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Chapter 61: The Seljuqs - Nestorian Shahanshahs of Persia
Moving southwards we enter the cultural region of Greater Iran. The region had been struggling for unity. At the very beginning of the 11th century, there are two major powers holding onto the Iranian Plateau: the Jagudid dynasty in the east and the Bavundids ruling over the western parts of the country.
Bavundid inquisition in Media has severely reduced Manichean presence in the area, with many Manicheans preferring baptism and conversion to Christianity to acceptance of Zoroastrianism. Their aim to restore the Zoroastrian traditions of ancient Persia would however be interrupted by some Turkic nomads to the north.
Originating from the very same area called Dihistan, the invasion route of the Seljuks just repeated the path of the Parthians a couple of centuries earlier.
The Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks, dwelling at the eastern shore of the Khazar Sea (1). The Seljuks were devout Nestorian Christians (2), and sought to liberate their fellow brothers in faith from the rule of the Manichean Jagudid Empire. This task was accomplished without much difficulty under the leadership of Tughril Beg, who won two major battles at Dandakan and Nishapur. This was around the year 1040.
Coat of arms of the Seljuqs
His conquests would also have included Sogdia and Khwarezmia; and by the mid-eleventh century, he ruled over a realm extending from Khorasan as far as the Jaxartes. Roughly ten years later, he decided to take over also the western portions of the Iranian Plateau, and liberate the Patriarch of Qtēspōn (3). After all, it was an insult to all Nestorians that their Patriarch is a vassal of an infidel, right? (4).
The Bavundids would be defeated and the entirety of Mesopotamia, just up unto the Rhomaic borders, was conquered by the incoming Seljuqs. This also means that the Assyrian kingdom around Niniveh was conquered as well (5).
Being Christians, the Turks know how to behave themselves (6). This does not prevent them from invading Armenia, which they view as a natural defensive obstacle for any Rhomaic army. The smaller Armenian kingdoms and lordships would have to accept Seljuk suzerainty, while their local lords remained in place. The Armenian duties would be restricted to the maintenance of fortresses and garrisons.
Kharagan towers, the tombs of Seljuq princes
The heir of Tughril would later gain the honorific title Alp Arslan, heroic lion. Alp Arslan set out from Mesopotamia westwards into Syria to challenge the world hegemon in the form of the Rhomaic Empire. The Seljuq military of course relied on able rapid cavalry, namely horse archers. Such formations take advantage in a vast inland country, such as Persia. Turkic cavalry had a tactical advantage over the light infantry formations of the Rhomaic Empire.
The two forces met at the western outskirts of Hierapolis (16). The battle was a brisk Seljuq victory, and opened them the doors into the Levant. That was indeed Alp Arslan´s vision, to conquer the entire Levantine coast and claim the city of Jerusalem. On the northern front, Alp Arslan subdued Georgians as well, and the borders with the Rhomaic Empire were established on the Upper Eughrates. Further conquests also subdued the Kartvelian realms south of the Caucasus.
The statue of Alp Arslan
The loss of the entire Levant will of course cause internal unrest among the Rhomaic generals, as well as challenge the loyalty of Kemet to the Rhomaic Empire.
While geopolitically very similar, culturally it was different from both earlier incarnations of Persia and from an alternate Turkish empire. The rulers of the Seljuq realm did not bear the title “Sultan”; rather they titled themselves as “Shahanshah”, which is the Persian title for emperor. The Oghuz tribesmen rapidly adopted very much of Persian culture, from things like the gesture of prostration before the ruler, to the celebration of Nowruz.
View attachment 483063
Feudal blue now dominates Iran. Nomadic golden in places where Turkic tribes settled; also take a look at republics (pink) and the theocracy of the Patriarchal State (grey).
Contrary to previous empires in the region, the Seljuqs did not adopt the Sassanid way of state administration. Rather, the realm was divided among the members of the ruling dynasty as appanages, thus establishing a sort of feudal society in Iran.
View attachment 483059
The division of the Seljuk Empire. Dark purple is the Patriarchal State of Qtespon.
