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Chapter 98: Majapahit, The Hegemon of the Islands of the Sea
The Straits of Melacca, the narrow passage between the Golden Chersonesos (1) and the island of Sumatra had become of strategic importance. It is one of those geopolitical chokepoints, which is worth controlling. At its narrowest, it is less than two miles (2) across, thus any naval traffic can be effectively monitored and tolled. The Straits have gained crucial importance, as they happen to connect the Ilkhanate in Persian with the Yuan in China. True, you could still walk or ride along the Silk Road, through allied territory, should you wish to overcome deserts and mountains.
These straits have come to be controlled by the Majapahit, a realm based originally in eastern Java, who have become the new powerhouse in the region after the downfall of the Melayu Kingdom. While Melayu was based in eastern Sumatra, in places vulnerable to flooding, the Majapahit , as stated had their base in the eastern Java. Originally it appeared that another realm, the Singhasari of eastern Java would arise to dominance, however they have made a strategic mistake by refusing to pay the Naimans tribute. This greatly angered the Yuan who have sent a large naval expedition to deal with them, however they had to retreat. Their conquest of most of Sumatra, except the western coast and the northernmost extremities was surprisingly quick.
Majapahit has thus become the hegemonic power in Maritime Southeast Asia, dominating the Spice trade and naval traffic.
View attachment 529915
An example of Majapahit architecture in Trowulan, its capital
Majapahit lacked a professional army – their soldiers were mainly mobilized peasants, equipped with bows and arrows, bamboo spears and short blades. After the Yuan expedition, however the Majapahit have learnt how to use gunpowder, which gave them a technological advantage over their neighbours – therefore he Majapahit are going to be on the offensive for quite some time (3).
There were five levels of administrative divisions of the Majapahit realm. The entire realm (bhumi) was divided into provinces (nagara), which were ruled by the rajya,natha (lord), bhre (duke). The second level of divisions were the regencies (watek), administered by wiyasas. The district (kuwu) was the third level, held by a lurah. The individual villages (wanua) were ruled over by a thani. The hamlets (kabuyutan) were then the ultimate division. For the most part, however all territories outside the island of Java were administered as tributary states inside the mandala system. The core areas were administered by members of the royal family, under a system of appanages, so that the area could be described as feudal.
View attachment 529917
Governments in Souheast Asia around 1300 AD
View attachment 529920
An example of Kawi script
In terms of culture, one can make the statement that the Majapahit Empire can be credited for spreading the Kawi script throughout the Malay Archipelago, and bringing about a sense common identity in the area. In terms of religion, the Majapahit accept both Hinduism and Buddhism. In contrast to Mainland Southeast Asia, the Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia consisted of the more syncretic Mahayana form, which could be found also in China and the northern parts of India. The Majapahit state administration did regulate both religions: there was a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan, who was the kingdom´s highest Hindu priest of Shiva, and a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan, regulating Buddhist practices within the realm.
View attachment 529918
Religion in Southeast Asia. Sumatra is Mahayana, as is Vietnam. Theravad Buddhism is practiced in Burma and the Thai, Hinduism prevails in the Mekon Delta, on Java and Borneo. Msadeqiyya has been embraced in Aceh, Champa. Chinese Manicheism ( Mingjiao) found in Fujian province is a different denomination
At the western tip of the island of Sumatra, however there a realm practicing a religion rather novel to Maritime Southeast Asia: Pasai. In the previous century, Msadeqi Manichaeism has established itself at the northernmost tip of the island, and the religion has been spreading southwards. The religion could make significant inroads into the area, due to the fact that it appeals to an urban maritime society. After all, Mazoun, where Msadeqism emerged was just that, as was Maritime Southeast Asia. Manichean requirements of vegetarianism can be easily met- after all, Hinduism already prohibits eating cow´s meat and Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as well. Moreover, if you live in an archipelago, the abundance of fish actually solves the problem pretty easily.
