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First American Civil War; Second American Civil War
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The First American Civil War, also known as the Southern Rebellion, the First War Between the States, and by other names, was a civil conflict fought in the United States in 1850 and 1851, between the United States (often referred to as the Union) and the secessionist Southern Confederation. The war’s primary cause was the long-standing controversy over slavery in the United States; the trigger for the war was president William Seward’s veto of the Fugitive Slave Act, passed by Congress as part of the Compromise of 1850. The highly fragile Compromise, intended to resolve issues related to the territory acquired in the Mexican-American War, became a subject of controversy in the United States over the status of territories, the borders of Texas and other issues raised by the war.
Following the death of President Zachary Taylor and the accession of William Seward to the office, many states in the South became fearful that Seward would attempt to undo parts of the Compromise, which was highly favourable to the southern states. These fears were justified when President Seward vetoed the highly controversial Fugitive Slave Act passed as part of the Compromise, declaring it unconstitutional due to its disregard for due process. In response, five states in the Deep South, led by South Carolina, declared their secession from the United States. President Seward immediately ordered the crushing of the rebellion, enlisting General Winfield Scott to defeat the secessionists. In response to the deployment of the army, another five slave states declared their secession from the Union. The ten states formed the Southern Confederation, a loose confederation of the states whose primary purpose was to defend against the advancing Union Army. Five other slave states in the Upper South declared their loyalty to the Union and Constitution. Both Unionists and Confederates quickly raised armies, primarily made up of volunteers, although some Southern states instituted conscription.
General Scott’s tactical genius and strong command in the field saw quick defeats of secessionist forces in Tennessee and Arkansas, while a naval blockade stifled the Confederation’s naval power and links to the outside world. Command in the Confederation’s forces was weak, with mostly disparate armies fighting their own battles, with little coordination. By late May, Unionist forces had captured New Orleans, thus splitting the Confederation in two. The ongoing civil war in Texas was resolved in early August with a victory for Unionist forces, prompting the surrender of the Texan government and their petition to rejoin the union. The Unionist capture of the Confederation’s capital, Birmingham, in late October prompted the surrender of General Sterling Price and the end of formal conflict. All ten secessionist states regained representation in Congress after the state legislatures pledged loyalty to the Union, although a military presence in the southern states remained, while a low-level insurgency continued. The assassination of President Seward on February 12, 1852 saw the accession of Democrat William R. King to the presidency, who swiftly withdrew all remaining forces from the South.
Never diplomatically recognised by the government of the United States or that of any foreign country, the Confederation lacked foreign support to prosecute the war. Fought primarily in the South, with a series of intense and violent battles, the war left over 800,000 dead, more than any conflict in U.S. history until that point. However, the underlying issues that caused the war remained, and the fragile Compromise of 1850 remained in effect (without the Fugitive Slave Act). Subsequent controversies on the part of both slave and free states increased the sectional divide and national hostility, ultimately culminating in another civil war less than fifteen years later.
The Second American Civil War, also known as the Second War Between the States, the War of Southern Defence, the War of the Rebellion, and by other names, was a war fought in the United States in latter half of the 1860s. The Republican States of America (often known as simply the Republicans, or the Republic) waged a war of secession against the United States of America (often referred to as the Union, or the Unionists). The war erupted after the election of John C. Frémont (by contingent election in the House of Representatives) as President of the United States in 1864, well-known for his anti-slavery views. Amid the ongoing hostilities over slavery in the United States, the election of Frémont convinced many Southerners that the North was waging war on their Southern identity as slaveholding states.
Following the vote in the House of Representatives to elect Frémont as President, representatives from Southern states immediately began planning to secede from the Union. In the months leading up to the inauguration of Frémont, outbreaks of violence spiralled across the South and many openly called for insurrection. On March 4, 1865, when Frémont was sworn in as President in Washington, representatives of 14 Southern states met in Alexandria, then in Virginia, to declare their secession from the Union and to swear in their candidate, Alexander Stephens, as President of the Republican States of America.
