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The Royal Corsican Army
Atypically for an 18th century monarch, King Theodore was sceptical of the value of a standing army for his kingdom. Certainly he required a modest royal guard, and he had supported the creation of the Royal Dragoons in 1754 to clamp down on vendetta killings and enforce the law in the rugged interior. He had personally pushed for the reestablishment of a navy, believing that an armed squadron was necessary to protect trade and fight the corsairs. When it came to a true army however - an armed force which existed not to defend the royal household, mete out justice, or guard commerce, but simply to defend the country - the king had always been dismissive. He scoffed at the idea that a few battalions of infantry could offer any meaningful protection against the intervention of a great power, and felt that an army would be a deplorable diversion of money and manpower from the economic development of the country. The kingdom’s independence could only be protected in the same manner in which it had been gained: with nationalist militia forces in the mountains.
Theodore’s beliefs were generally uncontroversial in the years immediately following independence, and in any case the kingdom’s strained finances and considerable debt made the maintenance of any such force impractical. The French occupation, however, changed some minds. “A few battalions of infantry” might not have driven the French from the country, but some argued that the kingdom’s complete lack of an army had encouraged the French to take greater liberties with Corsican property and sovereignty. Even before the end of the Four Years’ War, a “pro-military” faction began to emerge which did not share Theodore’s view of the essential uselessness of a standing army. They offered various practical arguments, but shared above all a conviction that a national army was a matter of national pride and status, without which Corsica would not be taken seriously by foreign powers.
The turning point came in 1764, when the “Saporiti Conspiracy” threatened to bring Corsica and Genoa to the brink of war. Although neither the king nor his ministers were interested in conflict with the Republic, the episode underlined just how powerless the kingdom actually was. Even if the Corsicans could never hope to field a regular army capable of deterring the likes of France, they might yet deter (or threaten) Corsica’s less formidable neighbors, the Republic included. The pro-military faction began to gain more traction and found prominent supporters in the cabinet and even the royal household, with the crown prince himself urging Theodore to consider some move towards a standing force.[1]
In early 1766 the king finally agreed to a compromise with the “militarists” by authorizing the creation of a royal military commission, staffed by ex-officers and foreign veterans, to study the matter and offer recommendations. To signal that the committee would be taken seriously, Theodore appointed Count Marcantonio Giappiconi, who had retired from the cabinet in 1762 after 25 years as minister of war, as its chair. After months of work, the commission ultimately compiled its recommendations as the Piano Generale del Militare Corso and submitted them to the government. Although Theodore made some revisions, he surprised many by signing off on the majority of the proposals. The revised plan was subsequently adopted by the new minister of war, Count Innocenzo di Mari, as the “1767 Establishment” of the Royal Corsican Army.[2]
Corsican Uniforms around 1770 (click to expand)
The 1767 Establishment
The Piano Generale generally agreed with Theodore’s assessment that the militia was the bedrock of national defense, and offered various reforms to the militia system. But the plan also recommended the creation of a “model regiment” of regular infantry which could garrison the presidi, train officers, provide marine detachments to the navy, and serve as a professional core for the militia in the event of an attack. For reasons both political and practical, Giappiconi’s commission suggested that the “model regiment” be organized on Austrian doctrine.
The “Austrian” the ministry hired to assist them with this task was Baron Jakob von Lockhart, a well-traveled soldier of fortune. A Scotsman, James Lockhart had joined the Jacobite uprising in 1745 at the age of twenty. After the uprising’s failure, Lockhart managed to escape capture and fled all the way to Persia, where he enlisted in the army of Nader Shah. He did not remain long in Persian service, however, as in 1748 he enlisted in the Austrian army just in time to see the last few months of the War of Austrian Succession. By the outbreak of the Four Years’ War he was a captain of grenadiers, and so impressed his superiors with his energy and courage that by war’s end he had been promoted to lieutenant-colonel and made a baron by Maria Theresa.[3][A]
Baron Lockhart seems to have been a bit loose with his own qualifications - he either told the Corsicans or allowed them to believe that he was a former “officer” in the Persian army (he was not), an Austrian “general” (he was not that either), and that he had been recommended to them by the Austrian high command (also not true). Nevertheless, he was serious about his offer to “teach the Corsicans to be proper soldiers,” and was given wide latitude to assemble, organize, and drill the regiment as he saw fit. Baron Lockhart served in Corsica for just two years before returning to the Austrian army, but his specifications for the regiment formed the basis for the Regolamento del 1769 per la Fanteria Corsa, which would remain the official reference for drill and procedures in the Royal Corsican Army for decades.
Recruitment and Lifestyle
The Corsican government always had more recruits than it could afford to enlist, and not just because of the traditional prestige of military service in Corsican society. Because of the scarcity of arable land and the Corsican tradition of dividing land between sons, there were many young men of respectable families who nevertheless found themselves without enough land to support themselves adequately. For such downwardly-mobile peasants, wearing the king’s uniform was seen as an honorable and stable alternative to working another man’s land as a farm laborer or sharecropper. This abundance of volunteers allowed the army to maintain some standards. Certainly its soldiers were usually poor and often illiterate - they were Corsicans, after all - but unlike many of its continental counterparts, the Corsican army never stooped so low as to dredge up indigents, vagabonds, or petty criminals to fill its ranks.
