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The 1935 Election
The 1935 Election
POLS 112 : Introduction to Chinese Politics
The 1935 Election: Intraparty Competition and Democracy -
A research essay by Josh Cheuk
The 1935 Election was a crucial event in the development of China - although it was effectively a one-party heavily authoritarian state - the existence of factions within the dominant party grouping meant that the elections resembled one of a democratic nation. That is to say that there were competing interest groups composed of mostly 'elite' struggling for factional control and dominance over the levers of government. The 1935 Election would be doubly important as the struggle extended not only to the highest lever of power (President) but to that of theLegislative Yuan. The 1935 Election would see intense levels of factiona struggle and intraparty competition and the elections would be relatively remarkably free of corruption and fraud as the factions held a rough balance of power. This essay will chronicle the 1935 election in broad terms with the aim of demonstrating the thesis that intense intraparty competition can produce outcomes similar to that of a more 'democratic state'
The competing "factions" in the Kuomintang took their name from the Kuomintang flag.
Before we can get into detail we must first introduce the key stakeholders and players involved in the 1935 Election in broad terms and provide some background. These can be broadly divided into three factions: the "whites, reds and blues." These factions represented the broad ideological tendencies and groupings within the governing Kuomintang Party and derived it's name from the Kuomintang flag. The white "sun" represented the "Control Group" - technocrats and army officers. The blue represented the "Freedom Group" - some elements of the middle class and 'progressive' businesses and the red represented the "Equality Group" - they were led by mostly left-wing academics and trade unionists and claimed to speak for the improverished workers and peasants.
Chiang Kai-shek campaigned on the basis of his military experience and on his 'statesman' image. He won a stunning 76% of the popular vote - a percentage unmatched by any other presidential candidate
The "whites" or the "Control Group" was led by President Chiang Kai-Shek. It was a loose coalition of high-ranking Army officers, Civil service technocrats and personal friends of the Chiang extended family. For the 1935 Election the Control Group was well-placed in that their control of the Army gave them muscle and election footsoldiers (in the literal and metaphorical sense) and Chiang Kai-Shek was very popular across wide swathes of the Chinese population. However, this popularity did not always translate into popularity for the "whites" or "white" candidates in the 1935 General Election. This is illustrated vividly in the election results: whereas Chiang Kai-shek garnered a phenomenal 76% of the vote, (in a fair election) 'white' candidates who stood for the legislative Yuan gained only 196 out of the 1200 seats - less than 20% and substantially less than the red and blue candidates. Critics have tended to dismiss the "control group" faction as as "Sergallio of emasculated sycophants desperate to maintain power at all costs." Ideologically - they were moderates or even opportunists - siding with the 'reds' or 'blues' and doing whatever they could to maintain power. This versatility, combined with Chiang's patronage and their control of the Army made them a formindable force in Chinese politics despite their lack of a popular base.
T.V Soong was the leader of the "Freedom Group" and endorsed Chiang.
The 'blues' or "Freedom Group" were by and large middle and upper-class liberals determined to increase freedom in the new China. They chaffed at the econonmic and political 'safeguards' and wanted to let loose the 'untamed forces of the people.' In reality they were virulent anti-communists who wanted to 'purge' the Kuomintang of the 'left' and 'communism.' They stood in diametric opposition to the 'reds.' They supported Chiang Kai-shek's candidacy in the 1935 General Election - their unofficial faction leader T.V Soong was related to Chiang by marriage. Their para-military group the "blue-shirts" which would later develop into a potent force in Chinese politics was born out of the 1935 Election to 'protect' the faction. They were more successful than the 'whites' gaining 404 of the 1200 contestable Yuan seats. Their primary base was the 'progressive gentry' and other members of the middle and upper-classes.
Kuomintang Party President Wang JingWei barnstormed effectively for "Red" Yuan candidates. Less successful was the "red" candidate Soong Qingling who only gained 24% of the popular vote.