Hearing the news immediately after his own inauguration, President Frémont gave what became known as the Inauguration Speech, denouncing the Southern states and exercising his power to call up a militia from the states to “defend the Union and defend liberty”. In response, the states of Kentucky and Missouri declared their secession; all Northern states (including California and New Mexico) sent troops to the aid of the Union. Both sides had able leaders and effective command, and so despite the Republican disadvantage in both raw numbers and industrial power, the Republicans were able to inflict a number of defeats on the Unionist Army, including the capture of Washington and much of Maryland. However, the tactical expertise of General Ulysses S. Grant is credited for a series of Unionist victories, including the successful blockades of Cuba and New Orleans, and seizing control of many key waterways.
As the war continued to drag on, both sides resorted to increasingly desperate measures. Unionist armies resorted to scorched-earth tactics in Kentucky and Missouri, and President Frémont issued the Emancipation Proclamation on November 9, 1867, declaring free all slaves who fought for the Union. In response, Republican militias committed the Montgomery Slave Massacres, slaughtering tens of thousands of slaves in fear that they would join forces with the Unionists; the Massacres are now classified as an act of genocide. The Massacres are now credited with preventing foreign recognition of the Republican States, as well as the strengthening of Unionist resolve in the later years of the war. As the war dragged on into a war of attrition, the Union’s numerical and industrial advantages became more pronounced, and the Unionist forces began to win more and more victories. The Battle of Vicksburg resulted in Unionist control along the length of the Mississippi River, while a Union victory at the Battle of Gainesville saw the recapture of Washington and laid the way for Sheridan’s march on Richmond. By early 1869, Republican forces were forced into retreat on all fronts; Tennessee, Kentucky and most of Virginia were now under Unionist control. President Frémont’s assassination on December 7, 1869, by a radical Republican, strengthened Unionist resolve and led to the accession of Abraham Lincoln to the office of president.
The Battle of Columbus on April 6, 1870 is widely regarded as the end of the war; General Thomas Jackson officially surrendered the next day, declaring the dissolution of the Republic. However, an ongoing insurgency continued in the South, consisting primarily of terrorist attacks on Unionist army outposts and black communities. Informed from the aftermath of the First Civil War, a period of Reconstruction took place, including the ratification of several constitutional amendments, the redistribution of land away from the planter class, and the granting of full civil rights to former slaves.
As the most studied and written about episode in U.S. history, the Second Civil War holds a legendary status in the American psyche; its effects are still felt today.
The First American Civil War, also known as the Southern Rebellion, the First War Between the States, and by other names, was a civil conflict fought in the United States in 1850 and 1851, between the United States (often referred to as the Union) and the secessionist Southern Confederation. The war’s primary cause was the long-standing controversy over slavery in the United States; the trigger for the war was president William Seward’s veto of the Fugitive Slave Act, passed by Congress as part of the Compromise of 1850. The highly fragile Compromise, intended to resolve issues related to the territory acquired in the Mexican-American War, became a subject of controversy in the United States over the status of territories, the borders of Texas and other issues raised by the war.
Following the death of President Zachary Taylor and the accession of William Seward to the office, many states in the South became fearful that Seward would attempt to undo parts of the Compromise, which was highly favourable to the southern states. These fears were justified when President Seward vetoed the highly controversial Fugitive Slave Act passed as part of the Compromise, declaring it unconstitutional due to its disregard for due process. In response, five states in the Deep South, led by South Carolina, declared their secession from the United States. President Seward immediately ordered the crushing of the rebellion, enlisting General Winfield Scott to defeat the secessionists. In response to the deployment of the army, another five slave states declared their secession from the Union. The ten states formed the Southern Confederation, a loose confederation of the states whose primary purpose was to defend against the advancing Union Army. Five other slave states in the Upper South declared their loyalty to the Union and Constitution. Both Unionists and Confederates quickly raised armies, primarily made up of volunteers, although some Southern states instituted conscription.
General Scott’s tactical genius and strong command in the field saw quick defeats of secessionist forces in Tennessee and Arkansas, while a naval blockade stifled the Confederation’s naval power and links to the outside world. Command in the Confederation’s forces was weak, with mostly disparate armies fighting their own battles, with little coordination. By late May, Unionist forces had captured New Orleans, thus splitting the Confederation in two. The ongoing civil war in Texas was resolved in early August with a victory for Unionist forces, prompting the surrender of the Texan government and their petition to rejoin the union. The Unionist capture of the Confederation’s capital, Birmingham, in late October prompted the surrender of General Sterling Price and the end of formal conflict. All ten secessionist states regained representation in Congress after the state legislatures pledged loyalty to the Union, although a military presence in the southern states remained, while a low-level insurgency continued. The assassination of President Seward on February 12, 1852 saw the accession of Democrat William R. King to the presidency, who swiftly withdrew all remaining forces from the South.
