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Chapter 131: Assyrian, Nahraya and the Nestorian Church
A careful reader has already discovered the fates of Mesopotamia during both the early and late 14th century. The collapse of the Ilkhanate left Mesopotamia divided into three entities – Upper Mesopotamia or historical Assyria, later known as Gozarto (1) which came under ruleof the Jalayrids, then the central region surrounding the city of Qtespon ruled as a temporal holding directly by the Catholicos of the Church of the East. Finally, Lower Mesopotamia, historical Babylonia, which later came to be known as Sawat, came under the rule of the native Assyrian Qepasian dynasty.
Both the Jalayrid and Qepasian dynasties ultimately fell to the sway of the Turkoman Qara Qoyunlu confederation. Even the Catholicos himself became a de facto tributary or vassal of the Turkomans.
Nahraya (2) in the late 14th century was a rather sparsely populated region. Waves of Naiman invasions, Black Death and subsequently Turkoman attacks have reduced the population of Nahraya significantly, incomparably to the densely populated cradle of civilization.
Upper Mesopotamia, is a rural country, populated by three peoples. The largest group, roughly two-thirds of the population are ethnic Assyrians. Many of them are farmers, living in villages along the major rivers: Tigris, and the two Zab rivers. Assyrians can also be found in the cities of the country – Karka d´Beth Slokh(3), Ninweh(4), Arbela (5) and Tagrith (6), working as artisans and craftsmen, but also merchants. Assyrians are also known as “masters of the pen” – relating to their high share among the medics, lawyers and scholars in the region, while the title of the “masters of the sword” is referring to elite members of other ethnic groups.
View attachment 577414
The citadel of Arbela, one of the chief cities of Upper Mesopotamia
The second prominent ethnic group found in Upper Mesopotamia are the Turkomans, who can be found predominantly in foothills of the Zagros mountains, chiefly in the vicinity of Karka d Beth Slokh, known to them as Kärkuek. They were predominantly herders of mutton and horse, and being excellent horsemen. Written Turkoman from the Ilkhanate period has been found using the Uyghur script, however, apparently it has fallen into disuse, and by the late 14th century it was dropped in favour of Syriac script.
View attachment 577415
The walls of the citadel of Karka
In the mountain valleys and villages dwelt the Iranian –speaking Lurish and Kurdish hillmen, also having a shepherding lifestyle. These mountain tribes provided fierce infantry warriors.
Lower Mesopotamia under the administration of the Qepasian dynasty is currently experiencing renewed population growth, as they have commenced a massive repair of the irrigation canals, which had previously fallen into disrepair. The result was a doubling or even tripling of the arable land, resulting in both food surpluses and population growth. There are two major cities in Lower Mesopotamia: Kashkar on the Tigris, which was also the seat of the Qepasian dynasty, and Prath d´Maishan being the major port of Lower Mesopotamia.
View attachment 577416
Historical buildings in Prath d´Maishan
Aramaic remains the prevalent language, with the Sawatian form being rich in Persian and partly also Arabic loanwords. Apart from Christians, there remains a Gnostic Mandean community in the marshlands of the Lower Tigris, and a growing Msadeqi Mazouni community. The Mazounis could be found chiefly in towns like Kashkar but more importantly Prath d´Maishan, living in separate neighbourhoods and making their living as merchants.
Assyrian science continues to flourish at academies in Qtespon, Niniveh, Nisibis, Kashkar and Gundeshapur. Traditional sciences, such as astronomy and astrology continue their development, as well as mathematics and geometry. Apparently, Assyrian astronomers in the 14th century were able to further developments in optics, until Gabriel BetSargis came up with a shimshamarkatic (heliocentric) model, claiming that it is perhaps the planets including the Earth orbiting the sun. This theory came to be opposed by a numerous community of court astrologers, many having links to Gnostic and Manichean sects. Ultimately, it was the Nestorian Church that further sponsored the study of astronomy and defended Gabriel Bet Sargis from attacks by infuriated astrologers.
