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2. King Hotimir the Great: Expansion and State Building
The Council of Rome, December of 752, proved to be a watershed moment in history. There had been talk of imposing a Carthaginian peace on the Lombards, however over the course of the council cooler heads prevailed. Ravenna and the territory connecting it to Rome was ceded to the Pope. Hotimir was elevated to the status of an independent king, his domain stretching from the edge of Panonia in the east to a western frontier from Lake Garda in the north along the Mincio and Po rivers to the northern border of the former Exarchate of Ravenna. Ratchis, who had fled to a monastery when he was deposed, was returned to the throne of the reduced Lombard Kingdom.
This statesmanship is considered to be amongst Pepin the Short’s greatest accomplishments. In weakening the Lombards he had punished them for daring to see themselves as the Frank’s equals. In empowering Hotimir he ensured that for the foreseeable future there would be no risk of another rival arising from Italy, and Hotimir’s kingdom could be useful as buffer state under Frankish influence. In taking no territory for his own kingdom he gained a favour he could hold over the Pope, and he reinforced the perception that the Frankish realm had already been the foremost territorial entity in western Christendom.
After Christmas Mass in Rome, Hotimir departed for his lands. As he passed through the major cities of his new lands he issued extensive charters granting the cities a high degree of autonomy. His aim was to ensure the personal loyalty of the important population centres. Verona was issued a particularly generous city charter by “the beggar king”.
He also made attempts to reconcile himself with the local elites now in his service. Though with his military superiority already established and their power undercut by the city charters it is likely that they had little choice in burying the hatchet.
He also took note of the means of travel between his lands. The Via Gemina, at least the portion of it beyond the Lombard’s traditional eastern frontier, had fallen under considerable disrepair. Upon returning to Krnski Grad he sent for Italian stonemasons, the road would have to be restored if his realm were to function as a single territorial entity.
Those stonemasons had a second use. While he campaigned in the west the Avars had resumed raiding his east, and there was a need to repair and expand the fortifications along the border. His fortification of choice was an innovation from Aistulf’s conquest of Carniola. This being a small, typically cubical, single storey stone structure topper with a larger wooden structure with a peaked roof and an abundance of arrow slits.[1] These buildings were impervious to arrows and as the over hang of the wooded structure allowed attackers on foot to be attacked with arrows, rocks, and boiling oil that had been prepared bellow. They would be of little use against a proper army, but they were effective area denial systems for smaller raiding parties. They were typically grouped together on the outskirts of a village, and a roof access hatch meant that during the night simple signals could be communicated with torches. A single torch meant that a weakness had been observed and that a sally should be conducted at dawn. A torch waved vertically meant that that outpost had also observed weakness. A torch waved horizontally meant that that outpost had reason to believe the Avars were actually preparing for just that; this was an absolute veto. Two torches being waved wildly indicated that a proper Avar army had gathered and that, as their position was now indefensible, they should immediately gather the villagers and attempt to flee to the nearest proper fortification.
Hotimir did not just reinforce the border though, the population of Carantania and Carniola were beginning to out grow their lands, and he also didn’t want his homeland swallowed by his western lands. Along the Rječina, Slava, Mur, and Drava rivers he began a creeping expansion of the network of frontier villages and fortifications.[2] While fairly passive as far as invasions go, this was still a blatant attack on the Avars and pitch battles became more common.
He began to prepare for an inevitable decisive battle and in 758 his improved army was put to work against their own countrymen. In a few regions of Carniola, typically along the Via Gemina, villagers angered by the increased Italian presence, mostly stonemasons, rose in a anti-Christian anti-Italian revolt. His army was more than capable of putting down this challenge to his rule, and according to an observer from the Papacy “it was clear that his army was now indeed an army rather than a horde”. However it is apparent that his faith in his ability to retain the loyalty of his mostly pagan people was deeply shaken. This doubt is apparent as the following year he accepted an offer of unconditional support from the Merchant Ministry of Verona.[3]
The spring of 760 proved decisive. In rapid succession more than a dozen settlements along the Drava river were destroyed. It was apparent that the Avars sought a final end to the Carantanian encroachment. Hotimir was also looking forward to a major engagement to end the lengthy period of monotony and uncertainty. He rallied an army that was surely larger than any other he had commanded and marched off to the defence of the settlements.
According to the Dravied[4] both sides were relatively even at around 20,000 combatants each and met at a ford in the river. The climax of the battle occurred when Hotimir lead a cavalry maneuver to flank the enemy who had found his men’s shield wall centered on Verona’s “Legio I Veronica” to be able to withstand the Avar assault. As Hotimir’s cavalry maneuvered it collided with an enemy cavalry formation that apparently had the same idea. After a bloody melee both sides fell back and their armies soon disengaged for the day. During the night the Avar army moved away. According to the Dravied this is due to the Avar Khan falling in the cavalry action. However it also has Hotimir die of an arrow wound sustained during the disengagement, even though Church records place his death three years later in Krinski Grad, so it certainly can’t be relied on for details.