Never diplomatically recognised by the government of the United States or that of any foreign country, the Confederation lacked foreign support to prosecute the war. Fought primarily in the South, with a series of intense and violent battles, the war left over 800,000 dead, more than any conflict in U.S. history until that point. However, the underlying issues that caused the war remained, and the fragile Compromise of 1850 remained in effect (without the Fugitive Slave Act). Subsequent controversies on the part of both slave and free states increased the sectional divide and national hostility, ultimately culminating in another civil war less than fifteen years later.
The Second American Civil War, also known as the Second War Between the States, the War of Southern Defence, the War of the Rebellion, and by other names, was a war fought in the United States in latter half of the 1860s. The Republican States of America (often known as simply the Republicans, or the Republic) waged a war of secession against the United States of America (often referred to as the Union, or the Unionists). The war erupted after the election of John C. Frémont (by contingent election in the House of Representatives) as President of the United States in 1864, well-known for his anti-slavery views. Amid the ongoing hostilities over slavery in the United States, the election of Frémont convinced many Southerners that the North was waging war on their Southern identity as slaveholding states.
Following the vote in the House of Representatives to elect Frémont as President, representatives from Southern states immediately began planning to secede from the Union. In the months leading up to the inauguration of Frémont, outbreaks of violence spiralled across the South and many openly called for insurrection. On March 4, 1865, when Frémont was sworn in as President in Washington, representatives of 14 Southern states met in Alexandria, then in Virginia, to declare their secession from the Union and to swear in their candidate, Alexander Stephens, as President of the Republican States of America.
Hearing the news immediately after his own inauguration, President Frémont gave what became known as the Inauguration Speech, denouncing the Southern states and exercising his power to call up a militia from the states to “defend the Union and defend liberty”. In response, the states of Kentucky and Missouri declared their secession; all Northern states (including California and New Mexico) sent troops to the aid of the Union. Both sides had able leaders and effective command, and so despite the Republican disadvantage in both raw numbers and industrial power, the Republicans were able to inflict a number of defeats on the Unionist Army, including the capture of Washington and much of Maryland. However, the tactical expertise of General Ulysses S. Grant is credited for a series of Unionist victories, including the successful blockades of Cuba and New Orleans, and seizing control of many key waterways.
As the war continued to drag on, both sides resorted to increasingly desperate measures. Unionist armies resorted to scorched-earth tactics in Kentucky and Missouri, and President Frémont issued the Emancipation Proclamation on November 9, 1867, declaring free all slaves who fought for the Union. In response, Republican militias committed the Montgomery Slave Massacres, slaughtering tens of thousands of slaves in fear that they would join forces with the Unionists; the Massacres are now classified as an act of genocide. The Massacres are now credited with preventing foreign recognition of the Republican States, as well as the strengthening of Unionist resolve in the later years of the war. As the war dragged on into a war of attrition, the Union’s numerical and industrial advantages became more pronounced, and the Unionist forces began to win more and more victories. The Battle of Vicksburg resulted in Unionist control along the length of the Mississippi River, while a Union victory at the Battle of Gainesville saw the recapture of Washington and laid the way for Sheridan’s march on Richmond. By early 1869, Republican forces were forced into retreat on all fronts; Tennessee, Kentucky and most of Virginia were now under Unionist control. President Frémont’s assassination on December 7, 1869, by a radical Republican, strengthened Unionist resolve and led to the accession of Abraham Lincoln to the office of president.
The Battle of Columbus on April 6, 1870 is widely regarded as the end of the war; General Thomas Jackson officially surrendered the next day, declaring the dissolution of the Republic. However, an ongoing insurgency continued in the South, consisting primarily of terrorist attacks on Unionist army outposts and black communities. Informed from the aftermath of the First Civil War, a period of Reconstruction took place, including the ratification of several constitutional amendments, the redistribution of land away from the planter class, and the granting of full civil rights to former slaves.
As the most studied and written about episode in U.S. history, the Second Civil War holds a legendary status in the American psyche; its effects are still felt today.
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