Portuguese-Morocco war and the Guinea Civil War both of which put De Galle on the defensive. The final crack in the French Community came when De Galle accepted the demands of the French and Christian Moroccans in Tangier enclave to join France. As a result majority of the African countries left the French community in protest.[6]

South Africa
The continent other major military and economic power during the 1950s was South Africa. In 1950 the country’s economic and political dominance of southern Africa started being challenged by the Portuguese Federation. The two countries relationship during the decade was one of economic and political adversaries. Portuguese East and West Africa economic strength began overshadowing South Africa as the most advanced and industrialized in Africa during the 1950s. While many in South Africa’s business community feared the rising Portuguese economic power the government and many Afrikaner nationalists viewed Portuguese Federation as the biggest threat to the existing South Africa political establishment of white minority rule.

In 1948 they had implemented the apartheid system that stripped all non-Europeans of all political and citizenship rights. All blacks were restricted to African homelands and required authorization from government to live and work outside their homelands. During the 1950s the Portuguese Federation with their universal franchise and equal rights to all people regardless of race, skin color and religion was viewed with great fear and apprehension in South Africa. Another threat to South Africa political system appeared to the north as the Central African Federation attempted to implement a political system that while not universal as the Federation provided blacks and non-Europeans with limited franchise as well legal protections and political and economic guarantees.

South Africa already apprehensive about the Federation and with a government who viewed themselves as Anti-British was alarmed at the creation of the Central African Federation. They did everything in their powers to undermine its viability. Using contacts with the large Afrikaner population in CAF it tried to undermine black rights, trade with the federation and instilled fear in the minds of many conservative Afrikaners living in CAF. The tactic was successful and by middle of the decade CAF trade with the Federation decreased substantially which was also an economic win for SA as South African business were able to expand trade into CAF. Reducing trade between CAF and Federation did not stop SA pressure and by late 1950s CAF future looked in doubt.

For all of SA success with influencing events in CAF the 1950s was a decade of political isolation. Restrictions on immigration meant that even people from Britain had a hard time migrating to South Africa as it entered the decade feeling under siege and isolated. Prime Minister’s Malan government turned its back on British commonwealth and instead attempted to strengthen its relationship with other western countries namely USA and Australia.

At the start of the decade the South African economy continued to suffer the effects of the trade schism with the Federation but by 1951 most South African companies started recovering and the country’s economy started growing again. But South African companies continued to have to compete with Federation companies in both British colonies and commonwealth. The one sector that continued to grow was mining that became the country’s economic driving sector.

In 1951 Prime Minister’s Malan government passed law to strip nonwhites of their remaining representation by designating whites to represent them in the legislature and to provide whites in South West Africa with 6 seats in the SA legislature. In 1953 they passed several laws granting the government additional powers to deal with what it called insurrection and disobedience by “those opposed to white rule”. In January 1953 Daniel François Malan retired due to ill health and in a heated National Party leadership race Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom a hardliner won. In the 1953 election the number of seats were increased to 159. The National Party under Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom ran against the United Party under Jacobus Gideon Nel Strauss.[7] The Nationalist increased the number of seats they won to 83 seats but the United Party bolstered by a combination of Labor support and growing dissatisfaction at Nationalist handling of economy also increased their number of seats to 70.

During Prime Minister Strijdom government SA faced increasing British and commonwealth criticism regarding its treatment of its nonwhite population. The government removed the colored names from the electorate list and put it on separate colored list. His government arrested hundreds of Africans in several activist demonstrations, included in those imprisoned was the future President of South Africa Nelson Mandela.

In the 1958 election the number of seats were increased to 163. The National Party under Johannes Gerhardus Strijdom ran against the United Party now under De Villiers Graaff. The Nationalist increased their number of seats to 86 seats but the United Party who continuing to blame Nationalist party for the lingering economic difficulties of the country also increased their number of seats to 75.