After the bleak experience of the Black Death, Assyrian scholars came to focus more on free will, and fatalism was discarded as a way of seeking excuses. Once reading a philosophic essay by Syriac philosophers, at times one feels like reading the Gospels – for the simple fact that they are full of thought experiments, parables and concrete illustrations, preferring to use concepts familiar from daily life to abstract theories. Assyrian scholars have argued that the world has been created, likening it to a house. A simple theory of evolution has also been proposed, extendable to animals, plants but also rocks. They all appear to be specifically adapted to their environments.
State of the Nestorian Church in the 14th Century
The Church of the East in the 14th century is having to deal with a number of issues. Firstly, they have lost jurisdiction over China, as the Nestorian Christians there are placed under the authority of a Most Holy Church of the Luminous Religion, with the argument being that China is an empire and ancient civilization on par with Rome or Persia, and as Christianity in the Mediterranean, within the borders of the Roman Empire came organized under five Patriarchates so should Christians in China. Furthermore, the argument went, that the Christians of Persia ought to have come under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Antioch, but as they were subject of the Sassanid Shahanshah, a separate Patriarchate was established. And of course, the cultural differences between Mesopotamia and China were more pronounced than between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean.
View attachment 577424
A map of Nestorian metropolitan provinces in western Asia
Of course, the Patriarch feared, that other parts of the world would be eager to pursue national reša d´šaith, or as the Greeks would say, autocephaly (7). Possible candidates for such moves could be some bold Khans in Sughd or some Raja in the south of India. Fortunately, it turns out, that both of these rulers came to benefit from the foreign contacts brought in by the mere existence of Assyrian monasteries.
The practice of the “Persian Marriages”, previously causing a challenge in dealing with, was largely dealt with a Deus ex Machina, being the inquisitions of Parbod in Persia. Unsurprisingly, those Christians who still had concubines, were quick to accept conversion to Zoroastrianism. It has become generally known that more often the village priest or the castle chaplain would turn a blind eye, especially if the culprit was of high social standing, while monks of Mar Addai would be rigorous in their pursuit of canon law.
The Holy Order of Mar Addai
Another major issue that the Church of the East is going to have to tackle is the rising power and influence of the Holy Order of Mar Addai. Originally, it was established as a tool for evangelization along the Silk Road. Unlike monasticism of the Desert Fathers in Egypt, Syria or even Rhomania, Nestorian monks were not hermits hard-to-reach in inaccessible locations, but are dedicated to a life of service. In contrast to Catholic Europe, the Nestorian monks are not divided into dozens of monastic orders, but rather there exists solely on order of Nestorian monks, and Nestorian monasteries function as polyfunctional centres, with a church, an inn, a library and hospital being the most basic ones.
The introduction of the Companions of Mar Qardakh, the calling of warriors of faith has been rather controversial. Now that the Holy Order of Mar Addai has its own army, it has become one of the most powerful institutions in Asia, and, unsurprisingly, the thorn in the eyes of many local rulers.
View attachment 577418
Mar Behnam monastery in Upper Mesopotamia
The monasteries of the Order of Mar Addai were outside of the jurisdiction of the local bishops, though originally they were presumed to be in close cooperation. Rather, the abbots of the monasteries were overseen by the Visitor, which functioned practically like an inspector, and reported directly to the Patriarch. The resulting state of affairs meant that the Order of Mar Addai had established a parallel structure, answerable only to the Patriarch. In quite a few regions, there were more monastic clergy than regular parish priests, and written evidence suggests that tension between regular clergy and monks, first reported as early as the 13th century, has now become a serious issue.
The question may arise, why, if previously the Order had existed for centuries, has the problem risen in the 14th century. The question can be answered by the collapse of the continent-spanning Naiman Empire and its successor realms. Even the Naiman conquerors were impressed by the infrastructural network built by the Order of Mar Addai and ought to copy it with their own postal service. Subsequently, the monks noticed many other ways, how to make use of their network of monasteries. Once the empire crumbled, and again the Turkic khagans were busy raiding and waging war upon each other, should they not spend time hunting or building magnificent palaces, the Order of Mar Addai found itself again to be the sole organization capable of providing a handful of services.