Upon the death of Malik Shah, the westernmost portions of the empire split apart. The Georgian and Armenian statelets reassumed their independence; while independent Meliks (Kings) rose up in Niniveh and Syria (Tutush I.). The fragmentation also resulted in the independence of the counties of Anbar, Nehardea and the Patriarchal State.
The adoption of Persian as the official language of administration in non-ecclesiastical matters means a step forward for a rapid assimilation of the civilian Turkish populations, and the elite. Turkish remains of course the language of the military.
Taking a look at the regional scale, what can we see? Beginning in the northeast we can see Khwarezmia on the lower Oxus. In this region, the local Khwarezmian Iranic language is under heavy pressure from neighbouring Turkic languages (7). Khwarezmia is still one of the few predominantly Manichean parts of the world.
Further southeast we arrive into Sogdia (8). This area is still a multireligious and multicultural; however population dynamics, especially birth rates have shifted the religious mosaic considerably. Due to its ascetic nature and antimaterialism, Manichaeism has had a negative attitude to sexuality. After a few centuries, this has led to a decline of Manichaeism, dropping to a mere 30% of Sogdia proper (9). Manichaeans have been outnumbered by Nestorian Christians, numbering as much as 42%. Smaller communities in Sogdia proper still include Mahayana Buddhists (11%), Zoroastrians (8%), Jews (4%), Jacobites (4%) and other immigrant communities (such as Orthodoxes, Chinese, Indians, 1%) (10).
View attachment 483060
Religious structure of Greater Iran: Nestorianism (purple) dominates Mesopotamia,the Gulf Margiana and Dihistan. Manicheism (beige-light golden) present in prts of Khoroasan; another variety present east of Lake Urmieh. Zoroastrianism (olive green) to be found throughout Iran. A Miaphysite belt extendsfrom the Red Sea across eastern Syria to Armenia.
Ruled now by a Nestorian Turkish empire, the Nestorian faith will now be promoted even more. Earlier Sogdian tolerance and openness will soon be challenged by these changes, and some kind of confrontation between Christians and Manicheans in Sogdia is not out of question.
The mountainous regions of Tukharistan (11) on the upper Oxus valleys remain a clearly Buddhist area, one of the few refuges of western Buddhism (12). Buddhism also remains in place in the mountains of Hindukush to places like Bamyan.
While the region around Merv (Margiana) had a mainly Christian presence (13), Khorasan also known historically as Parthia had a Manichean majority. This was also partially a legacy of the Jagudid conquests; the Seljuqs however funded the consruction of a large number of Assyrian monasteries in the region, especially in the proximity of Herat.
The Khorasani language, formed by the mixing of Old Parthian and Oghuz Turkic is once more exposed to Turkic influence. It becomes hardly intelligible with Persian.
View attachment 483056
Linguistic structure of Greater Iran
Many Turkic clans have settled in the lands of Persia proper, not only in Pars, but also in a few regions along the Silk Road. Some retain their nomadic lifestyle, while others become the new urban elite. This elite takes up, as mentioned, local customs quickly; however what they don’t give up is their religion. Conversion to Christianity is encouraged by taxation benefits, although Zoroastrianism is not openly persecuted, it is not state-sponsored anymore (14). The previously predominantly Christian city of Reyy has become the capital of the Seljuq Empire.
While looking at northwestern Iran, one can observe a strengthening of Zoroastrian presence, especially in the region of Media (where the Manicheans had been force-converted under the Bavundids).
As for Mesopotamia, the region welcomed the Turkish invaders (15). As mentioned, the Nestorian patriarch makes a deal with the Seljuqs, and the “Donation of Tughril” includes the city of Qtespon itself, Babil region as well as the regions to the north of Qtespon.
Mesopotamia sees again all of its Manichean and Zoroastrian populations kicked out; while the Jews continue to live in a handful of cities to the west of Qtespon. Assyrian science continues to flourish. The Academy of Gundeshapur in Elam is matched by a Patriarchal Academy at Qtespon, as well as further educational institutions at Nisibis, Nishapur and Reyy. Persian-Assyrian science had proceeded mainly in astronomy, mathematics and medicine.