The Langkasuka kingdom, spanning from Kedah to Ligor on the Malay isthmus has also accepted the Msadeqi religion. While not spreading much outside of the port of Kedah, Msadeqiyya has established itself a base in the area.
View attachment 529916
The polities of Southeast Asia
Along the western coast of Sumatra lay the kingdom of Pagarruyung; other states in the region include the Hindu kingdom of Brunei on the western coast of Borneo and Kutai on its eastern shore. The southern coast of the island has come under influence of Majapahit; however the interior is still tribal, as it is largely inaccessible, as boats and ships are the main means of transport; the tropical rainforest has deterred major exploration of the interior.
In the Greater Moluccas, we can see the establishment of the Cebu and Maguindanao realms, other than that, business as usual. The Tondo kingdom is in frequent contact with China, especially with the port at Qunazhou; and in case of Yuan repression it is likely going to be the target of Manichean refugees fleeing persecution. The Greater Molluccas have also developed their own writing systems, from Kawi. Mainly the Baybyin script in the Tondo kingdom,the Badlit script in Cebu, and the Buhid script in the west.
View attachment 529911
The writing systems of Southeast Asia
Within the Chinese sphere is also Vietnam, which is now a tributary of Yuan. Champa has experienced also a slow spread of Msadeqism, although restricted to the coastal strip. The Chams have made contact also with the Manicheans of China , who called their own religion Mingjiao (Religion of Light), and have reocgnized each other as being Manicheans, although the differences between them were quite large(4) .The Mekong Delta is possibly the sole part of the region that has remained Hindu, as the Khmer Empire and Sukhothai have both converted to Theravada Buddhism. The Sukhothai kingdom is an ethnically Thai kingdom, and the Thais have entered the lowlands of the Gulf of Thailand, replacing the previously dominant Mon-Khmer peoples in the area.
View attachment 529912
The Thais have established themselves in the central part of Mainland SE Asia
As for the Pagan kingdom in Burma, after Naiman attacks it collapses and two successor realms emerge: Pegu in the south, in the Iravadi delta, and Myinsaing in the Upper Burma region.
These straits have come to be controlled by the Majapahit, a realm based originally in eastern Java, who have become the new powerhouse in the region after the downfall of the Melayu Kingdom. While Melayu was based in eastern Sumatra, in places vulnerable to flooding, the Majapahit , as stated had their base in the eastern Java. Originally it appeared that another realm, the Singhasari of eastern Java would arise to dominance, however they have made a strategic mistake by refusing to pay the Naimans tribute. This greatly angered the Yuan who have sent a large naval expedition to deal with them, however they had to retreat. Their conquest of most of Sumatra, except the western coast and the northernmost extremities was surprisingly quick.
Majapahit has thus become the hegemonic power in Maritime Southeast Asia, dominating the Spice trade and naval traffic.
View attachment 529915
An example of Majapahit architecture in Trowulan, its capital
Majapahit lacked a professional army – their soldiers were mainly mobilized peasants, equipped with bows and arrows, bamboo spears and short blades. After the Yuan expedition, however the Majapahit have learnt how to use gunpowder, which gave them a technological advantage over their neighbours – therefore he Majapahit are going to be on the offensive for quite some time (3).
There were five levels of administrative divisions of the Majapahit realm. The entire realm (bhumi) was divided into provinces (nagara), which were ruled by the rajya,natha (lord), bhre (duke). The second level of divisions were the regencies (watek), administered by wiyasas. The district (kuwu) was the third level, held by a lurah. The individual villages (wanua) were ruled over by a thani. The hamlets (kabuyutan) were then the ultimate division. For the most part, however all territories outside the island of Java were administered as tributary states inside the mandala system. The core areas were administered by members of the royal family, under a system of appanages, so that the area could be described as feudal.
