alternatehistory.com
Chapter 120: The Establishment of the Ming Dynasty
The Chinese Dynastic Cycle
A standard pattern in Chinese history, referred to by historians as the Chinese Dynastic cycle has been occurring throughout history. The dynastic cycle begins with a new ruler uniting all of China and thus claiming the Mandate of Heaven. In the first phase, the country becomes prosperous and experiences a significant population growth. However gradually corruption grows and the regime is facing a period of instability and decline. Such problems would not generally cause the collapse of the regime, however should a natural disaster that causes small yields occur, it greatly shakes balance of the country, as it causes a famine due to overpopulation, and widespread corruption has meant that there aren’t really any capacities to tackle the issue. As the administration is incompetent, the population rebels and the result is a civil war. The previous dynasty is perceived as having lost the Mandate of Heaven; however it is not yet clear who will claim it, and China descends into a warring states period, with the side-effect of population decrease, caused by war as well as the previous famine. Eventually, one state would emerge victorious to claim the Mandate of Heaven and thus we are again at the beginning of the whole cycle…
Causes and Background of the Rebellion
Depopulation and widespread famine, paired up with continued favouritism of foreigners and Altaic peoples, as well as over-taxation and flooding of the Yellow River caused by collapse of the irrigation system have been the major causes of the rebellion. Together with a disgruntled alliance of Daoists, Buddhist sectarians and Manicheans, the way is paved for a new dynasty in China.
Of course, many people at this stage are discontent. However, some segments of the society are more discontent than others; furthermore the for a successful uprising, any potential leader of the rebellion is going to be in need of both a relatively broad support base, where it can recruit its most loyal followers, plus must be able to sell their message to the general public.
View attachment 540447
Depiction of a meeting of the White Lotus sect
In this case we it is the White Lotus sect, originating as a hybrid movement of Buddhism and Manicheanism; its members adhering to strict vegetarianism and allowing both men and women to participate in their incense-burning ceremonies. The White Lotus was viewed as a heretic sect by the Yuan and has been forced underground, becoming effectively a secret society. Gradually, the movement merged with that of Maitreyan (quasi-messianic) Buddhist sectarians. Ultimately, what we have is millenarian messianic movement, gaining attraction among splinter groups of the Mahayana Buddhists and Manichean groups as well.
Their first uprising has been unsuccessful; in the second uprising they exchange the white banners for the red ones, and become popularly known as the “Red Turbans”, due to the characteristic colour of their hats.
The uprising against the Yuan is led by Han Shandong, a charismatic leader, claiming descent from Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty, which had been ruling China prior to the Mongols. This claim wins him a degree of legitimacy among the general Chinese population.
Warlords Reign Supreme
Equipped with an early gunpowder weapon, the arquebus, the Red Turban rebels can use to their advantage the technological disparity, as the Mongol forces still rely on archers
The Red Turban rebellion has established its support base in the Wu region of the Lower Yangtze and the regions of the middle Yangtze basin as well. Sichuan is held by a rival warlord, who has established a “Sichuanese Xia” dynasty. Yunnan is held by the warlord Balasawarmi, a commander sympathetic to the Yuan rule. Northern China remains in the hands of numerous pro-Yuan Semu warlords and Yuan princes. This state of affairs manages to remain as such for some three years, which the Red Turbans take advantage of by securing much of southern China including Fujian and Guangdong. Then, their attention shifts northwards, where they manage to kick the Mongols out of China and establish the border at the Great Wall of China. A continuation of the Yuan dynasty continues to rule over Mongolia and Manchuria, known as the Northern Yuan Dynasty.
By this time, the leader of the Red Turban Rebellion proclaims himself as Emperor with the Mandate of Heaven, and recognizing his Manichean roots, he declares the new dynasty to be named “Ming”, meaning bright and choosing fire as its dynastic element.
Subsequent campaigns of the early Ming dynasty result in conquering Sichuan and Yunnan; Tibet, Mongolia and Manchuria remain outside of Ming rule for now.