The 'reds' or the "Equality Group" had the most popular support. Their faction leader Wang JingWei was Party President and controlled the Kuomintang party machinery - using it to promote "left" candidates. The Blue's fears of a communist takeover did not seem unfounded as Wang ruthlessly used the party machine to support 'his' candidates over that of the blues and the whites. The Reds gained 560 of the 1200 seats in the Yuan - leaving them by far the largest party in the Yuan (although short of a majority - especially if you included 800 non-elected representatives. Less successful was Soong Qingling who gained only 24% of the vote - however - this was a notable achievement in a society such as China where women where only recently given the vote. It is important to note that it would be unfair to attribute the "reds'" success entirely to Wang's control of the party machinery. Their platform - a mix of populist solutions to the problems of the rural and urban proleriat was very popular.
In fact, many historians argue that had it not been for the "October Surprise," Qingling and the Reds might have done better. The humilaition of the Japanese Army when it attempted to 'punish' some Shanghai Chinese for the murder of 15 Buddhist Monks and was pushed out of their Shanghai concession undoubtedly boosted Chiang's and the Army's support. The Japanase were ultimately forced to ask for a cease-fire agreement. This foreign policy triumph with only a month to go before election boosted Chiang's and the White's chances and dented the Reds.
These three factions held a rough balance of force during the election - and afterwards. It was in all three's interest to ensure election. The whites did not want to upset the status quo because they were the whites, the blue's accepted the results as they had done better than expected and the reds knew that they would be smashed if they tried to fabricate the results. The coalition that was formed with Chiang Kai-shek as President, Wang Jingwei as Prime Minister and T.V Soong as Premier was an affirmation of the "Granita" status quo. Intraparty competition had produced a coalition government and a relatively stable equilibrium where all factions felt like they were the 'winners.'
Essay comments:
C-.
This is quite a disappointing essay from a student of such high potential- although you made sound arguments you provided too little evidence and did not source any of your assertions. The pictures you provided for the essay - while nice don't add anything to your argument. You also have a tangent about the "October Surprise" which has nothing to do with your argument. Please make a time to see me or your tutors so we can help you with your future essays. - Prof Patman.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Hi all,
Sorry for the long delay! I've been frantic with exams and university and girlfriend. Those of you who are following my non-pol threads will also know that I've been having difficult times with her
. But it'll be ok - but it has distracted me from doing updates!
More updates to follow this week.
POLS 112 : Introduction to Chinese Politics
The 1935 Election: Intraparty Competition and Democracy -
A research essay by Josh Cheuk
The 1935 Election was a crucial event in the development of China - although it was effectively a one-party heavily authoritarian state - the existence of factions within the dominant party grouping meant that the elections resembled one of a democratic nation. That is to say that there were competing interest groups composed of mostly 'elite' struggling for factional control and dominance over the levers of government. The 1935 Election would be doubly important as the struggle extended not only to the highest lever of power (President) but to that of theLegislative Yuan. The 1935 Election would see intense levels of factiona struggle and intraparty competition and the elections would be relatively remarkably free of corruption and fraud as the factions held a rough balance of power. This essay will chronicle the 1935 election in broad terms with the aim of demonstrating the thesis that intense intraparty competition can produce outcomes similar to that of a more 'democratic state'
The competing "factions" in the Kuomintang took their name from the Kuomintang flag.
Before we can get into detail we must first introduce the key stakeholders and players involved in the 1935 Election in broad terms and provide some background. These can be broadly divided into three factions: the "whites, reds and blues." These factions represented the broad ideological tendencies and groupings within the governing Kuomintang Party and derived it's name from the Kuomintang flag. The white "sun" represented the "Control Group" - technocrats and army officers. The blue represented the "Freedom Group" - some elements of the middle class and 'progressive' businesses and the red represented the "Equality Group" - they were led by mostly left-wing academics and trade unionists and claimed to speak for the improverished workers and peasants.