During peacetime, a Corsican soldier was required to be on patrol duty only 60 hours per month - ten six-hour shifts. At most other times he was permitted to wear civilian clothes. He lived in the barracks, but the barracks was open and families were allowed to visit regularly. Women and children were common sights in Corsican garrisons. Their substantial amount of off-duty time meant that many soldiers also held down part-time jobs with local artisans and tradesmen, which supplemented their rather modest army salary. A soldier might occasionally be called away from this routine for special tasks, most notably marine duty on a warship, but this was relatively uncommon.
This is not to say that a soldier’s job was a lark. Penalties for desertion or being absent from patrol were severe, and discipline was not forgotten in peacetime. Drill was rigorous, and inspections of uniforms and arms were frequent. Soldiering was a somewhat dangerous profession even during peacetime, for the close quarters of men in the barracks meant that they died from outbreaks of contagious disease at a significantly higher rate than the rest of the population. Yet such hazards were not unique to the Corsican army, and the status and perks of soldiering were considered by many to be worth the risks.
Uniforms
The 1767 infantry uniform was designed to accommodate the ministry’s demand for the strictest economy. It was shorter and tighter than coats of the Revolutionary era so as to save money on fabric, in keeping with the general trend in European military fashion away from the long tails and voluminous sleeves which had been popular in the early 18th century. Other cost-saving features included the narrow false cuffs, the small front lapel, the use of undyed wool ("natural black" for the coat, plain white for the waistcoat and breeches), and a lack of any dyed inner coat lining. Only the cuffs, lapels, and collar of the coat required dye (although sometimes the "natural black" coat was further darkened with an inexpensive gall dye).
This rather conventional and austere uniform was mainly notable for the choice of headgear. The tricorne had been the dominant military hat on the continent since the late 17th century, but in the mid-1760s the Austrians had officially adopted the kaskett, a round leather cap with a false front, as the standard headgear for all line infantry. Baron Lockhart assured the skeptical ministry that while the leather kaskett was more expensive than a cloth tricorne, it symbolized a “modern” army and would actually save money in the long run as it would not need to be replaced as often. The Corsican caschetto bore a tombac plate embossed with the royal cipher (“TR” for Theodorus Rex surrounded by laurel branches and surmounted by a crown). Tricornes continued to be worn by commissioned officers.[7]
The uniforms of the royal guard units retained a somewhat more “French” look with larger cuffs and no lapels, but some changes were made under the influence of the 1767 uniform (including a shorter coat). The Royal Dragoons were compelled to adopt the 1767 uniform but resisted the caschetto, which they deemed both impractical and demeaning (as it was “infantry” headgear). They retained their French-style dragoon forage caps.
Spanish M1757 Infantry Musket
Weaponry
The arms ordinances of the 1767 Establishment must be seen as highly aspirational. Although the Corsican government had a substantial hoard of smuggled and captured small arms on hand at the end of the Revolution, a survey of government arsenals in the wake of the French occupation painted a grim picture - the small arms were of obsolete designs and mismatched calibers, and many were unsafe or inoperable owing to poor maintenance, heavy wear, or missing parts. The best specimens were given to the royal guard, while the dragoons not infrequently had to - or preferred to - use their own personal firearms.
Such was the inadequacy of this stockpile that the navy felt it necessary to purchase 300 “reconditioned” Dutch muskets in 1763 to equip its sailors. These were older surplus muskets from government arsenals which were purchased by private gunsmiths and refurbished for export. This particular batch had barrels which were reinforced with brass bands and cut down by several inches to make them more durable and less awkward to use on a ship. Another purchase of reconditioned Dutch weapons was made by the army in 1767, but this shipment seems to have been less than satisfactory given a complaint by Minister di Mari that the Dutch vendors had sent them the same quality of guns “which I am told they trade to the Africans.”
“Modern” weaponry was introduced only in 1769, when the ministry purchased 250 brand new muskets from the Spanish government. The Spanish “M1757” musket was heavily influenced by French muskets, which had always been held in high esteem by the naziunali and comprised some of the best pieces in Corsican arsenals. The M1757 had a somewhat fragile lock, but was otherwise considered to be well-engineered, reliable, and accurate (for a musket). Initially intended only for the royal guard and the infantry grenadiers, these weapons proved so popular that the ministry soon began “manufacturing” them domestically. This involved importing barrels and locks from abroad and contracting Corsican gunsmiths to assemble the finished product. The result, known to modern firearms historians as a “Bastia musket” (as they were proofed and marked at the royal armory in Bastia), was a virtual clone of the M1757 albeit with a beech stock instead of the more expensive walnut. No carbine version was produced in this period, as the M1757 was already somewhat short for an infantry musket and the army deemed it suitable for dragoon use.