A rumor that started during the 1958 election soon grew into a national emergency. During the 1958 election many Nationalist supporters and Nationalist candidates started blaming many of the country’s problems on the Portuguese community living in South Africa some of whom were 2nd generation SA born there to Portuguese parents. Following the election sporadic attacks against Portuguese people and businesses increased and several people were killed. The South African government responded with alarm at news but announced that all citizens were safe in SA and that police would protect everyone equally. The Portuguese responded to the incidents by organizing community protection groups. On 9 July 1958 an Afrikaner was caught raping a Portuguese girl by one of Portuguese protection groups. He was “ruffed” up and turned over the SA police. During their investigation they released the “alleged rapist” due to lack of evidence and arrested several of the members of the Portuguese protection group for assault. The incident received national media attention. On 3rd of September the police announce that the ‘victim” had decided not to press charges and all assailants were being released and the case closed.

The attacks and subsequent police protection for the Afrikaner scared many Portuguese and over 3,000 abandoned SA for safety of the Federation. Some left with only what they could carry while other sold their property usually at loss. Even along the trek to the Federation the “Portuguese refugees” were subject to verbal abuse and some isolated attacks. While the SA police did provide some protection to the Portuguese fleeing, the Portuguese government strongly condemned the attacks against its citizens and in a show of support sent 2 divisions to the Portuguese East Africa and SA border. Although no border clashes occurred tensions between Africa’s two most powerful countries was high. On 1 November 1958 the SA government announced the discovery and arrest of several Portuguese “agents” including several who had been born in SA. The announcement turned the remaining SA population against the Portuguese and during the month of November most remaining Portuguese businesses were attacked and the remaining Portuguese including most 1st generation Portuguese-SA citizens were in hiding. Several churches became refugee centers and SA military and police were deployed to keep order. The Portuguese sent a strongly worded letter to South African Government advising that any attack against any Portuguese citizens in South African was an attack against the Portuguese Federation and placed its armed forces on alert.

On 15th of December Lord Home: Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations visited South Africa in an attempt to resolve the diplomatic incident. He travelled twice between Lisbon and Pretoria trying to find a diplomatic solution as both countries built up their forces. After more than one month of negotiations the SA government allowed all Portuguese to move to the Federation. The government promised to protect the people from attacks but all those fleeing would lose all their belongings including property and money in SA banks. The transfer happened between 19th of January and 5 of February 1959. In all during 1958-1959 8,991 Portuguese citizens and their descendants arrived in the Federation homeless and most with only the belongings they had been allowed to take to the detention centers. President Semedo travelled to both East Africa and West Africa provinces to meet with the people and to reassure them that they would be looked after. He announced that all refugees would receive free housing and monetary compensation for their losses including those who had lost businesses in SA.

In South Africa the government confiscated all their belongings, money and businesses. During the remainder of the February and March an additional 1,679 South Africans of Portuguese descent also fled, as Afrikaners targeted people they believed to be Portuguese or Portuguese descent. After Easter President Semedo announced the imposition of a tax of 80% on all profits on South African companies operating in Portuguese Federation. Prime Minister Strijdom of South Africa responded by prohibiting South African companies from investing in Portuguese Federation. This caused the Portuguese government to break diplomatic relationships with South Africa, ban all trading with South Africa, the closure of the railway from SA to Lourenco Marques and enact legislation to seize all South African assets in Portuguese Federation including South African businesses and using the proceeds to compensate Portuguese refugees from South Africa.

As the decade came to a close SA through its actions had lost not only an important market but gained an adversary in which it was forced to increase its defense spending when it could least afford to. The opposition and even some of the Nationalist Party criticized it for mishandling the situation and instead of working together with the Federation to combat the growing communist threat its actions had made it an adversary. One that was proving to be economically stronger than South Africa and also a growing military regional powerhouse.

North Africa (Egypt)
Egypt had been North Africa’s most populous and richest country for centuries. A country on the crossroads from Middle East to North Africa it had been fought over for centuries with only brief periods of independence. During the 19th century the Suez Canal had been built to connect Mediterranean and Red Sea. It became a crucial and important link and should have provided Egypt with both income and also an ability to stay independent. But missteps and misguided policies by its rulers had left the country under the control of the powerful British Empire.

After WWI the Egyptians had revolted against the British and the country had gained its independence, but the British military presence continued in the country and it continued in control of the Suez Canal. King Fuad died in 1936 and his son Farouk inherited the throne at the age of sixteen. In 1936 he signed the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, requiring Britain to withdraw all troops from Egypt, except in the Suez Canal Zone (agreed to be evacuated by 1949).