The sole part of the Iranian Plateau unconquered is the region of Hormuz, which remains independent (yet tributary) of the Seljuqs.
(1) Caspian Sea
(2) They were so in fact, before converting to islam
(3) Yes, the campaigns happen in a very similar way, but the motivations are different.
(4) We can see a Carolingian sort-of situation, complete with a “Patrimony of Mar Addai”; a sort of theocratic state being established in parts of Mesopotamia.
(5) There is however no major reason to invade
(6) And do not commit barbarous massacres for no reason. Especially not to Christian cities.
(7) Are going to have an English-like scenario? With a half-Germanic, half-Romance language? I don’t actually think so, for the Iranian culture is more sophisticated than the Turkic one.
(8) Synonymous with Uzbekistan south of the Kyzilkum plus the Tajik Ferghana panhandle, should I be correct.
(9) This is however not comparable with earlier statistics, for those included also Bactria and Tukharistan. Including these areas results in following figures: Manichean 35%, Nestorian 33%, Buddhist 21%, Zoroastrian 6%, Judaism 3%, Jacobite 3% and immigrant 1%. These population dynamics are not explained only by birth rate differences, but also by conversions and mixed marriages.
(10)Tengri pagans in Sogdia have almost all adopted some major world religion. Should some of them still be around by 1100 AD, their numbers negligible
(11)Known previously as Bactria, corresponding to Tajikistan except the Ferghana panhandle plus NE Afghanistan
(12) At its greatest extent, Buddhism reached as far west as the Aral Sea. Places like Sogdia get conquered far too often, but backwater mountain valleys increase the chances of survival for Buddhism. You know, mountains and Buddhists go together … *me thinks of Tibet*
(13)Especially Turkmenistan and northern Afghanistan.
(14)The Seljuq state stops all sponsoring of Zoroastrian religious institutions and clergy; these must be now sponsored by their believers. In modern terms, you could say that the religion is restricted to the private sphere; essentially an American system of congregation funding. I would not call this a Ctrl+C Ctrl+V from the Dhimmitude system, as there was no harassment of Zoroastrians here.
Bavundid inquisition in Media has severely reduced Manichean presence in the area, with many Manicheans preferring baptism and conversion to Christianity to acceptance of Zoroastrianism. Their aim to restore the Zoroastrian traditions of ancient Persia would however be interrupted by some Turkic nomads to the north.
Originating from the very same area called Dihistan, the invasion route of the Seljuks just repeated the path of the Parthians a couple of centuries earlier.
The Seljuks were a clan of the Oghuz Turks, dwelling at the eastern shore of the Khazar Sea (1). The Seljuks were devout Nestorian Christians (2), and sought to liberate their fellow brothers in faith from the rule of the Manichean Jagudid Empire. This task was accomplished without much difficulty under the leadership of Tughril Beg, who won two major battles at Dandakan and Nishapur. This was around the year 1040.
Coat of arms of the Seljuqs
His conquests would also have included Sogdia and Khwarezmia; and by the mid-eleventh century, he ruled over a realm extending from Khorasan as far as the Jaxartes. Roughly ten years later, he decided to take over also the western portions of the Iranian Plateau, and liberate the Patriarch of Qtēspōn (3). After all, it was an insult to all Nestorians that their Patriarch is a vassal of an infidel, right? (4).
The Bavundids would be defeated and the entirety of Mesopotamia, just up unto the Rhomaic borders, was conquered by the incoming Seljuqs. This also means that the Assyrian kingdom around Niniveh was conquered as well (5).
Being Christians, the Turks know how to behave themselves (6). This does not prevent them from invading Armenia, which they view as a natural defensive obstacle for any Rhomaic army. The smaller Armenian kingdoms and lordships would have to accept Seljuk suzerainty, while their local lords remained in place. The Armenian duties would be restricted to the maintenance of fortresses and garrisons.