Footnotes
[1] Prince Federico’s militarism went further than most; he was inclined to see Corsica’s military tradition as a resource no less valuable than olives, wine, or timber, which might be profitably employed in the manner of the “mercenary” principalities of Germany. This was not on the table in the 1760s, but it served Federico’s interest to support the creation of an army which he might one day utilize as Theodore’s successor.
[2] Count Innocenzo was appointed to the ministry in 1762 at the age of 45. His father, Brandimarte “Brandone” di Mari, was a notable from the Castagniccian village of Taglio who served as one of the Dodici (the advisory council of Corsica under Genoese rule). When the rebellion broke out Brandimarte defected to the insurgents almost immediately, and was one of the leaders of the first rebel attack on Bastia in 1730. Upon Theodore’s arrival in 1736, Brandimarte rallied to the king’s banner and was made a hereditary knight and a colonel. Theodore later elevated him to the dignity of count and awarded him with the Order of the Redemption. His son Innocenzo, who was 19 years old at the time of Theodore’s coronation, fought at Borgo and San Pellegrino and led a company of Tavagnese militiamen at the final siege of Bastia.
[3] It is unclear exactly how Lockhart came to the attention of the Corsican war ministry, but the influence of the “Jacobite network” seems likely. Scottish and Irish exiles, most of them either Jacobites or descendants of Jacobite families, were prominent in both the Austrian army and Theodore’s royal guard.
[4] It must be emphasized that the troop numbers used by the 1767 Establishment were on paper only. All 18th century armies were under-strength in peacetime, and the Corsican army was no exception, although its numbers were limited more by available funds than problems recruiting. The actual strength of the regiment of infantry seems to have hovered around 400 soldiers.
[5] A “trabant,” meaning “satellite” or “companion,” was a bodyguard of a landsknecht officer. From the 16th century the name began to be applied to the bodyguards of princes, most famously the Swedish Drabanten of Gustav Vasa. In the 18th century certain ceremonial palace guard units of Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, and various small German states still retained the name. The Grand Dukes of Tuscany were protected by a unit of German/Swiss Trabanti until the end of Medici rule in 1737.
[6] Small and inelegant, the native paganacciu would have been laughably out of place in a continental cavalry unit but was well-suited to the duties of the Royal Dragoons. The short and plain-looking Corsican horse did not impress many foreign observers, but the Corsicans appreciated their strong, compact frames, their resistance to fatigue, their “valorous” character, and their incredible surefootedness. This last trait is best illustrated by the accounts of French officers during the First Intervention. “The Corsicans atop their ponies,” one officer wrote after an encounter with some mounted naziunali, “charged at us across terrain we could not even walk over.” Another marvelled at a Corsican horse which “galloped down a steep hill on which one of our own horses would have killed itself a hundred times over.”
[7] Another “Austrianism” introduced by Lockhart was the feldzeichen (“field sign”), a sprig of leaves (for the Austrians, oak in summer and fir in winter) affixed to the hats of Austrian soldiers to distinguish their own troops from those of other white-coated armies. This was not really a problem for the black-coated Corsicans, but nevertheless Lockhart had his regiment wear a feldzeichen of laurel during field exercises (possibly as a nod to the “laurel crown” of King Theodore). This “rametto d’alloro” caught on and became something of a symbol of the infantry.
Timeline Notes
[A] James Lockhart was a real person who apparently did go all the way from Scotland to Persia, enlisted in the army of Nader Shah, and then came back to Europe to start a very successful career in the Austrian army. “Jakob von Lockhart” was eventually made a major general and a count of the empire, and died in 1790. He was the possessor of the “Lee Penny,” a magical amulet acquired by an ancestor while crusading in Spain which was said to have phenomenal healing powers, and kept it in a golden snuffbox given to him by Maria Theresa. Among other exploits, he is claimed to have held a fake funeral for his (still living) brother in order to cheat British inheritance laws; the casket was full of stones.
The Royal Corsican Army
Excerpts from Merganser Publishing's "Lace Warriors" Series #53: The Corsican Army
Excerpts from Merganser Publishing's "Lace Warriors" Series #53: The Corsican Army
Atypically for an 18th century monarch, King Theodore was sceptical of the value of a standing army for his kingdom. Certainly he required a modest royal guard, and he had supported the creation of the Royal Dragoons in 1754 to clamp down on vendetta killings and enforce the law in the rugged interior. He had personally pushed for the reestablishment of a navy, believing that an armed squadron was necessary to protect trade and fight the corsairs. When it came to a true army however - an armed force which existed not to defend the royal household, mete out justice, or guard commerce, but simply to defend the country - the king had always been dismissive. He scoffed at the idea that a few battalions of infantry could offer any meaningful protection against the intervention of a great power, and felt that an army would be a deplorable diversion of money and manpower from the economic development of the country. The kingdom’s independence could only be protected in the same manner in which it had been gained: with nationalist militia forces in the mountains.