View attachment 577419
Antique map depicting historical caravans along the Silk Road
Firstly, as Naiman troops stopped patrolling the Silk Road and safety on the roads decreased, a certain Brother Khnanisho, being the innkeeper came up with an idea. As the road is risky, what if, a merchant in Yumen came and deposited his money when his in Yumen in exchange of a certificate, and then once reaching Qtespon, presented the certificate, and his money would be paid to him there. This idea, together with a possibility to “pre-order” a bed at inns in further monasteries, has become a particularly innovative idea, such that it greatly increased the wealth of the Order, as many travellers and merchants who had deposited gold were robbed and killed by bandits.
By the mid-to-late 14th century, the Order has come to be wealthy enough to equip its own army. The Companions of Mar Qardakh have become a serious threat to Parbod in his persecution of Nestorians, and the authorization of them as another “calling” of Assyrian monks was frowned upon by secular rulers, and clergy alike.
View attachment 577420
Companions of Mar Qardakh have fortified inaccessible locations- here Alamut in the Alborz Mountains
It was no secret that the Order of Mar Addai remained a force of globalization across much of Asia during the late medieval period. Their network of libraries and schools meant that knowledge and education standardized across much of the continent. Relatively high fluctuation in the monasteries meant that monks from many different backgrounds came to interact with one another, and more often than not, this resulted in new inventions, as people brought up in a different culture looked at things differently and found a new way of using the same thing.
View attachment 577422
The courtyard of a Nestorian monastery
The dense network of monasteries also meant another thing for the Church of the East – which the doctrine and practice of Christianity standardized across the entire Asian continent – with China being the big exception. Distinctive, controversial and near-heretical tendencies were quickly registered and channelled to the topmost level, where they were dealt with and decided upon, and prior to causing a general uproar.
In a time when corruption in the Nestorian Church was increasing and it became a public secret that quite a few of the Patriarchs won their office not by consensus of the Holy Spirit but rather by bags of gold, it turned out to be the monastic wing of the Church which put an end to the bribing. In the late 14th century, indeed as many as five Patriarchal candidates were sent to monasteries at the edges of the known world to serve as scribes as penance for their attempted manipulation of the patriarchal election. Not by chance, it turns out, that three of those five were open critics of the Order of Mar Addai and their disproportionate influence within the church.
Council of Kashkar
By the year 1387 the Catholicos Shemon IV has called a Council of the entire church to Kashkar in lower Mesopotamia. Theological controversies were to be addressed, as well as continued issues related to practical issues of the faithful: a zero toleration of “Persian marriages”, and discouragement of joining mystical brotherhoods, which were esoterical, if not Gnostic in nature, and their spirituality was thus not compatible with the teaching of the Church.
The real issue, however was to find a solution to the dichotomy between parish clergy and monasteries. The metropolitan of Samarqand proposed a solution in putting the office of the Visitor under the authority of the local Archbishop, thus all monasteries within an ecclesiastical province would be answerable to the local archbishop. The metropolitan of Herat proposed simply to put all monasteries under the authority of the local bishops, with a vicar amongst the Abbots acting as an intermediary between the monasteries and the local bishop.
The Abbots and Visitors of the monasteries were not eager to agree to the arrangement, as it would disrupt he organizational autonomy. However, it has become clear that the need to reign them in was dramatically, as more of the Visitor had more power than the actual bishop.
View attachment 577423
Clergy of the Church of the East in typical vestments
While some high-ranking prelates in Qtespon argued for the defence of the autonomy of the monasteries, ultimately the proposal of the Metropolitan of Samarqand was the one that was implemented. Effectively a Metropolitan province, headed by an archbishop, had numerous suffragan bishoprics, and for most practical purposes, the monasteries formed another, territorially non-contiguous bishopric. Further, it has been decided each province of the Order of Mar Addai was to hand over one third of their presently held finances and transfer it to the Archbishoprics –and a quarter of all future incomes was to go to the Archbishops.
Previously, a high share of the funds collected by the Oder of Mar Addai had been going directly to the office of the Catholicos, who commences the building of the impressive Cathedral of Mar Addai in Qtespon. The Archbishops used the newly acquired funds largely to build an enlarge academies – most profound is the Academy of Samarqand in Sogdia. Continued support for academic establishments was described with formulations calling for khans and shahs to “grant freedom to those who are in the further pursuit of wisdom” and to such.