Kharagan towers, the tombs of Seljuq princes
The heir of Tughril would later gain the honorific title Alp Arslan, heroic lion. Alp Arslan set out from Mesopotamia westwards into Syria to challenge the world hegemon in the form of the Rhomaic Empire. The Seljuq military of course relied on able rapid cavalry, namely horse archers. Such formations take advantage in a vast inland country, such as Persia. Turkic cavalry had a tactical advantage over the light infantry formations of the Rhomaic Empire.
The two forces met at the western outskirts of Hierapolis (16). The battle was a brisk Seljuq victory, and opened them the doors into the Levant. That was indeed Alp Arslan´s vision, to conquer the entire Levantine coast and claim the city of Jerusalem. On the northern front, Alp Arslan subdued Georgians as well, and the borders with the Rhomaic Empire were established on the Upper Eughrates. Further conquests also subdued the Kartvelian realms south of the Caucasus.
The statue of Alp Arslan
The loss of the entire Levant will of course cause internal unrest among the Rhomaic generals, as well as challenge the loyalty of Kemet to the Rhomaic Empire.
While geopolitically very similar, culturally it was different from both earlier incarnations of Persia and from an alternate Turkish empire. The rulers of the Seljuq realm did not bear the title “Sultan”; rather they titled themselves as “Shahanshah”, which is the Persian title for emperor. The Oghuz tribesmen rapidly adopted very much of Persian culture, from things like the gesture of prostration before the ruler, to the celebration of Nowruz.
View attachment 483063
Feudal blue now dominates Iran. Nomadic golden in places where Turkic tribes settled; also take a look at republics (pink) and the theocracy of the Patriarchal State (grey).
Contrary to previous empires in the region, the Seljuqs did not adopt the Sassanid way of state administration. Rather, the realm was divided among the members of the ruling dynasty as appanages, thus establishing a sort of feudal society in Iran.
View attachment 483059
The division of the Seljuk Empire. Dark purple is the Patriarchal State of Qtespon.
Upon the death of Malik Shah, the westernmost portions of the empire split apart. The Georgian and Armenian statelets reassumed their independence; while independent Meliks (Kings) rose up in Niniveh and Syria (Tutush I.). The fragmentation also resulted in the independence of the counties of Anbar, Nehardea and the Patriarchal State.
The adoption of Persian as the official language of administration in non-ecclesiastical matters means a step forward for a rapid assimilation of the civilian Turkish populations, and the elite. Turkish remains of course the language of the military.
Taking a look at the regional scale, what can we see? Beginning in the northeast we can see Khwarezmia on the lower Oxus. In this region, the local Khwarezmian Iranic language is under heavy pressure from neighbouring Turkic languages (7). Khwarezmia is still one of the few predominantly Manichean parts of the world.
Further southeast we arrive into Sogdia (8). This area is still a multireligious and multicultural; however population dynamics, especially birth rates have shifted the religious mosaic considerably. Due to its ascetic nature and antimaterialism, Manichaeism has had a negative attitude to sexuality. After a few centuries, this has led to a decline of Manichaeism, dropping to a mere 30% of Sogdia proper (9). Manichaeans have been outnumbered by Nestorian Christians, numbering as much as 42%. Smaller communities in Sogdia proper still include Mahayana Buddhists (11%), Zoroastrians (8%), Jews (4%), Jacobites (4%) and other immigrant communities (such as Orthodoxes, Chinese, Indians, 1%) (10).
View attachment 483060
Religious structure of Greater Iran: Nestorianism (purple) dominates Mesopotamia,the Gulf Margiana and Dihistan. Manicheism (beige-light golden) present in prts of Khoroasan; another variety present east of Lake Urmieh. Zoroastrianism (olive green) to be found throughout Iran. A Miaphysite belt extendsfrom the Red Sea across eastern Syria to Armenia.
Ruled now by a Nestorian Turkish empire, the Nestorian faith will now be promoted even more. Earlier Sogdian tolerance and openness will soon be challenged by these changes, and some kind of confrontation between Christians and Manicheans in Sogdia is not out of question.
The mountainous regions of Tukharistan (11) on the upper Oxus valleys remain a clearly Buddhist area, one of the few refuges of western Buddhism (12). Buddhism also remains in place in the mountains of Hindukush to places like Bamyan.