Theodore’s beliefs were generally uncontroversial in the years immediately following independence, and in any case the kingdom’s strained finances and considerable debt made the maintenance of any such force impractical. The French occupation, however, changed some minds. “A few battalions of infantry” might not have driven the French from the country, but some argued that the kingdom’s complete lack of an army had encouraged the French to take greater liberties with Corsican property and sovereignty. Even before the end of the Four Years’ War, a “pro-military” faction began to emerge which did not share Theodore’s view of the essential uselessness of a standing army. They offered various practical arguments, but shared above all a conviction that a national army was a matter of national pride and status, without which Corsica would not be taken seriously by foreign powers.
The turning point came in 1764, when the “Saporiti Conspiracy” threatened to bring Corsica and Genoa to the brink of war. Although neither the king nor his ministers were interested in conflict with the Republic, the episode underlined just how powerless the kingdom actually was. Even if the Corsicans could never hope to field a regular army capable of deterring the likes of France, they might yet deter (or threaten) Corsica’s less formidable neighbors, the Republic included. The pro-military faction began to gain more traction and found prominent supporters in the cabinet and even the royal household, with the crown prince himself urging Theodore to consider some move towards a standing force.[1]
In early 1766 the king finally agreed to a compromise with the “militarists” by authorizing the creation of a royal military commission, staffed by ex-officers and foreign veterans, to study the matter and offer recommendations. To signal that the committee would be taken seriously, Theodore appointed Count Marcantonio Giappiconi, who had retired from the cabinet in 1762 after 25 years as minister of war, as its chair. After months of work, the commission ultimately compiled its recommendations as the Piano Generale del Militare Corso and submitted them to the government. Although Theodore made some revisions, he surprised many by signing off on the majority of the proposals. The revised plan was subsequently adopted by the new minister of war, Count Innocenzo di Mari, as the “1767 Establishment” of the Royal Corsican Army.[2]
Corsican Uniforms around 1770 (click to expand)
The 1767 Establishment
The Piano Generale generally agreed with Theodore’s assessment that the militia was the bedrock of national defense, and offered various reforms to the militia system. But the plan also recommended the creation of a “model regiment” of regular infantry which could garrison the presidi, train officers, provide marine detachments to the navy, and serve as a professional core for the militia in the event of an attack. For reasons both political and practical, Giappiconi’s commission suggested that the “model regiment” be organized on Austrian doctrine.
The “Austrian” the ministry hired to assist them with this task was Baron Jakob von Lockhart, a well-traveled soldier of fortune. A Scotsman, James Lockhart had joined the Jacobite uprising in 1745 at the age of twenty. After the uprising’s failure, Lockhart managed to escape capture and fled all the way to Persia, where he enlisted in the army of Nader Shah. He did not remain long in Persian service, however, as in 1748 he enlisted in the Austrian army just in time to see the last few months of the War of Austrian Succession. By the outbreak of the Four Years’ War he was a captain of grenadiers, and so impressed his superiors with his energy and courage that by war’s end he had been promoted to lieutenant-colonel and made a baron by Maria Theresa.[3][A]
Baron Lockhart seems to have been a bit loose with his own qualifications - he either told the Corsicans or allowed them to believe that he was a former “officer” in the Persian army (he was not), an Austrian “general” (he was not that either), and that he had been recommended to them by the Austrian high command (also not true). Nevertheless, he was serious about his offer to “teach the Corsicans to be proper soldiers,” and was given wide latitude to assemble, organize, and drill the regiment as he saw fit. Baron Lockhart served in Corsica for just two years before returning to the Austrian army, but his specifications for the regiment formed the basis for the Regolamento del 1769 per la Fanteria Corsa, which would remain the official reference for drill and procedures in the Royal Corsican Army for decades.
Esercito Reale Corsa (Royal Corsican Army)[4]
Guardia Reale, 150 men:
Guardia Nobile del Corpo. The Noble Life Guard or Adligen-Leibgarde, frequently referred to as the Guardia Nobile (“Noble Guard”) or the Guardia Nera (“Black Guard”), originated in the early 1760s as a part of the royal household but little is known about the unit before the 1767 Establishment. Ostensibly this was an independent company of heavy cavalry, but the Noble Guard was principally a ceremonial household guard which acted as the sovereign’s personal escort. Troopers were required to be native-born Corsicans under the age of 30 from noble families who professed the Catholic faith. Aside from merely adding to the prestige of the crown, this showpiece guard unit was intended to teach military skills to - and cultivate the loyalty of - the sons of noble families who served as the king’s honored companions.
Troopers were to ride a black cavalry horse and to be armed with a carbine, a pair of pistols, and a pallasch (broadsword). Owing to the lack of cavalry horses on Corsica and the expense of importing them, it seems more likely that they rode the native horse or paganacciu (which, though not much of a warhorse, was indeed available in black). The king himself was the ex officio captain of the squadron, and his own military uniform was essentially a fancier version of theirs. Actual command was exercised by a tenente capitano (“lieutenant-captain”).