Chiang Kai-shek campaigned on the basis of his military experience and on his 'statesman' image. He won a stunning 76% of the popular vote - a percentage unmatched by any other presidential candidate
The "whites" or the "Control Group" was led by President Chiang Kai-Shek. It was a loose coalition of high-ranking Army officers, Civil service technocrats and personal friends of the Chiang extended family. For the 1935 Election the Control Group was well-placed in that their control of the Army gave them muscle and election footsoldiers (in the literal and metaphorical sense) and Chiang Kai-Shek was very popular across wide swathes of the Chinese population. However, this popularity did not always translate into popularity for the "whites" or "white" candidates in the 1935 General Election. This is illustrated vividly in the election results: whereas Chiang Kai-shek garnered a phenomenal 76% of the vote, (in a fair election) 'white' candidates who stood for the legislative Yuan gained only 196 out of the 1200 seats - less than 20% and substantially less than the red and blue candidates. Critics have tended to dismiss the "control group" faction as as "Sergallio of emasculated sycophants desperate to maintain power at all costs." Ideologically - they were moderates or even opportunists - siding with the 'reds' or 'blues' and doing whatever they could to maintain power. This versatility, combined with Chiang's patronage and their control of the Army made them a formindable force in Chinese politics despite their lack of a popular base.
T.V Soong was the leader of the "Freedom Group" and endorsed Chiang.
The 'blues' or "Freedom Group" were by and large middle and upper-class liberals determined to increase freedom in the new China. They chaffed at the econonmic and political 'safeguards' and wanted to let loose the 'untamed forces of the people.' In reality they were virulent anti-communists who wanted to 'purge' the Kuomintang of the 'left' and 'communism.' They stood in diametric opposition to the 'reds.' They supported Chiang Kai-shek's candidacy in the 1935 General Election - their unofficial faction leader T.V Soong was related to Chiang by marriage. Their para-military group the "blue-shirts" which would later develop into a potent force in Chinese politics was born out of the 1935 Election to 'protect' the faction. They were more successful than the 'whites' gaining 404 of the 1200 contestable Yuan seats. Their primary base was the 'progressive gentry' and other members of the middle and upper-classes.
Kuomintang Party President Wang JingWei barnstormed effectively for "Red" Yuan candidates. Less successful was the "red" candidate Soong Qingling who only gained 24% of the popular vote.
The 'reds' or the "Equality Group" had the most popular support. Their faction leader Wang JingWei was Party President and controlled the Kuomintang party machinery - using it to promote "left" candidates. The Blue's fears of a communist takeover did not seem unfounded as Wang ruthlessly used the party machine to support 'his' candidates over that of the blues and the whites. The Reds gained 560 of the 1200 seats in the Yuan - leaving them by far the largest party in the Yuan (although short of a majority - especially if you included 800 non-elected representatives. Less successful was Soong Qingling who gained only 24% of the vote - however - this was a notable achievement in a society such as China where women where only recently given the vote. It is important to note that it would be unfair to attribute the "reds'" success entirely to Wang's control of the party machinery. Their platform - a mix of populist solutions to the problems of the rural and urban proleriat was very popular.
In fact, many historians argue that had it not been for the "October Surprise," Qingling and the Reds might have done better. The humilaition of the Japanese Army when it attempted to 'punish' some Shanghai Chinese for the murder of 15 Buddhist Monks and was pushed out of their Shanghai concession undoubtedly boosted Chiang's and the Army's support. The Japanase were ultimately forced to ask for a cease-fire agreement. This foreign policy triumph with only a month to go before election boosted Chiang's and the White's chances and dented the Reds.
These three factions held a rough balance of force during the election - and afterwards. It was in all three's interest to ensure election. The whites did not want to upset the status quo because they were the whites, the blue's accepted the results as they had done better than expected and the reds knew that they would be smashed if they tried to fabricate the results. The coalition that was formed with Chiang Kai-shek as President, Wang Jingwei as Prime Minister and T.V Soong as Premier was an affirmation of the "Granita" status quo. Intraparty competition had produced a coalition government and a relatively stable equilibrium where all factions felt like they were the 'winners.'
Essay comments:
C-.
This is quite a disappointing essay from a student of such high potential- although you made sound arguments you provided too little evidence and did not source any of your assertions. The pictures you provided for the essay - while nice don't add anything to your argument. You also have a tangent about the "October Surprise" which has nothing to do with your argument. Please make a time to see me or your tutors so we can help you with your future essays. - Prof Patman.
____________________________________________________________________________________________
Hi all,
Sorry for the long delay! I've been frantic with exams and university and girlfriend. Those of you who are following my non-pol threads will also know that I've been having difficult times with her
. But it'll be ok - but it has distracted me from doing updates!More updates to follow this week.
- CCA
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