The kingdom was plagued by corruption, and its citizens saw it as a puppet of the British. This coupled with its defeat in the 1948–1949 Palestine War, led to the Egyptian Revolution of 1952 by the Free Officers Movement.

Following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, the Free Officers consolidated power, and, following a brief experiment with civilian rule, abrogated the 1953 constitution, and declared Egypt a republic on 18 June 1953, Muhammad Naguib as Egypt's first President.

Within six months, all civilian political parties were banned, getting replaced by the "Liberation Rally" government party, the elites seeing a need for a "transitional authoritarianism" in light of Egypt's poverty, illiteracy and lack of a large middle class. In October and November 1954, the large Islamist Muslim Brotherhood organization was suppressed and President Naguib was ousted and arrested. He was replaced by Nasser.

The revolutionaries wanted an end to British occupation and the need for land reform. While at the beginning no formal plan on how to get rid of the British existed the new government began the process of land reform began in 1952, the law limited size of farms, limited the rental rate for land; established cooperatives for farmers; minimum wages, etc.

Nasser evolved into a charismatic leader, not only of Egypt but of the Arab world, promoting and implementing "Arab socialism".

In 1956 Egypt and Britain agreed to grant Sudan its independence.

Nasser had dreams of an Egyptian led Arab League and the complete expulsion of Britain from the Middle East. He supported the National Liberation Front’s was against the French in Algeria and provided both protection and support to Palestinian guerrillas, who used Egyptian occupied and Sinai Peninsula as bases in their attacks against Israel.

He refused the US demands in opposing the Soviet Union and the United States held up military sales. Nasser hoping to play one superpower against another then concluded an arms deal with Hungary in September 1955. At same time Nasser wanted to build the Aswan High Dam on the Lower Nile but the US upset at Egyptian attitude and believing that the dam was beyond Egypt’s ability to support it withdrew its support and convinced the World Bank to follow suit. Angry Nasser responded by nationalizing the privately-owned Suez Canal Company. He then closed the Suez Canal to Israeli ships and closed the Straits of Tiran to Israeli shipping and blockaded the Gulf of Aqaba.

The three adversaries targeted by Egypt: Britain, France and Israel joined together and launched an attack on Egypt. The attack while successful was condemned by majority of the countries including both United States and Soviet Union. The Egyptian army suffered heavy losses and was no match to the combined armed forces of the three countries. Israel was able to reach the Suez Canal and both the British and French forces occupied the Suez Canal. The political and economic pressure led by US on Britain and France proved too much and a cease fire was arranged, and all foreign forces withdrew from Egypt.[8]

Egyptian sovereignty and ownership of the canal had been confirmed by the United States and the United Nations. Despite the Egyptian defeat, Nasser emerged as a hero in the Arab world. And was partially responsible in convincing the Republic of Syria to join Egypt in 1958 to form a state called the United Arab Republic. In 1959 the UAR entered into a confederation with Kingdom of Yemen (North Yemen) called the United Arab States. The UAR and the United Arab States put a great deal of pressure on Egypt and its armed forces.

Nasser ruled as an autocrat [9] but remained extremely popular within Egypt and throughout the Arab world due to his socialist policies at home and anti-imperialist internationalism in the region. His willingness to stand up to the Western powers and to Israel won him support throughout the region.
——-————————————————————————-
[1] South Africa had become independent in 1910 but under European control with little to no African participation. Egypt had become independent in 1922 but remained as British protectorate till after WW2.

[2] The Portuguese national elections of 1954 and regional elections of 1956 scared many Europeans in Africa. Over 40% of all elected delegates were non-European. While to many it did seem like the Portuguese were diluting their control, the difference between Portuguese government and British democracy meant that Portuguese were able to provide greater franchise without losing control since they continued to limit the choice the public could vote for.
[3] See 1950 -1959, World – Marrocos (Morocco)

[4] The French Union which was proclaimed in 1946 had provided limited autonomy to the locals but had failed in satisfying African desire for independence and control over their own affairs. The new constitution replaced the French Union with the French Community, which gave all former colonies ability to become independent countries tied to France.
[5] See 1950 – 1959, World, Guinea and De-Colonization

[6] In December 1959 following the split of Guinea into three separate countries, the annexation of Tangier to France and ongoing Algerian colonial war majority of African French Community countries declared their complete independence from France and withdrawal from the French Community. The countries of Mauritania, Senegal, Mali, Upper Volta, Ivory Coast, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic, Gabon and Republic of Congo and Madagascar all withdrew on 31 December 1959.
[7] In March 1953 with the elections only 1 month away John Christie the leader of the SA Labor Party decided not to campaign and instead voted to back the United Party.