Guardia Trabanti del Corpo. The Trabant Life Guard or Trabanten-Leibgarde, variously known as the Guardia Verde (“Green Guard”), Guardia dei Granatieri (“Grenadier Guard”), or simply I Trabanti (“the Trabants”),[5] was an independent grenadier company which evolved from the king’s old foreign regiment. Although Theodore’s foreign troops during the revolution had been mainly German, in the 50s and 60s they were joined by increasing numbers of Scots, Irishmen, and (non-Corsican) Italians. The company rolls of this extremely eclectic unit also included Dutch, Englishmen, Spaniards, Frenchmen, Swiss, and one Courlander. While the Noble Guard served as a ceremonial escort the Trabants were the crown’s day-to-day security force, standing guard at the royal residences and providing bodyguards for the extended royal family.
The Trabants were to be armed with a musket, a bayonet, and a saber. The captain of this company was styled as comandante and ranked as a major. By tradition, all orders in the company were given in German. Enlisted men were required to wear mustaches.
Dragoni Reali. The Royal Dragoons were a national gendarmerie created to combat banditry and enforce justice. Although not part of the Royal Guard, the dragoons gained a reputation as an elite unit and recruiting was highly selective. The Piano Generale advised that prospective troopers should display superior initiative, moral integrity, marksmanship, and physical fitness. They were certainly the most active unit of the army during peacetime, as they were continually employed in patrolling Corsica’s rugged terrain and hunting down outlaws and bandits. They received only the most rudimentary cavalry training, as it was assumed that in wartime they would serve as “mounted light infantry” rather than cavalry.
Theoretically, dragoons were to be armed with a carbine, a brace of pistols, and a cavalry saber. In practice they were given considerable latitude to equip themselves how they (or their captain) wished. Carbines were popular but not always available, and troopers might instead carry an infantry musket or cispra (a very long, small-caliber musket). Cavalry sabers were rarely worn and probably not issued to most dragoons, who preferred more practical tools like knives, hatchets, or hangers. The mount of choice was the small but surefooted paganacciu, the native Corsican horse.[6] In contrast to the clean-shaven infantry and the mustachioed Trabants, the Royal Dragoons were permitted to grow full beards, which probably began as a practical concession but quickly became a jealously guarded privilege.
Reggimento di Piede. The Regiment of Foot was assembled in 1767 under the supervision of Baron Lockhart as a “model regiment” organized and trained to Austrian standards. The regiment consisted of one battalion with six companies, five of fusiliers and one of grenadiers. Grenadiers received a slightly higher salary than fusiliers and were exempt from certain menial duties. The infantry’s peacetime duties were primarily to garrison the presidi, maintain public order, and provide marine detachments to the Corsican Navy.
All infantrymen were issued a musket and bayonet. Grenadiers also carried a short saber or “hanger.”
Bombardieri. Formed in 1764 after the near-loss of the Capraia to corsairs demonstrated the acute need for trained garrison artillerymen, the bombardieri were citizen-gunners based on the Genoese model. They were typically recruited from the ranks of urban tradesmen, preferably those with relevant skills (e.g. carpenters, smiths, wheelwrights, coopers). Though they were part-timers, the bombardieri were under army jurisdiction and subject to military justice while on duty. They were required to pass a technical exam and were placed on active duty for a portion of every year to make sure their skills didn’t get too rusty. Bombardieri were paid while on active duty and received a number of perks, including exemption from militia duty and the right to wear a sword with civilian clothes. The 1767 Establishment organized them into three companies based out of Bastia, Calvi, and Ajaccio, each headed by a capo bombardiere.
Bombardiers were issued a linstock and a short saber. The linstock had a spearhead on the end and could theoretically be used as a half-pike, but the saber was a more practical weapon of self-defense. The bombardieri companies frequently marched with their full panoply in civic parades and celebrations.
Dragoni Presidiali. The “presidials” were auxiliaries who served as a provincial constabulary. They were raised by and reported to the royal luogotenenti and were not formally part of the army. These part-time gendarmes were required to undergo periodic training and show up for active duty for a portion of every month on a rotating calendar, although inactive men might be called up in an emergency. Their duties were to patrol the roads, carry out the acts of the luogotenente, enforce local justice, and assist the army with maintaining the general peace. Although established as 40-man companies on paper, in reality their numbers varied widely according to the needs and resources of the individual luogotenente. Like the bombardieri, they were exempt from militia duty and allowed to carry a sword in civilian dress.
Presidials were expected to provide their own horse and musket, and many carried pistols or swords as well. As a consequence, most presidials were local proprietari and notabili with sufficient means to own a riding horse, although a luogotenente could subsidize his presidials from his own pockets if he so desired.