A New Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, originating in the region of Wu on the lower Yangtze positions itself as a direct antithesis of the previous Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan period is remembered as a period of foreign dominance, where any foreigner could virtually achieve an important position much faster than any local. The Ming dynasty is ready to put an end to all foreign influence in China and practically the entire state administration is now occupied by ethnic Chinese. The country thus changes from a cosmopolitan-oriented to a Chinese-dominated country.
View attachment 540450
A map of the extent of the Ming empire. Please note that the only relevant borders on the map are those of the Ming Emúpire, as that is the only area that has been updated for the 14th century so far.
This can be perceived also in the religious landscape as well. The religions which were discouraged by the previous administration have become favoured by the new dynasty, and vice versa. Especially Mingjian, or Chinese Manicheanism has risen to prominence, as it is the religion professed by the Emperor himself, who also chose “Ming” as a dynastic name, in reference to Mingjian. Secondly, the Taoism is enjoying imperial favour, while Tibetan Buddhist lamas have lost imperial favour.
As for the Semu Christians, at first they were treated with suspicion – based on the fact they had been the support base of the last Yuan or at least pro-Yuan forces. However considering their demographic strength – mainly in the north-western parts of the empire, they make between a quarter and third of the population, a simple decision to expel them or to restrict Christianity has come out of question. The existence of an organized church has given the Ming Dynasty a practical tool to control the Semu.
In terms of geopolitical orientation, one can also witness the change of the orientation of the country. The capital of the new dynasty is to be found at Nanjing, located in on the lower Yangtze in the Wu heartland. The change of capital signifies quite a lot in geopolitical terms. Firstly, China seems not willing to expand further northwards beyond the Great Wall of China, and considers the border defined by the Wall as fixed. Secondly, the new capital is located on the eastern coast (well technically not at the coast of the East China Sea itself, but at the lower end of a navigable river, which is practically the same thing), and China is thus no longer considering the Silk Road as its principal vector. Quite the contrary, under the new dynasty China orients itself to the southeast, open to maritime trade with Southeast Asia, Japan and Korea.
Government
The Ming government inherited much of the institutions of the former Yuan dynasty, and the provincial layout remains very similar to the previous Yuan pattern. The major change was the division of the large Zhili or formerly Central Province around Beijing into Northern Zhili, Shandong, Shanxi and Southern Zhili. The number of provinces has also increased in the southern parts of the country: Jiangzha is divided into two – Zhejiang in the north in the vicinity of Nanjing, and Fujian in the south (This division takes into account also the linguistic divide between the Wu-speaking Zhejiang and the Min-speaking Fujian); the southern expanses of the large provinces of Huguang and Jiangxi are detached to become provinces in their own right: Guizhou and Guangxi are separated from Huguang and Guangdong from the Jiangxi province. On the other hand, the province of Gansu in the far northwestern reaches of the empire is merged with Shaanxi
View attachment 540448
Ming Xiaoling - the Mausoleum of the Ming Emperors in Nanjing
The central government remains organized into six major ministries: the Ministry of Personnel (in charge of promoting and demoting officials, and selecting whom to grant honorific titles and stuff like that), the Ministry of Revenue (in charge of collecting census data, and extracting taxes, and handling the gathered financial resources), the Ministry of Rites (covering the competencies of a protocol department in charge of foreign relations, but also overseeing religious life in general), the Ministry of War (its function is pretty straight-forward, being in charge of maintaining a functional military force including equipment and officer corps), the Ministry of Justice (dealing with the judicial system) and ultimately the Ministry of Public Works ( dealing with a broad scope of issues – from communications and infrastructure, such as roads and canals, to the standardization of weights and measures).
These six ministries were in charge over most of the affairs of the central government, above them was the Grand Secretariat, nominally merely a coordinating agency between the Six Ministries, de facto however the Grand Secretaries had more actual power than the ministries themselves.
Military of the Ming
View attachment 540445
Ming cavalrymen
The Ming forces have used firearms since the Red Turban Rebellion; however it was not at first a universal weapon, rather expected to be a used by one in ten soldiers. Roughly a half of the Ming infantry used a melee weapon, typically a spear, and the other half was equipped with a ranged weapon, such as bows and arrows, crossbows, or firearms. The typical Ming cavalryman was equipped with Dao, a Chinese sabre, a single-edged, curved sword.