[8] See 1950 – 1959, World, Suez Canal Crises

[9] In October 1956, when the Suez Crisis erupted, Nasser brought in a set of sweeping regulations abolishing civil liberties and allowing the state to stage mass arrests without charge and strip away Egyptian citizenship from any group it desired; these measures were mostly directed against the Jews of Egypt.
The African continent is central to the Federation and from the onset many of its players were against the Federation, some due to ideology others from fear of what it represented. Several major points mentioned here will only be elaborated in 2 weeks when we return with Suez Canal, Morocco, Guinea. Plus few other tidbits from around the world.

The Portuguese-South Africa relationship was the one that would have some of the greatest impacts on the continent in the next decades. The idea of the Federation and SA apartheid do not work side by side well. It would of taken a major adversary (such as communism) for the two sides to put aside their differences and work together, but alas during the 1950s communism was not the threat it would become in the 1960s and 1970s on the continent. There will be a lot of more to discuss regarding the Portuguese - SA relationship later in the coming decades but that all for now, unless someone has some question. I would like to make a shoutout to @Bokka501 for his help with the SA part.

In regards to France it too has suffered greater change in Africa. While the actual wars/conflicts that are alluded in this post will be discussed more in detail in 2 weeks. The situation for the French though is one of more conflict and less power in Africa. Questions/ Comments?

We will return February16 with World - Various posts.

 

[SealTheRealDeal]

Why are the Afrikanners so influential in the CAF? OTL their population at this time was less than 25,000, and they didn't become politically organized in Rhodesia until the 70s.

 

[Bokka501]

Afrikaaners were substantial land owners throughout all of southern africa, and composed a substantial part of the white population (the exact number evades me at the moment), and therefore the military aged males that colonial rule desperately needed. They also have a long history of self organising in the face of what they view as outside oppression. This tendency resulted in several very expensive rebellions, riots and political parties which could leverage these acts into outsized influence. During both world wars and the apaetheid eras (OTL) the south african police and military intelligence spent significant resources supressing local kommandos that had greivances with the central governments

 

[SealTheRealDeal]

Afrikaaners were substantial land owners throughout all of southern africa, and composed a substantial part of the white population (the exact number evades me at the moment). They also have a long history of self organising in the face of what they view as outside oppression. This tendency resulted in several very expensive rebellions, riots and political parties which could leverage these acts into outsized influence.

Yeah, but we're talking specifically about Rhodesia here. So ~10% of the white population, poorly organized, and not particularly influential in the government. In all of Southern Rhodesia there was a single school that gave instruction in Afrikaans.

 

[Lusitania]

Why are the Afrikanners so influential in the CAF? OTL their population at this time was less than 25,000, and they didn't become politically organized in Rhodesia until the 70s.

Yeah, but we're talking specifically about Rhodesia here. So ~10% of the white population, poorly organized, and not particularly influential in the government. In all of Southern Rhodesia there was a single school that gave instruction in Afrikaans.

iOTL the CAF was a short lived country that was brought down by the vocal Afrikaners in southern Rhodesia who had support from South Africa plus African opposition. The Afrikaners were vocal and had prominent figures in government, military and police therefore their influence was larger than their size. This TL the existence of the Federation exasperated the Afrikaners desperation and they viewed the CAF with partial rights to Africans as another country who was contrary to their views.

Therefore in the TL they are more vocal and SA provides more resources, misinformation and encourages the Afrikaners in CAF along with conservative whites to resist and remove any and all rights to Africans.