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Both the Jalayrid and Qepasian dynasties ultimately fell to the sway of the Turkoman Qara Qoyunlu confederation. Even the Catholicos himself became a de facto tributary or vassal of the Turkomans.
Nahraya (2) in the late 14th century was a rather sparsely populated region. Waves of Naiman invasions, Black Death and subsequently Turkoman attacks have reduced the population of Nahraya significantly, incomparably to the densely populated cradle of civilization.
Upper Mesopotamia, is a rural country, populated by three peoples. The largest group, roughly two-thirds of the population are ethnic Assyrians. Many of them are farmers, living in villages along the major rivers: Tigris, and the two Zab rivers. Assyrians can also be found in the cities of the country – Karka d´Beth Slokh(3), Ninweh(4), Arbela (5) and Tagrith (6), working as artisans and craftsmen, but also merchants. Assyrians are also known as “masters of the pen” – relating to their high share among the medics, lawyers and scholars in the region, while the title of the “masters of the sword” is referring to elite members of other ethnic groups.
View attachment 577414
The citadel of Arbela, one of the chief cities of Upper Mesopotamia
The second prominent ethnic group found in Upper Mesopotamia are the Turkomans, who can be found predominantly in foothills of the Zagros mountains, chiefly in the vicinity of Karka d Beth Slokh, known to them as Kärkuek. They were predominantly herders of mutton and horse, and being excellent horsemen. Written Turkoman from the Ilkhanate period has been found using the Uyghur script, however, apparently it has fallen into disuse, and by the late 14th century it was dropped in favour of Syriac script.
View attachment 577415
The walls of the citadel of Karka
In the mountain valleys and villages dwelt the Iranian –speaking Lurish and Kurdish hillmen, also having a shepherding lifestyle. These mountain tribes provided fierce infantry warriors.
Lower Mesopotamia under the administration of the Qepasian dynasty is currently experiencing renewed population growth, as they have commenced a massive repair of the irrigation canals, which had previously fallen into disrepair. The result was a doubling or even tripling of the arable land, resulting in both food surpluses and population growth. There are two major cities in Lower Mesopotamia: Kashkar on the Tigris, which was also the seat of the Qepasian dynasty, and Prath d´Maishan being the major port of Lower Mesopotamia.
View attachment 577416
Historical buildings in Prath d´Maishan
Aramaic remains the prevalent language, with the Sawatian form being rich in Persian and partly also Arabic loanwords. Apart from Christians, there remains a Gnostic Mandean community in the marshlands of the Lower Tigris, and a growing Msadeqi Mazouni community. The Mazounis could be found chiefly in towns like Kashkar but more importantly Prath d´Maishan, living in separate neighbourhoods and making their living as merchants.
Assyrian science continues to flourish at academies in Qtespon, Niniveh, Nisibis, Kashkar and Gundeshapur. Traditional sciences, such as astronomy and astrology continue their development, as well as mathematics and geometry. Apparently, Assyrian astronomers in the 14th century were able to further developments in optics, until Gabriel BetSargis came up with a shimshamarkatic (heliocentric) model, claiming that it is perhaps the planets including the Earth orbiting the sun. This theory came to be opposed by a numerous community of court astrologers, many having links to Gnostic and Manichean sects. Ultimately, it was the Nestorian Church that further sponsored the study of astronomy and defended Gabriel Bet Sargis from attacks by infuriated astrologers.
After the bleak experience of the Black Death, Assyrian scholars came to focus more on free will, and fatalism was discarded as a way of seeking excuses. Once reading a philosophic essay by Syriac philosophers, at times one feels like reading the Gospels – for the simple fact that they are full of thought experiments, parables and concrete illustrations, preferring to use concepts familiar from daily life to abstract theories. Assyrian scholars have argued that the world has been created, likening it to a house. A simple theory of evolution has also been proposed, extendable to animals, plants but also rocks. They all appear to be specifically adapted to their environments.