While the region around Merv (Margiana) had a mainly Christian presence (13), Khorasan also known historically as Parthia had a Manichean majority. This was also partially a legacy of the Jagudid conquests; the Seljuqs however funded the consruction of a large number of Assyrian monasteries in the region, especially in the proximity of Herat.
The Khorasani language, formed by the mixing of Old Parthian and Oghuz Turkic is once more exposed to Turkic influence. It becomes hardly intelligible with Persian.
View attachment 483056
Linguistic structure of Greater Iran
Many Turkic clans have settled in the lands of Persia proper, not only in Pars, but also in a few regions along the Silk Road. Some retain their nomadic lifestyle, while others become the new urban elite. This elite takes up, as mentioned, local customs quickly; however what they don’t give up is their religion. Conversion to Christianity is encouraged by taxation benefits, although Zoroastrianism is not openly persecuted, it is not state-sponsored anymore (14). The previously predominantly Christian city of Reyy has become the capital of the Seljuq Empire.
While looking at northwestern Iran, one can observe a strengthening of Zoroastrian presence, especially in the region of Media (where the Manicheans had been force-converted under the Bavundids).
As for Mesopotamia, the region welcomed the Turkish invaders (15). As mentioned, the Nestorian patriarch makes a deal with the Seljuqs, and the “Donation of Tughril” includes the city of Qtespon itself, Babil region as well as the regions to the north of Qtespon.
Mesopotamia sees again all of its Manichean and Zoroastrian populations kicked out; while the Jews continue to live in a handful of cities to the west of Qtespon. Assyrian science continues to flourish. The Academy of Gundeshapur in Elam is matched by a Patriarchal Academy at Qtespon, as well as further educational institutions at Nisibis, Nishapur and Reyy. Persian-Assyrian science had proceeded mainly in astronomy, mathematics and medicine.
The sole part of the Iranian Plateau unconquered is the region of Hormuz, which remains independent (yet tributary) of the Seljuqs.
(1) Caspian Sea
(2) They were so in fact, before converting to islam
(3) Yes, the campaigns happen in a very similar way, but the motivations are different.
(4) We can see a Carolingian sort-of situation, complete with a “Patrimony of Mar Addai”; a sort of theocratic state being established in parts of Mesopotamia.
(5) There is however no major reason to invade
(6) And do not commit barbarous massacres for no reason. Especially not to Christian cities.
(7) Are going to have an English-like scenario? With a half-Germanic, half-Romance language? I don’t actually think so, for the Iranian culture is more sophisticated than the Turkic one.
(8) Synonymous with Uzbekistan south of the Kyzilkum plus the Tajik Ferghana panhandle, should I be correct.
(9) This is however not comparable with earlier statistics, for those included also Bactria and Tukharistan. Including these areas results in following figures: Manichean 35%, Nestorian 33%, Buddhist 21%, Zoroastrian 6%, Judaism 3%, Jacobite 3% and immigrant 1%. These population dynamics are not explained only by birth rate differences, but also by conversions and mixed marriages.
(10)Tengri pagans in Sogdia have almost all adopted some major world religion. Should some of them still be around by 1100 AD, their numbers negligible
(11)Known previously as Bactria, corresponding to Tajikistan except the Ferghana panhandle plus NE Afghanistan
(12) At its greatest extent, Buddhism reached as far west as the Aral Sea. Places like Sogdia get conquered far too often, but backwater mountain valleys increase the chances of survival for Buddhism. You know, mountains and Buddhists go together … *me thinks of Tibet*
(13)Especially Turkmenistan and northern Afghanistan.
(14)The Seljuq state stops all sponsoring of Zoroastrian religious institutions and clergy; these must be now sponsored by their believers. In modern terms, you could say that the religion is restricted to the private sphere; essentially an American system of congregation funding. I would not call this a Ctrl+C Ctrl+V from the Dhimmitude system, as there was no harassment of Zoroastrians here.
- Tomislav Addai
- Word Count: 1.8k