The system of recruitment was based upon hereditary military households, which made roughly a fifth of all households; the system was meant to be self-sufficient, so that each household was to equip one soldier at a time (if died, he would be replaced).
Serving in the military was however not considered an honour in Ming China, contrary to other parts of the world. Rather, people strove to become members of the administration and serve as bureaucrats, rather than soldiers, who were mostly illiterate and often used for as a cheap labour force.
View attachment 540444
Ming wolf troops- soldiers from the hill-tribes
It has become known that indeed the military was generally lacking discipline and the desertion rate was high, and many turned to banditry. Northern troopers had been often described as lacking patience and intelligence, in quite a few cases being little better than thugs. The southerners were known to be better in infantry and naval combat; and the northerners and southerners largely distrusted one another. In addition to ethnic Chinese, the military also employed Semu and Mongol cavalrymen from the north, who acted largely as if they were mercenary troops; ultimately, the hill tribes of Guangxi were used as “wolf troops” for ambush operations.
View attachment 540442
The Great Wall of China- one of the lasting legacies of Ming rule in China
The military itself was subject to central planning, and the entire colossus was run in a distinct bureaucratic way, rendering it rather ineffective. The solution to most of the threats was walls, whether it be the nomadic Mongols in the north, or the unruly hill-tribes of the south. The Great Wall of China is repaired and rebuilt again, to serve its purpose and defend the Middle Kingdom.
Economy
The population at the end of the 14th century may have been at some 60 million people. These modern estimates correct major leaks in the censuses caused by people seeking to evade the tax system. The Ming era saw also the general Chinese society become more interconnected, as interactions between the countryside and cities become frequent. Agriculture in the north was based mainly on growing wheat and millet, while those living in the Yangtze Basin and further southwards depended mostly on growing rice. Other plants grown are sugarcane and citrus mainly in Guangdong province and surrounding regions. Silk remains one of the chief Chinese exports, and the cultivation of the mulberry trees for the silkworm remains one of the primary activities on the lower Yangtze.
View attachment 540443
Chinese porcelain from the Ming period
Apart from silk, other important products made in China were tea and porcelain, also known as Chinaware.
Culture and Society
When broadly speaking about the society, one must also think of class distinctions. While connecting the terms of “caste” to a civilization such as China seems rather unnatural, China too had its terms of denoting different levels of the societal pyramid.
A broad four-fold division of the society distinguishes between four major groups: the Shi, the Nong, the Gong and the Shang. The Shi class were the bureaucratic aristocratic elite of the country, who were the ones striving to succeed in the traditional imperial examination systems, being highly educated and literate.
The Nong or peasant farmers were respected second-only to the Shi, as a class vital for sustaining all the others in a country vulnerable to famine. The Gong were artisans, who were still seen as a productive class, in many cases their profession being inherited from father to son.
Ultimately the Shang were the class that included the merchants and traders. They were generally looked down upon, as they were thought to not contribute much to the society, and were suspected to be merely motivated by greed. The more successful ones bought land and sought to become co-opted into the Shi.
View attachment 540441
A map of religions in the late 14th century. There are three shades of yellowish-beige. The lightest of them shows Confucianism, the middle one Daoism and the darkest one Mingjian (Chinese Manicheism)
In terms of religion, we can witness a renaissance of Confucianism predominantly in the northeast, in Shandong and northern Zhili provinces. Confucianism is often described as a philosophical rather than religious system, teaching stability by honouring a defined hierarchy in the social relationships.
Taoism is a religious and philosophical system emphasizing living in harmony with nature; during the early Ming dynasty it has achieved a strong preference by the imperial court, and is perceived as a truly Chinese indigenous tradition. Taoism is widespread in the central regions, around the Yangtze River and also in the Shanxi province in northern China .
Interestingly enough, Taoism has also become the religion of the Mien or Yao people living in Hunan and surrounding regions. Of course, the Yao practice is a little different from the Han Chinese practice, but it is similar enough to be referred to as Taoism.