State of the Nestorian Church in the 14th Century
The Church of the East in the 14th century is having to deal with a number of issues. Firstly, they have lost jurisdiction over China, as the Nestorian Christians there are placed under the authority of a Most Holy Church of the Luminous Religion, with the argument being that China is an empire and ancient civilization on par with Rome or Persia, and as Christianity in the Mediterranean, within the borders of the Roman Empire came organized under five Patriarchates so should Christians in China. Furthermore, the argument went, that the Christians of Persia ought to have come under the jurisdiction of the Patriarchate of Antioch, but as they were subject of the Sassanid Shahanshah, a separate Patriarchate was established. And of course, the cultural differences between Mesopotamia and China were more pronounced than between Mesopotamia and the Mediterranean.
View attachment 577424
A map of Nestorian metropolitan provinces in western Asia
Of course, the Patriarch feared, that other parts of the world would be eager to pursue national reša d´šaith, or as the Greeks would say, autocephaly (7). Possible candidates for such moves could be some bold Khans in Sughd or some Raja in the south of India. Fortunately, it turns out, that both of these rulers came to benefit from the foreign contacts brought in by the mere existence of Assyrian monasteries.
The practice of the “Persian Marriages”, previously causing a challenge in dealing with, was largely dealt with a Deus ex Machina, being the inquisitions of Parbod in Persia. Unsurprisingly, those Christians who still had concubines, were quick to accept conversion to Zoroastrianism. It has become generally known that more often the village priest or the castle chaplain would turn a blind eye, especially if the culprit was of high social standing, while monks of Mar Addai would be rigorous in their pursuit of canon law.
The Holy Order of Mar Addai
Another major issue that the Church of the East is going to have to tackle is the rising power and influence of the Holy Order of Mar Addai. Originally, it was established as a tool for evangelization along the Silk Road. Unlike monasticism of the Desert Fathers in Egypt, Syria or even Rhomania, Nestorian monks were not hermits hard-to-reach in inaccessible locations, but are dedicated to a life of service. In contrast to Catholic Europe, the Nestorian monks are not divided into dozens of monastic orders, but rather there exists solely on order of Nestorian monks, and Nestorian monasteries function as polyfunctional centres, with a church, an inn, a library and hospital being the most basic ones.
The introduction of the Companions of Mar Qardakh, the calling of warriors of faith has been rather controversial. Now that the Holy Order of Mar Addai has its own army, it has become one of the most powerful institutions in Asia, and, unsurprisingly, the thorn in the eyes of many local rulers.
View attachment 577418
Mar Behnam monastery in Upper Mesopotamia
The monasteries of the Order of Mar Addai were outside of the jurisdiction of the local bishops, though originally they were presumed to be in close cooperation. Rather, the abbots of the monasteries were overseen by the Visitor, which functioned practically like an inspector, and reported directly to the Patriarch. The resulting state of affairs meant that the Order of Mar Addai had established a parallel structure, answerable only to the Patriarch. In quite a few regions, there were more monastic clergy than regular parish priests, and written evidence suggests that tension between regular clergy and monks, first reported as early as the 13th century, has now become a serious issue.
The question may arise, why, if previously the Order had existed for centuries, has the problem risen in the 14th century. The question can be answered by the collapse of the continent-spanning Naiman Empire and its successor realms. Even the Naiman conquerors were impressed by the infrastructural network built by the Order of Mar Addai and ought to copy it with their own postal service. Subsequently, the monks noticed many other ways, how to make use of their network of monasteries. Once the empire crumbled, and again the Turkic khagans were busy raiding and waging war upon each other, should they not spend time hunting or building magnificent palaces, the Order of Mar Addai found itself again to be the sole organization capable of providing a handful of services.
View attachment 577419
Antique map depicting historical caravans along the Silk Road
Firstly, as Naiman troops stopped patrolling the Silk Road and safety on the roads decreased, a certain Brother Khnanisho, being the innkeeper came up with an idea. As the road is risky, what if, a merchant in Yumen came and deposited his money when his in Yumen in exchange of a certificate, and then once reaching Qtespon, presented the certificate, and his money would be paid to him there. This idea, together with a possibility to “pre-order” a bed at inns in further monasteries, has become a particularly innovative idea, such that it greatly increased the wealth of the Order, as many travellers and merchants who had deposited gold were robbed and killed by bandits.