The CAF existence was a novel approach trying to be a middle ground between white minority rule of SA and African majority rule. This was an idea of the early 1950s where many Europeans did not believe Africans capable of managing their own Affairs. The problem was that in the eyes of the whites it granted too much power to the Africans while to Africans it exasperated the differences in power, economics and wealth between the whites and blacks who saw all the spoils continuing to be controlled and diverted to the whites.

Another point I wanted to state was that european population in CAF grew 4 fold during its existence as both Afrikaners and other British citizens were attracted to it. Those that settled might of been open minded about the prospect of African rights at the onset but over time due to fear mongering and vocal opposition from both Afrikaners who opposed to African rights and Africans demanding greater say and benefit at expense of whites turned the Europeans against Black rights (if it meant the Europeans rights and economic benefits were hurt).

 

[SealTheRealDeal]

iOTL the CAF was a short lived country that was brought down by the vocal Afrikaners in southern Rhodesia who had support from South Africa plus African opposition.

I was always under the impression that the CAF failed due to African opposition.

Anywhere I can read about the Afrikaner role?

 

[Bokka501]

I was always under the impression that the CAF failed due to African opposition.

Anywhere I can read about the Afrikaner role?

In the CAF or southern african military history in general?

 

[SealTheRealDeal]

In the CAF or southern african military history in general?

In the CAF. Wikipedia has a single sentence mentioning their general opposition to it, but no more than that.

 

[Lusitania]

In the CAF. Wikipedia has a single sentence mentioning their general opposition to it, but no more than that.

I wanted to post few interesting notes I had.
1) in regards to formation if CAF
“An agreement would likely not have been reached without Sir Andrew Cohen, CO Assistant Undersecretary for African Affairs (and a later Governor of Uganda). He became one of the central architects and driving forces behind the creation of the Federation, often seemingly singlehandedly untangling deadlocks and outright walkouts on the part of the respective parties. Cohen, who was Jewish and traumatised by the Holocaust, was an anti-racialist and an advocate of African rights. But he compromised his ideals to avoid what he saw as an even greater risk than the continuation of the paternalistic white ascendancy system of Southern Rhodesia – its becoming an even less flexible, radical white supremacy, like the National Partygovernment in South Africa. Lord Blake, the Oxford-based historian, wrote: "In that sense, Apartheid can be regarded as the father of Federation."
2) initial Afrikaner opposition to CAF and its enhanced rights to blacks
“A majority of Afrikaners and black Africans in all three territories were resolutely against it.”
3) also in Garfield Todd page about his attempts to increase black rights and education
“Todd pushed a bill through the Legislative Assembly, allowing for multiracial trade unions, thereby undercutting the growing white nationalist influence in the unions. Lastly, in a bid to increase the number of blacks eligible to vote from 2% to 16% of the electorate, he moved to lower property and education qualifications, but this was rejected”
4) another interesting tidbit about the creation of CAF
“Various factors encouraged the growth of the White population of Rhodesia. These included the industrialisation and prosperity of the economy in the post-war period. The National Party victory in South Africa was one of the factors that led to the formation of the Central African Federation (1953-1963) so as to provide a bulwark against Afrikaner nationalism. British settlement and investment boomed during the Federation years, as Southern Rhodesia, Northern Rhodesia (now Zambia) and Nyasaland (now Malawi) formed a powerful economic unit counterbalancing the economic power of South Africa. The economic power of these three areas was a major factor in the establishment of the Federation through a British Act of Parliament. It was also apparent as early as the 1950s that white rule would continue for longer in Rhodesia than it would in other British colonies such as Zambia (Northern Rhodesia) and Kenya. Many of the new immigrants had a "not here" attitude to majority rule and independence”
5) another great article I used was

http://kora.matrix.msu.edu/files/50/304/32-130-B60-84-32-130-B60-84-al.sff.document.acoa000245.pdf

Now this is all iotl and in the TL when we take the position of SA government and the presence of Federation it would make SA government and Afrikaners much more determined to bring CAF down.
As seen both iOTL and iTL the CAF was created to counter SA apartheid but iTL it tied its economy to Federation at the beginning which angered the SA business community and SA government. Worse was that there were two countries that were advocating a European- African mixed model in contrast to the white minority government of SA. This led the SA government to use the Afrikaners in CAF to i) turn its back to the federation thus reduce Federation influence and steer business to South Africa ii) push Afrikaners to demand greater white rights in CAF and reduce black rights.