Buddhism as such has lost much of the imperial favour and is rather discouraged, although not strictly suppressed. Buddhism within Ming China distinguishes between two major branches: Vajrayana and Mahayana. The Vajrayana branch of Buddhism is the one prevalent in Tibet, and as a matter of fact is also strongly prevalent among the Bai people of Yunnan (where its variety is called Azhalii) and in Sichuan. The Vajrayana is thus present mainly in western China, in the regions of Yunnan and Sichuan. In addition, the tribal Thaic peoples of Yunnan practice also Theravada Buddhism
Mahayana is the branch of Buddhism which is practiced by some of the Chinese in southern China. It has split into a large variety of traditions and sects.
Mingjian or Manicheism is the fourth officially sanctioned religion in China. In contrast to the previous three, it is only significantly present in Zhejiang and Fujian. The Ming dynasty has allowed the religion to come out of hiding and Mingjian is now recognized as a fourth path in Chinese tradition, along with Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
Truly enough Mingjian becomes an organized religion, with it’s the seat of the Yánmo at the capital, Nanjing. The network of bishops (fúduōdàn) is much denser in the aforementioned provinces of Zhejiang and Fujian; the bishoprics in other parts of China cover entire provinces and have very few parishioners. Mingjian
Largely outside the scope of state interest is what is often described as Shenism or Chinese folk religion, worshipping various gods and cultural heroes, as well as ancestor worship.
The Most Holy Church of the Luminous Religion (the Nestorian Church in China) has indeed come under supervision of the Ministry of Rites. The established pentarchy of Patriarchal Sees is preserved, although significantly modified in the following way:
View attachment 540440
A map of the jurisdictions of the Nestorian Church in China.
A standard pattern in Chinese history, referred to by historians as the Chinese Dynastic cycle has been occurring throughout history. The dynastic cycle begins with a new ruler uniting all of China and thus claiming the Mandate of Heaven. In the first phase, the country becomes prosperous and experiences a significant population growth. However gradually corruption grows and the regime is facing a period of instability and decline. Such problems would not generally cause the collapse of the regime, however should a natural disaster that causes small yields occur, it greatly shakes balance of the country, as it causes a famine due to overpopulation, and widespread corruption has meant that there aren’t really any capacities to tackle the issue. As the administration is incompetent, the population rebels and the result is a civil war. The previous dynasty is perceived as having lost the Mandate of Heaven; however it is not yet clear who will claim it, and China descends into a warring states period, with the side-effect of population decrease, caused by war as well as the previous famine. Eventually, one state would emerge victorious to claim the Mandate of Heaven and thus we are again at the beginning of the whole cycle…
Causes and Background of the Rebellion
Depopulation and widespread famine, paired up with continued favouritism of foreigners and Altaic peoples, as well as over-taxation and flooding of the Yellow River caused by collapse of the irrigation system have been the major causes of the rebellion. Together with a disgruntled alliance of Daoists, Buddhist sectarians and Manicheans, the way is paved for a new dynasty in China.
Of course, many people at this stage are discontent. However, some segments of the society are more discontent than others; furthermore the for a successful uprising, any potential leader of the rebellion is going to be in need of both a relatively broad support base, where it can recruit its most loyal followers, plus must be able to sell their message to the general public.
View attachment 540447
Depiction of a meeting of the White Lotus sect
In this case we it is the White Lotus sect, originating as a hybrid movement of Buddhism and Manicheanism; its members adhering to strict vegetarianism and allowing both men and women to participate in their incense-burning ceremonies. The White Lotus was viewed as a heretic sect by the Yuan and has been forced underground, becoming effectively a secret society. Gradually, the movement merged with that of Maitreyan (quasi-messianic) Buddhist sectarians. Ultimately, what we have is millenarian messianic movement, gaining attraction among splinter groups of the Mahayana Buddhists and Manichean groups as well.
Their first uprising has been unsuccessful; in the second uprising they exchange the white banners for the red ones, and become popularly known as the “Red Turbans”, due to the characteristic colour of their hats.
The uprising against the Yuan is led by Han Shandong, a charismatic leader, claiming descent from Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty, which had been ruling China prior to the Mongols. This claim wins him a degree of legitimacy among the general Chinese population.