Guardia Reale, 150 men:
Guardia Nobile del Corpo, 30 men in one squadron
Guardia Trabanti del Corpo, 120 men in one company
Truppe Regolati, 960 men:Reggimento Dragoni Reali, 360 men in three squadrons of two companies
Reggimento di Piede, 600 men in one battalion of six companies
Truppe Ausiliarie, 480 men:Bombardieri, 120 men in three companies
Dragoni Presidiali, 360 men in nine companies
Guardia Nobile del Corpo. The Noble Life Guard or Adligen-Leibgarde, frequently referred to as the Guardia Nobile (“Noble Guard”) or the Guardia Nera (“Black Guard”), originated in the early 1760s as a part of the royal household but little is known about the unit before the 1767 Establishment. Ostensibly this was an independent company of heavy cavalry, but the Noble Guard was principally a ceremonial household guard which acted as the sovereign’s personal escort. Troopers were required to be native-born Corsicans under the age of 30 from noble families who professed the Catholic faith. Aside from merely adding to the prestige of the crown, this showpiece guard unit was intended to teach military skills to - and cultivate the loyalty of - the sons of noble families who served as the king’s honored companions.
Troopers were to ride a black cavalry horse and to be armed with a carbine, a pair of pistols, and a pallasch (broadsword). Owing to the lack of cavalry horses on Corsica and the expense of importing them, it seems more likely that they rode the native horse or paganacciu (which, though not much of a warhorse, was indeed available in black). The king himself was the ex officio captain of the squadron, and his own military uniform was essentially a fancier version of theirs. Actual command was exercised by a tenente capitano (“lieutenant-captain”).
Guardia Trabanti del Corpo. The Trabant Life Guard or Trabanten-Leibgarde, variously known as the Guardia Verde (“Green Guard”), Guardia dei Granatieri (“Grenadier Guard”), or simply I Trabanti (“the Trabants”),[5] was an independent grenadier company which evolved from the king’s old foreign regiment. Although Theodore’s foreign troops during the revolution had been mainly German, in the 50s and 60s they were joined by increasing numbers of Scots, Irishmen, and (non-Corsican) Italians. The company rolls of this extremely eclectic unit also included Dutch, Englishmen, Spaniards, Frenchmen, Swiss, and one Courlander. While the Noble Guard served as a ceremonial escort the Trabants were the crown’s day-to-day security force, standing guard at the royal residences and providing bodyguards for the extended royal family.
The Trabants were to be armed with a musket, a bayonet, and a saber. The captain of this company was styled as comandante and ranked as a major. By tradition, all orders in the company were given in German. Enlisted men were required to wear mustaches.
Dragoni Reali. The Royal Dragoons were a national gendarmerie created to combat banditry and enforce justice. Although not part of the Royal Guard, the dragoons gained a reputation as an elite unit and recruiting was highly selective. The Piano Generale advised that prospective troopers should display superior initiative, moral integrity, marksmanship, and physical fitness. They were certainly the most active unit of the army during peacetime, as they were continually employed in patrolling Corsica’s rugged terrain and hunting down outlaws and bandits. They received only the most rudimentary cavalry training, as it was assumed that in wartime they would serve as “mounted light infantry” rather than cavalry.
Theoretically, dragoons were to be armed with a carbine, a brace of pistols, and a cavalry saber. In practice they were given considerable latitude to equip themselves how they (or their captain) wished. Carbines were popular but not always available, and troopers might instead carry an infantry musket or cispra (a very long, small-caliber musket). Cavalry sabers were rarely worn and probably not issued to most dragoons, who preferred more practical tools like knives, hatchets, or hangers. The mount of choice was the small but surefooted paganacciu, the native Corsican horse.[6] In contrast to the clean-shaven infantry and the mustachioed Trabants, the Royal Dragoons were permitted to grow full beards, which probably began as a practical concession but quickly became a jealously guarded privilege.
Reggimento di Piede. The Regiment of Foot was assembled in 1767 under the supervision of Baron Lockhart as a “model regiment” organized and trained to Austrian standards. The regiment consisted of one battalion with six companies, five of fusiliers and one of grenadiers. Grenadiers received a slightly higher salary than fusiliers and were exempt from certain menial duties. The infantry’s peacetime duties were primarily to garrison the presidi, maintain public order, and provide marine detachments to the Corsican Navy.
All infantrymen were issued a musket and bayonet. Grenadiers also carried a short saber or “hanger.”
Bombardieri. Formed in 1764 after the near-loss of the Capraia to corsairs demonstrated the acute need for trained garrison artillerymen, the bombardieri were citizen-gunners based on the Genoese model. They were typically recruited from the ranks of urban tradesmen, preferably those with relevant skills (e.g. carpenters, smiths, wheelwrights, coopers). Though they were part-timers, the bombardieri were under army jurisdiction and subject to military justice while on duty. They were required to pass a technical exam and were placed on active duty for a portion of every year to make sure their skills didn’t get too rusty. Bombardieri were paid while on active duty and received a number of perks, including exemption from militia duty and the right to wear a sword with civilian clothes. The 1767 Establishment organized them into three companies based out of Bastia, Calvi, and Ajaccio, each headed by a capo bombardiere.
Bombardiers were issued a linstock and a short saber. The linstock had a spearhead on the end and could theoretically be used as a half-pike, but the saber was a more practical weapon of self-defense. The bombardieri companies frequently marched with their full panoply in civic parades and celebrations.