View attachment 529917
Governments in Souheast Asia around 1300 AD
View attachment 529920
An example of Kawi script
In terms of culture, one can make the statement that the Majapahit Empire can be credited for spreading the Kawi script throughout the Malay Archipelago, and bringing about a sense common identity in the area. In terms of religion, the Majapahit accept both Hinduism and Buddhism. In contrast to Mainland Southeast Asia, the Buddhism in Maritime Southeast Asia consisted of the more syncretic Mahayana form, which could be found also in China and the northern parts of India. The Majapahit state administration did regulate both religions: there was a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasewan, who was the kingdom´s highest Hindu priest of Shiva, and a Dharmmadhyaksa ring Kasogatan, regulating Buddhist practices within the realm.
View attachment 529918
Religion in Southeast Asia. Sumatra is Mahayana, as is Vietnam. Theravad Buddhism is practiced in Burma and the Thai, Hinduism prevails in the Mekon Delta, on Java and Borneo. Msadeqiyya has been embraced in Aceh, Champa. Chinese Manicheism ( Mingjiao) found in Fujian province is a different denomination
At the western tip of the island of Sumatra, however there a realm practicing a religion rather novel to Maritime Southeast Asia: Pasai. In the previous century, Msadeqi Manichaeism has established itself at the northernmost tip of the island, and the religion has been spreading southwards. The religion could make significant inroads into the area, due to the fact that it appeals to an urban maritime society. After all, Mazoun, where Msadeqism emerged was just that, as was Maritime Southeast Asia. Manichean requirements of vegetarianism can be easily met- after all, Hinduism already prohibits eating cow´s meat and Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as well. Moreover, if you live in an archipelago, the abundance of fish actually solves the problem pretty easily.
The Langkasuka kingdom, spanning from Kedah to Ligor on the Malay isthmus has also accepted the Msadeqi religion. While not spreading much outside of the port of Kedah, Msadeqiyya has established itself a base in the area.
View attachment 529916
The polities of Southeast Asia
Along the western coast of Sumatra lay the kingdom of Pagarruyung; other states in the region include the Hindu kingdom of Brunei on the western coast of Borneo and Kutai on its eastern shore. The southern coast of the island has come under influence of Majapahit; however the interior is still tribal, as it is largely inaccessible, as boats and ships are the main means of transport; the tropical rainforest has deterred major exploration of the interior.
In the Greater Moluccas, we can see the establishment of the Cebu and Maguindanao realms, other than that, business as usual. The Tondo kingdom is in frequent contact with China, especially with the port at Qunazhou; and in case of Yuan repression it is likely going to be the target of Manichean refugees fleeing persecution. The Greater Molluccas have also developed their own writing systems, from Kawi. Mainly the Baybyin script in the Tondo kingdom,the Badlit script in Cebu, and the Buhid script in the west.
View attachment 529911
The writing systems of Southeast Asia
Within the Chinese sphere is also Vietnam, which is now a tributary of Yuan. Champa has experienced also a slow spread of Msadeqism, although restricted to the coastal strip. The Chams have made contact also with the Manicheans of China , who called their own religion Mingjiao (Religion of Light), and have reocgnized each other as being Manicheans, although the differences between them were quite large(4) .The Mekong Delta is possibly the sole part of the region that has remained Hindu, as the Khmer Empire and Sukhothai have both converted to Theravada Buddhism. The Sukhothai kingdom is an ethnically Thai kingdom, and the Thais have entered the lowlands of the Gulf of Thailand, replacing the previously dominant Mon-Khmer peoples in the area.
View attachment 529912
The Thais have established themselves in the central part of Mainland SE Asia
As for the Pagan kingdom in Burma, after Naiman attacks it collapses and two successor realms emerge: Pegu in the south, in the Iravadi delta, and Myinsaing in the Upper Burma region.
- As it had been known to the Greeks, referring to the Malay Peninsula
- Or three kilometres
- Perhaps we may speak about the Roman Empire of Nusantara?
- Although not as large as if they were to be contacted by Mazounis
- Tomislav Addai
- Word Count: 1.1k