Warlords Reign Supreme
Equipped with an early gunpowder weapon, the arquebus, the Red Turban rebels can use to their advantage the technological disparity, as the Mongol forces still rely on archers
The Red Turban rebellion has established its support base in the Wu region of the Lower Yangtze and the regions of the middle Yangtze basin as well. Sichuan is held by a rival warlord, who has established a “Sichuanese Xia” dynasty. Yunnan is held by the warlord Balasawarmi, a commander sympathetic to the Yuan rule. Northern China remains in the hands of numerous pro-Yuan Semu warlords and Yuan princes. This state of affairs manages to remain as such for some three years, which the Red Turbans take advantage of by securing much of southern China including Fujian and Guangdong. Then, their attention shifts northwards, where they manage to kick the Mongols out of China and establish the border at the Great Wall of China. A continuation of the Yuan dynasty continues to rule over Mongolia and Manchuria, known as the Northern Yuan Dynasty.
By this time, the leader of the Red Turban Rebellion proclaims himself as Emperor with the Mandate of Heaven, and recognizing his Manichean roots, he declares the new dynasty to be named “Ming”, meaning bright and choosing fire as its dynastic element.
Subsequent campaigns of the early Ming dynasty result in conquering Sichuan and Yunnan; Tibet, Mongolia and Manchuria remain outside of Ming rule for now.
A New Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, originating in the region of Wu on the lower Yangtze positions itself as a direct antithesis of the previous Yuan Dynasty. The Yuan period is remembered as a period of foreign dominance, where any foreigner could virtually achieve an important position much faster than any local. The Ming dynasty is ready to put an end to all foreign influence in China and practically the entire state administration is now occupied by ethnic Chinese. The country thus changes from a cosmopolitan-oriented to a Chinese-dominated country.
View attachment 540450
A map of the extent of the Ming empire. Please note that the only relevant borders on the map are those of the Ming Emúpire, as that is the only area that has been updated for the 14th century so far.
This can be perceived also in the religious landscape as well. The religions which were discouraged by the previous administration have become favoured by the new dynasty, and vice versa. Especially Mingjian, or Chinese Manicheanism has risen to prominence, as it is the religion professed by the Emperor himself, who also chose “Ming” as a dynastic name, in reference to Mingjian. Secondly, the Taoism is enjoying imperial favour, while Tibetan Buddhist lamas have lost imperial favour.
As for the Semu Christians, at first they were treated with suspicion – based on the fact they had been the support base of the last Yuan or at least pro-Yuan forces. However considering their demographic strength – mainly in the north-western parts of the empire, they make between a quarter and third of the population, a simple decision to expel them or to restrict Christianity has come out of question. The existence of an organized church has given the Ming Dynasty a practical tool to control the Semu.
In terms of geopolitical orientation, one can also witness the change of the orientation of the country. The capital of the new dynasty is to be found at Nanjing, located in on the lower Yangtze in the Wu heartland. The change of capital signifies quite a lot in geopolitical terms. Firstly, China seems not willing to expand further northwards beyond the Great Wall of China, and considers the border defined by the Wall as fixed. Secondly, the new capital is located on the eastern coast (well technically not at the coast of the East China Sea itself, but at the lower end of a navigable river, which is practically the same thing), and China is thus no longer considering the Silk Road as its principal vector. Quite the contrary, under the new dynasty China orients itself to the southeast, open to maritime trade with Southeast Asia, Japan and Korea.
Government
The Ming government inherited much of the institutions of the former Yuan dynasty, and the provincial layout remains very similar to the previous Yuan pattern. The major change was the division of the large Zhili or formerly Central Province around Beijing into Northern Zhili, Shandong, Shanxi and Southern Zhili. The number of provinces has also increased in the southern parts of the country: Jiangzha is divided into two – Zhejiang in the north in the vicinity of Nanjing, and Fujian in the south (This division takes into account also the linguistic divide between the Wu-speaking Zhejiang and the Min-speaking Fujian); the southern expanses of the large provinces of Huguang and Jiangxi are detached to become provinces in their own right: Guizhou and Guangxi are separated from Huguang and Guangdong from the Jiangxi province. On the other hand, the province of Gansu in the far northwestern reaches of the empire is merged with Shaanxi
View attachment 540448
Ming Xiaoling - the Mausoleum of the Ming Emperors in Nanjing
The central government remains organized into six major ministries: the Ministry of Personnel (in charge of promoting and demoting officials, and selecting whom to grant honorific titles and stuff like that), the Ministry of Revenue (in charge of collecting census data, and extracting taxes, and handling the gathered financial resources), the Ministry of Rites (covering the competencies of a protocol department in charge of foreign relations, but also overseeing religious life in general), the Ministry of War (its function is pretty straight-forward, being in charge of maintaining a functional military force including equipment and officer corps), the Ministry of Justice (dealing with the judicial system) and ultimately the Ministry of Public Works ( dealing with a broad scope of issues – from communications and infrastructure, such as roads and canals, to the standardization of weights and measures).