By the mid-to-late 14th century, the Order has come to be wealthy enough to equip its own army. The Companions of Mar Qardakh have become a serious threat to Parbod in his persecution of Nestorians, and the authorization of them as another “calling” of Assyrian monks was frowned upon by secular rulers, and clergy alike.
View attachment 577420
Companions of Mar Qardakh have fortified inaccessible locations- here Alamut in the Alborz Mountains
It was no secret that the Order of Mar Addai remained a force of globalization across much of Asia during the late medieval period. Their network of libraries and schools meant that knowledge and education standardized across much of the continent. Relatively high fluctuation in the monasteries meant that monks from many different backgrounds came to interact with one another, and more often than not, this resulted in new inventions, as people brought up in a different culture looked at things differently and found a new way of using the same thing.
View attachment 577422
The courtyard of a Nestorian monastery
The dense network of monasteries also meant another thing for the Church of the East – which the doctrine and practice of Christianity standardized across the entire Asian continent – with China being the big exception. Distinctive, controversial and near-heretical tendencies were quickly registered and channelled to the topmost level, where they were dealt with and decided upon, and prior to causing a general uproar.
In a time when corruption in the Nestorian Church was increasing and it became a public secret that quite a few of the Patriarchs won their office not by consensus of the Holy Spirit but rather by bags of gold, it turned out to be the monastic wing of the Church which put an end to the bribing. In the late 14th century, indeed as many as five Patriarchal candidates were sent to monasteries at the edges of the known world to serve as scribes as penance for their attempted manipulation of the patriarchal election. Not by chance, it turns out, that three of those five were open critics of the Order of Mar Addai and their disproportionate influence within the church.
Council of Kashkar
By the year 1387 the Catholicos Shemon IV has called a Council of the entire church to Kashkar in lower Mesopotamia. Theological controversies were to be addressed, as well as continued issues related to practical issues of the faithful: a zero toleration of “Persian marriages”, and discouragement of joining mystical brotherhoods, which were esoterical, if not Gnostic in nature, and their spirituality was thus not compatible with the teaching of the Church.
The real issue, however was to find a solution to the dichotomy between parish clergy and monasteries. The metropolitan of Samarqand proposed a solution in putting the office of the Visitor under the authority of the local Archbishop, thus all monasteries within an ecclesiastical province would be answerable to the local archbishop. The metropolitan of Herat proposed simply to put all monasteries under the authority of the local bishops, with a vicar amongst the Abbots acting as an intermediary between the monasteries and the local bishop.
The Abbots and Visitors of the monasteries were not eager to agree to the arrangement, as it would disrupt he organizational autonomy. However, it has become clear that the need to reign them in was dramatically, as more of the Visitor had more power than the actual bishop.
View attachment 577423
Clergy of the Church of the East in typical vestments
While some high-ranking prelates in Qtespon argued for the defence of the autonomy of the monasteries, ultimately the proposal of the Metropolitan of Samarqand was the one that was implemented. Effectively a Metropolitan province, headed by an archbishop, had numerous suffragan bishoprics, and for most practical purposes, the monasteries formed another, territorially non-contiguous bishopric. Further, it has been decided each province of the Order of Mar Addai was to hand over one third of their presently held finances and transfer it to the Archbishoprics –and a quarter of all future incomes was to go to the Archbishops.
Previously, a high share of the funds collected by the Oder of Mar Addai had been going directly to the office of the Catholicos, who commences the building of the impressive Cathedral of Mar Addai in Qtespon. The Archbishops used the newly acquired funds largely to build an enlarge academies – most profound is the Academy of Samarqand in Sogdia. Continued support for academic establishments was described with formulations calling for khans and shahs to “grant freedom to those who are in the further pursuit of wisdom” and to such.
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- OTL rendered in Arabic as Jazira
- The Assyrian name of Mesopotamia
- Kirkuk
- Mosul, on the right bank of the Tigris
- Erbil
- Tikrit
- A literal translation from Classical Syriac saying “head of self”. Hopefully it does make sense.
- Tomislav Addai
- Word Count: 2.4k