Dragoni Presidiali. The “presidials” were auxiliaries who served as a provincial constabulary. They were raised by and reported to the royal luogotenenti and were not formally part of the army. These part-time gendarmes were required to undergo periodic training and show up for active duty for a portion of every month on a rotating calendar, although inactive men might be called up in an emergency. Their duties were to patrol the roads, carry out the acts of the luogotenente, enforce local justice, and assist the army with maintaining the general peace. Although established as 40-man companies on paper, in reality their numbers varied widely according to the needs and resources of the individual luogotenente. Like the bombardieri, they were exempt from militia duty and allowed to carry a sword in civilian dress.
Presidials were expected to provide their own horse and musket, and many carried pistols or swords as well. As a consequence, most presidials were local proprietari and notabili with sufficient means to own a riding horse, although a luogotenente could subsidize his presidials from his own pockets if he so desired.
Recruitment and Lifestyle
The Corsican government always had more recruits than it could afford to enlist, and not just because of the traditional prestige of military service in Corsican society. Because of the scarcity of arable land and the Corsican tradition of dividing land between sons, there were many young men of respectable families who nevertheless found themselves without enough land to support themselves adequately. For such downwardly-mobile peasants, wearing the king’s uniform was seen as an honorable and stable alternative to working another man’s land as a farm laborer or sharecropper. This abundance of volunteers allowed the army to maintain some standards. Certainly its soldiers were usually poor and often illiterate - they were Corsicans, after all - but unlike many of its continental counterparts, the Corsican army never stooped so low as to dredge up indigents, vagabonds, or petty criminals to fill its ranks.
During peacetime, a Corsican soldier was required to be on patrol duty only 60 hours per month - ten six-hour shifts. At most other times he was permitted to wear civilian clothes. He lived in the barracks, but the barracks was open and families were allowed to visit regularly. Women and children were common sights in Corsican garrisons. Their substantial amount of off-duty time meant that many soldiers also held down part-time jobs with local artisans and tradesmen, which supplemented their rather modest army salary. A soldier might occasionally be called away from this routine for special tasks, most notably marine duty on a warship, but this was relatively uncommon.
This is not to say that a soldier’s job was a lark. Penalties for desertion or being absent from patrol were severe, and discipline was not forgotten in peacetime. Drill was rigorous, and inspections of uniforms and arms were frequent. Soldiering was a somewhat dangerous profession even during peacetime, for the close quarters of men in the barracks meant that they died from outbreaks of contagious disease at a significantly higher rate than the rest of the population. Yet such hazards were not unique to the Corsican army, and the status and perks of soldiering were considered by many to be worth the risks.
Uniforms
The 1767 infantry uniform was designed to accommodate the ministry’s demand for the strictest economy. It was shorter and tighter than coats of the Revolutionary era so as to save money on fabric, in keeping with the general trend in European military fashion away from the long tails and voluminous sleeves which had been popular in the early 18th century. Other cost-saving features included the narrow false cuffs, the small front lapel, the use of undyed wool ("natural black" for the coat, plain white for the waistcoat and breeches), and a lack of any dyed inner coat lining. Only the cuffs, lapels, and collar of the coat required dye (although sometimes the "natural black" coat was further darkened with an inexpensive gall dye).
This rather conventional and austere uniform was mainly notable for the choice of headgear. The tricorne had been the dominant military hat on the continent since the late 17th century, but in the mid-1760s the Austrians had officially adopted the kaskett, a round leather cap with a false front, as the standard headgear for all line infantry. Baron Lockhart assured the skeptical ministry that while the leather kaskett was more expensive than a cloth tricorne, it symbolized a “modern” army and would actually save money in the long run as it would not need to be replaced as often. The Corsican caschetto bore a tombac plate embossed with the royal cipher (“TR” for Theodorus Rex surrounded by laurel branches and surmounted by a crown). Tricornes continued to be worn by commissioned officers.[7]
The uniforms of the royal guard units retained a somewhat more “French” look with larger cuffs and no lapels, but some changes were made under the influence of the 1767 uniform (including a shorter coat). The Royal Dragoons were compelled to adopt the 1767 uniform but resisted the caschetto, which they deemed both impractical and demeaning (as it was “infantry” headgear). They retained their French-style dragoon forage caps.
Spanish M1757 Infantry Musket
Weaponry
The arms ordinances of the 1767 Establishment must be seen as highly aspirational. Although the Corsican government had a substantial hoard of smuggled and captured small arms on hand at the end of the Revolution, a survey of government arsenals in the wake of the French occupation painted a grim picture - the small arms were of obsolete designs and mismatched calibers, and many were unsafe or inoperable owing to poor maintenance, heavy wear, or missing parts. The best specimens were given to the royal guard, while the dragoons not infrequently had to - or preferred to - use their own personal firearms.
Such was the inadequacy of this stockpile that the navy felt it necessary to purchase 300 “reconditioned” Dutch muskets in 1763 to equip its sailors. These were older surplus muskets from government arsenals which were purchased by private gunsmiths and refurbished for export. This particular batch had barrels which were reinforced with brass bands and cut down by several inches to make them more durable and less awkward to use on a ship. Another purchase of reconditioned Dutch weapons was made by the army in 1767, but this shipment seems to have been less than satisfactory given a complaint by Minister di Mari that the Dutch vendors had sent them the same quality of guns “which I am told they trade to the Africans.”