These six ministries were in charge over most of the affairs of the central government, above them was the Grand Secretariat, nominally merely a coordinating agency between the Six Ministries, de facto however the Grand Secretaries had more actual power than the ministries themselves.
Military of the Ming
View attachment 540445
Ming cavalrymen
The Ming forces have used firearms since the Red Turban Rebellion; however it was not at first a universal weapon, rather expected to be a used by one in ten soldiers. Roughly a half of the Ming infantry used a melee weapon, typically a spear, and the other half was equipped with a ranged weapon, such as bows and arrows, crossbows, or firearms. The typical Ming cavalryman was equipped with Dao, a Chinese sabre, a single-edged, curved sword.
The system of recruitment was based upon hereditary military households, which made roughly a fifth of all households; the system was meant to be self-sufficient, so that each household was to equip one soldier at a time (if died, he would be replaced).
Serving in the military was however not considered an honour in Ming China, contrary to other parts of the world. Rather, people strove to become members of the administration and serve as bureaucrats, rather than soldiers, who were mostly illiterate and often used for as a cheap labour force.
View attachment 540444
Ming wolf troops- soldiers from the hill-tribes
It has become known that indeed the military was generally lacking discipline and the desertion rate was high, and many turned to banditry. Northern troopers had been often described as lacking patience and intelligence, in quite a few cases being little better than thugs. The southerners were known to be better in infantry and naval combat; and the northerners and southerners largely distrusted one another. In addition to ethnic Chinese, the military also employed Semu and Mongol cavalrymen from the north, who acted largely as if they were mercenary troops; ultimately, the hill tribes of Guangxi were used as “wolf troops” for ambush operations.
View attachment 540442
The Great Wall of China- one of the lasting legacies of Ming rule in China
The military itself was subject to central planning, and the entire colossus was run in a distinct bureaucratic way, rendering it rather ineffective. The solution to most of the threats was walls, whether it be the nomadic Mongols in the north, or the unruly hill-tribes of the south. The Great Wall of China is repaired and rebuilt again, to serve its purpose and defend the Middle Kingdom.
Economy
The population at the end of the 14th century may have been at some 60 million people. These modern estimates correct major leaks in the censuses caused by people seeking to evade the tax system. The Ming era saw also the general Chinese society become more interconnected, as interactions between the countryside and cities become frequent. Agriculture in the north was based mainly on growing wheat and millet, while those living in the Yangtze Basin and further southwards depended mostly on growing rice. Other plants grown are sugarcane and citrus mainly in Guangdong province and surrounding regions. Silk remains one of the chief Chinese exports, and the cultivation of the mulberry trees for the silkworm remains one of the primary activities on the lower Yangtze.
View attachment 540443
Chinese porcelain from the Ming period
Apart from silk, other important products made in China were tea and porcelain, also known as Chinaware.
Culture and Society
When broadly speaking about the society, one must also think of class distinctions. While connecting the terms of “caste” to a civilization such as China seems rather unnatural, China too had its terms of denoting different levels of the societal pyramid.
A broad four-fold division of the society distinguishes between four major groups: the Shi, the Nong, the Gong and the Shang. The Shi class were the bureaucratic aristocratic elite of the country, who were the ones striving to succeed in the traditional imperial examination systems, being highly educated and literate.
The Nong or peasant farmers were respected second-only to the Shi, as a class vital for sustaining all the others in a country vulnerable to famine. The Gong were artisans, who were still seen as a productive class, in many cases their profession being inherited from father to son.