 

[Bokka501]

In the CAF. Wikipedia has a single sentence mentioning their general opposition to it, but no more than that.

K, I'm significantly less helpful there

 

[Lusitania]

K, I'm significantly less helpful there

You were a great help, and provided me with a lot of good knowledge about SA. For the SA part not be as realistic as it was without your assistance. Thank you

For record iotl Southern Africa with white minority government in Portuguese Africa, SA and Rhodesia provided the white minority government in SA with a comfortable feeling of isolation. The first crack in that power was of course the withdrawal of the Portuguese in 1974-1975 this was followed by the collapse of Rhodesia in the 1980s. SA suddenly found itself all alone for first time. We know the rest.

But I want you to think about how I presented a different Southern Africa which in the 1950s found itself completely alone. The Portuguese had gone and created a Federation giving power to everyone. South Rhodesia had been merged with two black majority other colonies and started giving powers to blacks. Suddenly SA just as it was attempting to implant its Apartheid system found itself on its own. Cut off from world with its Immigration closed or severely restricted to protect the Afrikaner identity. It is reasonable to think it would lash out.

What I described in its efforts to undermine CAF would be its most logical choice and best course of action. For CAF life span will be shorter than iotl.

 

[SealTheRealDeal]

So did Portugal make any efforts to keep the CAF alive? Seems odd that they'd take the loss of a regional partner lying down.

 

[Lusitania]

So did Portugal make any efforts to keep the CAF alive? Seems odd that they'd take the loss of a regional partner lying down.

The Portuguese were somewhat successful till 1956 in maintaining their influence in CAF countering SA pressure. Unfortunately when Sir Roland "Roy" Welensky became Prime Minister it signaled a hardening of CAF policies against Africans but also a growing Afrikaner influence in CAF parliament and government. The Federation saw its economic and political influence wane.

Afrikaners and conservative whites in CAF blamed Federation for the growing African discontent with their situation and demands for greater say and economic development. They used the growing African discontent to strengthen white power. Many areas of north that used be integrated began to implement white only or segregated laws like in southern region. This only aggravated the Africans and accelerated the demise of the CAF.

Therefore Portuguese influence slowly reduced, the Portuguese - SA break in diplomatic relations left the Portuguese with CAF as the single country it had relations in Southern Africa. The Portuguese renewed their effort with CAF in late 1950s signing several major agreements. More on those in later posts. But unfortunately CAF by 1960 was on life support with an emboldened African population demanding majority rule and Europeans fearful of that prospect and the changes it would mean to segregation and restriction on blacks they believed in. Therefore the Europeans who numbered about 250,000 of which 90%+ lived in Southern Rhodesia started planing for separation from CAF. Note: the number of Africans in CAF was over 7 million.

This was contrary to what Federation had hoped for and had tried to influence the government in CAF to accomplish. The only ones who were happy was SA who had achieved one of its objectives.

In the Foreign Affairs section we will discuss the diplomatic situation of the federation along with summary of world situation.

 

[Lusitania]

1950 – 1959 (cont)
World (cont)

Suez Canal Crises​

In the 1950s the Middle East was dominated by four major overlapping struggles. The Soviets and US viewed for influence and control of the region (cold war). The Arabs nationalist against the two remaining imperial powers in the region (France and UK). The Arab – Israeli dispute and lastly the dispute amongst the various Arab countries for leadership of the Arab world.

The Suez Canal had been built in the 19th century by French company and partial owned by the Egyptian government. Following the annexation of Egypt into the British Empire at the turn of the century the British had bought controlling interest in the canal and even after Egypt’s independence still retained control and had a very large garrison guarding it. At the time majority of Europe’s oil imports from Middle East was shipped through the canal.

In 1952 the Egyptian government terminated its agreement with UK and demanded that its garrison be removed from Egypt and the Suez Canal be turned over to Egypt. The British refused the Egyptian demand. The inability of the Egyptian monarchy to sway UK to turn over the Suez Canal and end what many in Egypt considered imperialistic actions partially led to the overthrow of the king by military and establishment of a republic. In 1955 one of the architectures of the revolt Gamal Abdul Nasser seized power and by 1956 had become President. In 1954 following the overthrow of the king the UK tried to mend relationships with Egypt and signed a new UK-Egypt agreement that called for phased withdrawal of British garrison (2 years) and the turning over the canal to Egyptian control and ownership (10 years).