“Modern” weaponry was introduced only in 1769, when the ministry purchased 250 brand new muskets from the Spanish government. The Spanish “M1757” musket was heavily influenced by French muskets, which had always been held in high esteem by the naziunali and comprised some of the best pieces in Corsican arsenals. The M1757 had a somewhat fragile lock, but was otherwise considered to be well-engineered, reliable, and accurate (for a musket). Initially intended only for the royal guard and the infantry grenadiers, these weapons proved so popular that the ministry soon began “manufacturing” them domestically. This involved importing barrels and locks from abroad and contracting Corsican gunsmiths to assemble the finished product. The result, known to modern firearms historians as a “Bastia musket” (as they were proofed and marked at the royal armory in Bastia), was a virtual clone of the M1757 albeit with a beech stock instead of the more expensive walnut. No carbine version was produced in this period, as the M1757 was already somewhat short for an infantry musket and the army deemed it suitable for dragoon use.
Footnotes
[1] Prince Federico’s militarism went further than most; he was inclined to see Corsica’s military tradition as a resource no less valuable than olives, wine, or timber, which might be profitably employed in the manner of the “mercenary” principalities of Germany. This was not on the table in the 1760s, but it served Federico’s interest to support the creation of an army which he might one day utilize as Theodore’s successor.
[2] Count Innocenzo was appointed to the ministry in 1762 at the age of 45. His father, Brandimarte “Brandone” di Mari, was a notable from the Castagniccian village of Taglio who served as one of the Dodici (the advisory council of Corsica under Genoese rule). When the rebellion broke out Brandimarte defected to the insurgents almost immediately, and was one of the leaders of the first rebel attack on Bastia in 1730. Upon Theodore’s arrival in 1736, Brandimarte rallied to the king’s banner and was made a hereditary knight and a colonel. Theodore later elevated him to the dignity of count and awarded him with the Order of the Redemption. His son Innocenzo, who was 19 years old at the time of Theodore’s coronation, fought at Borgo and San Pellegrino and led a company of Tavagnese militiamen at the final siege of Bastia.
[3] It is unclear exactly how Lockhart came to the attention of the Corsican war ministry, but the influence of the “Jacobite network” seems likely. Scottish and Irish exiles, most of them either Jacobites or descendants of Jacobite families, were prominent in both the Austrian army and Theodore’s royal guard.
[4] It must be emphasized that the troop numbers used by the 1767 Establishment were on paper only. All 18th century armies were under-strength in peacetime, and the Corsican army was no exception, although its numbers were limited more by available funds than problems recruiting. The actual strength of the regiment of infantry seems to have hovered around 400 soldiers.
[5] A “trabant,” meaning “satellite” or “companion,” was a bodyguard of a landsknecht officer. From the 16th century the name began to be applied to the bodyguards of princes, most famously the Swedish Drabanten of Gustav Vasa. In the 18th century certain ceremonial palace guard units of Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, and various small German states still retained the name. The Grand Dukes of Tuscany were protected by a unit of German/Swiss Trabanti until the end of Medici rule in 1737.
[6] Small and inelegant, the native paganacciu would have been laughably out of place in a continental cavalry unit but was well-suited to the duties of the Royal Dragoons. The short and plain-looking Corsican horse did not impress many foreign observers, but the Corsicans appreciated their strong, compact frames, their resistance to fatigue, their “valorous” character, and their incredible surefootedness. This last trait is best illustrated by the accounts of French officers during the First Intervention. “The Corsicans atop their ponies,” one officer wrote after an encounter with some mounted naziunali, “charged at us across terrain we could not even walk over.” Another marvelled at a Corsican horse which “galloped down a steep hill on which one of our own horses would have killed itself a hundred times over.”
[7] Another “Austrianism” introduced by Lockhart was the feldzeichen (“field sign”), a sprig of leaves (for the Austrians, oak in summer and fir in winter) affixed to the hats of Austrian soldiers to distinguish their own troops from those of other white-coated armies. This was not really a problem for the black-coated Corsicans, but nevertheless Lockhart had his regiment wear a feldzeichen of laurel during field exercises (possibly as a nod to the “laurel crown” of King Theodore). This “rametto d’alloro” caught on and became something of a symbol of the infantry.
Timeline Notes
[A] James Lockhart was a real person who apparently did go all the way from Scotland to Persia, enlisted in the army of Nader Shah, and then came back to Europe to start a very successful career in the Austrian army. “Jakob von Lockhart” was eventually made a major general and a count of the empire, and died in 1790. He was the possessor of the “Lee Penny,” a magical amulet acquired by an ancestor while crusading in Spain which was said to have phenomenal healing powers, and kept it in a golden snuffbox given to him by Maria Theresa. Among other exploits, he is claimed to have held a fake funeral for his (still living) brother in order to cheat British inheritance laws; the casket was full of stones.
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