Ultimately the Shang were the class that included the merchants and traders. They were generally looked down upon, as they were thought to not contribute much to the society, and were suspected to be merely motivated by greed. The more successful ones bought land and sought to become co-opted into the Shi.
View attachment 540441
A map of religions in the late 14th century. There are three shades of yellowish-beige. The lightest of them shows Confucianism, the middle one Daoism and the darkest one Mingjian (Chinese Manicheism)
In terms of religion, we can witness a renaissance of Confucianism predominantly in the northeast, in Shandong and northern Zhili provinces. Confucianism is often described as a philosophical rather than religious system, teaching stability by honouring a defined hierarchy in the social relationships.
Taoism is a religious and philosophical system emphasizing living in harmony with nature; during the early Ming dynasty it has achieved a strong preference by the imperial court, and is perceived as a truly Chinese indigenous tradition. Taoism is widespread in the central regions, around the Yangtze River and also in the Shanxi province in northern China .
Interestingly enough, Taoism has also become the religion of the Mien or Yao people living in Hunan and surrounding regions. Of course, the Yao practice is a little different from the Han Chinese practice, but it is similar enough to be referred to as Taoism.
Buddhism as such has lost much of the imperial favour and is rather discouraged, although not strictly suppressed. Buddhism within Ming China distinguishes between two major branches: Vajrayana and Mahayana. The Vajrayana branch of Buddhism is the one prevalent in Tibet, and as a matter of fact is also strongly prevalent among the Bai people of Yunnan (where its variety is called Azhalii) and in Sichuan. The Vajrayana is thus present mainly in western China, in the regions of Yunnan and Sichuan. In addition, the tribal Thaic peoples of Yunnan practice also Theravada Buddhism
Mahayana is the branch of Buddhism which is practiced by some of the Chinese in southern China. It has split into a large variety of traditions and sects.
Mingjian or Manicheism is the fourth officially sanctioned religion in China. In contrast to the previous three, it is only significantly present in Zhejiang and Fujian. The Ming dynasty has allowed the religion to come out of hiding and Mingjian is now recognized as a fourth path in Chinese tradition, along with Buddhism, Confucianism and Taoism.
Truly enough Mingjian becomes an organized religion, with it’s the seat of the Yánmo at the capital, Nanjing. The network of bishops (fúduōdàn) is much denser in the aforementioned provinces of Zhejiang and Fujian; the bishoprics in other parts of China cover entire provinces and have very few parishioners. Mingjian
Largely outside the scope of state interest is what is often described as Shenism or Chinese folk religion, worshipping various gods and cultural heroes, as well as ancestor worship.
The Most Holy Church of the Luminous Religion (the Nestorian Church in China) has indeed come under supervision of the Ministry of Rites. The established pentarchy of Patriarchal Sees is preserved, although significantly modified in the following way:
View attachment 540440
A map of the jurisdictions of the Nestorian Church in China.
- Changan (metal, northwest; Shaanxi province) - dark blue, pink and orange
- Beijing (water, north-northeast) -two shades of golden
- Nanjing (wood, east and southeast) -blue
- Guangzhou (fire, south) - green
- Wuhan (earth, centre and southwest) - brownish
Of course, the proportions and numbers of Christians in each of these patriarchates vary – the largest number of Christians is within the jurisdiction of Changan, which has as many as three archdioceses. Second comes the patriarchate of Beijing, with high concentration in Henan. The patriarchates of Wuhan and Guangzhou have very few Christians outside their respective cities, and Nanjing has even fewer Christians; those that are there are Semu serving in the bureaucratic apparatus.
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So this is it for China. Please folks, give me some feedback. Do you enjoy the new format and detail? What are your ideas for the surrounding regions (Korea, Manchuria, Japan, Tibet, Southeast Asia? Let me know in the comments.
--------------------------------------------
So this is it for China. Please folks, give me some feedback. Do you enjoy the new format and detail? What are your ideas for the surrounding regions (Korea, Manchuria, Japan, Tibet, Southeast Asia? Let me know in the comments.
- Tomislav Addai
- Word Count: 2.9k