President Nasser saw himself as the natural leader of the Arabs and viewed continued British involvement in the Middle East as threat to him and Egypt’s place as leader of the Arabs. He began courting both Soviets and US to provide Egypt with modern weapons. The US wanted to curry Nasser favor but demanded that the weapons not be used against Israel; Nasser refused the American terms and instead struck a deal with Soviets to buy weapons from them. Nasser always saw himself as the legitimate leader of the Arabs and strove to assist any Arab group who was fighting the Imperialist such as the Algerian rebels fighting the French as well as the Palestinian fighting the Israelis.

On 26 July 1956, following the withdrawal of remaining British troops from Egypt, Egyptian forces seized the Suez Canal and Nasser announced the Nationalization of its assets. He then proclaimed that the Suez Canal was closed to all Israeli ships or Israel bound ships. Both British and French governments as well as the public were alarmed and outraged at the Egyptian act and both governments prepared for military action. During the rest of the summer plans were made to coordinate military involvement with Israel. The US attempted to diffuse the situation and suggested a maritime conference of nations using the canal. The Portuguese Federation attended the conference, but no substantial progress was made on the free and uninterrupted usage of the canal. Britain anxious to restore its prestige made plans for the invasion of Egypt together with France and Israel for the armed intervention in Egypt over the objections of US. The invasion started by Israel invading Egypt through the Sinai Peninsula followed by the British and French troops landing in the Suez Canal zone. The invasion was a success and Israel was able to clear the Sinai while the UK and France were able to seize the canal.

World reaction though was very negative, Arab countries stopped selling oil to Britain and France and the US threatened to stop supporting the Sterling and sell all its reserves. The only supporter of the military action came from Portuguese Federation which immediately following the announcement of the embargo by the Arab states announced the doubling of its oil exports to Europe. It also announced that it was prepared to provide whatever military support UK, France and Israel required. The Soviets on the other hand threated to attack both France and UK with nuclear weapons if the two countries did not withdraw their troops. The British government was especially rocked by the US criticism and its threat against the British Sterling. The British Prime Minster, Sir Anthony Eden, then announced a unilaterally cease fire on 6th of November, neither warning France nor Israel beforehand. To make matters worse the British and French troops were still engaged in several military operations against the Egyptians. The US then demanded an immediate withdrawal of British, French and Israeli troops. They demanded that the Anglo-French Task Force had to finish withdrawing by 22 December 1956.

France was very upset with the UK for ordering the cease fire without first informing them and placing French soldiers at risk as a result of it. They were more angered though at the US and their continued disregard for French national interests. France decided that is could no longer rely on US military protection and withdrew France from NATO. France also decided that it needed to accelerate its own development of Nuclear weapons and not rely on US.

The Portuguese support to both countries provided continued proof to Europe of Portuguese Federation’s continued economic importance and provided incentive for the building of the Western Europe oil pipeline from Portuguese Federation to Italy, France and Germany. To facilitate the construction of the pipeline through Spain it received billions in support and aid.


The Suez Crises was a war that the Federation had no involvement in but still was very important to the Federation. The British involvement was a last ditch attempt to for them to regain some of the influence they had lost to the super powers, and a matter of pride. The French involvement was a hope to exert pressure on the Egyptians to stop them supporting the Algerian rebels while Israel was fighting for its survival and attempting to stop one of its neighbors from hostile actions against it.

Unfortunely neither of the 3 countries goals were accomplished. The British influence and prestige took a huge hit by the British government being forced to withdraw as result of American financial threats. The French left in a lurch by British withdrawal, became angry at both Britain and USA resulting in reactionary attitude of withdrawing from NATO, doubling down on their own development of nuclear deterrent. While the Israelis gained nothing the Suez canal remained closed to their shipping. It forced them to reach out to other countries who also felt threatened like the Federation and forge strong political, economic and military ties. Questions/ Comments?

We return in little with the next installment "Morocco" or Morrocos.