The battle while indecisive in tactical terms, did represent the start of a period where the Avar Khaganate de facto yielded ownership of their northwestern frontier.[5]
Hotimir is often brought up in discussions regarding Carantania’s greatest monarchs. He won its independence from the Lombards, established it as a relevant player in European diplomacy, maintained a reasonably centralized authority, initiated the restoration of the Via Gemina ,and greatly expanded his realm to the west and east. However his military prowess was lacking to an extent, he has no decisive victory to his name, and his attempts at Christianizing his people were generally lacklustre. Any assessment of his achievements must be mindful of the situation he left to his successor.
The approximate borders of Carantania at the time of Hotimir's death in 763AD
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[1] Think 18th century frontier blockhouses, despite being the loser of the previous part, Aistulf sure was an ingenuitive man.
[2] He seems to have also learned a preference for aggression during his time as Aistulf’s hostage, infact expanding along the Rječina is actually butting head with the Croats rather than the Avars
[3] It’s like a proto-guild, and under Verona’s city charter its basically been running rampant, up to and including establishing a citizen army (the self proclaimed “Legio I Veronica”)
[4] An epic poem composed by Antonio in the Venetian dialect circa 952, it has a few erroneous details and it likely exaggerates the role of the Veronan contingent, as it would still have been in its formative years at the time
[5] There appears to have been some sort of succession crisis, although its unknown if the Khagan fell in battle or if his fellow nobles deposed him. It is known that his successor focused on the east and attempted to bring a few more nomadic tribes into their confederation
Sorry for the wait on the update, moving back into my dorm took up a fair bit of time. As always criticism is not only welcome but highly desired. Particularly with the map. The northern border which was basically guess work.
Should I have an "intermission" to check up on what the butterflies have been up to, or at this point should I pick up right at Valtunk's coronation?
This statesmanship is considered to be amongst Pepin the Short’s greatest accomplishments. In weakening the Lombards he had punished them for daring to see themselves as the Frank’s equals. In empowering Hotimir he ensured that for the foreseeable future there would be no risk of another rival arising from Italy, and Hotimir’s kingdom could be useful as buffer state under Frankish influence. In taking no territory for his own kingdom he gained a favour he could hold over the Pope, and he reinforced the perception that the Frankish realm had already been the foremost territorial entity in western Christendom.
After Christmas Mass in Rome, Hotimir departed for his lands. As he passed through the major cities of his new lands he issued extensive charters granting the cities a high degree of autonomy. His aim was to ensure the personal loyalty of the important population centres. Verona was issued a particularly generous city charter by “the beggar king”.
He also made attempts to reconcile himself with the local elites now in his service. Though with his military superiority already established and their power undercut by the city charters it is likely that they had little choice in burying the hatchet.
He also took note of the means of travel between his lands. The Via Gemina, at least the portion of it beyond the Lombard’s traditional eastern frontier, had fallen under considerable disrepair. Upon returning to Krnski Grad he sent for Italian stonemasons, the road would have to be restored if his realm were to function as a single territorial entity.
Those stonemasons had a second use. While he campaigned in the west the Avars had resumed raiding his east, and there was a need to repair and expand the fortifications along the border. His fortification of choice was an innovation from Aistulf’s conquest of Carniola. This being a small, typically cubical, single storey stone structure topper with a larger wooden structure with a peaked roof and an abundance of arrow slits.[1] These buildings were impervious to arrows and as the over hang of the wooded structure allowed attackers on foot to be attacked with arrows, rocks, and boiling oil that had been prepared bellow. They would be of little use against a proper army, but they were effective area denial systems for smaller raiding parties. They were typically grouped together on the outskirts of a village, and a roof access hatch meant that during the night simple signals could be communicated with torches. A single torch meant that a weakness had been observed and that a sally should be conducted at dawn. A torch waved vertically meant that that outpost had also observed weakness. A torch waved horizontally meant that that outpost had reason to believe the Avars were actually preparing for just that; this was an absolute veto. Two torches being waved wildly indicated that a proper Avar army had gathered and that, as their position was now indefensible, they should immediately gather the villagers and attempt to flee to the nearest proper fortification.
Hotimir did not just reinforce the border though, the population of Carantania and Carniola were beginning to out grow their lands, and he also didn’t want his homeland swallowed by his western lands. Along the Rječina, Slava, Mur, and Drava rivers he began a creeping expansion of the network of frontier villages and fortifications.[2] While fairly passive as far as invasions go, this was still a blatant attack on the Avars and pitch battles became more common.
He began to prepare for an inevitable decisive battle and in 758 his improved army was put to work against their own countrymen. In a few regions of Carniola, typically along the Via Gemina, villagers angered by the increased Italian presence, mostly stonemasons, rose in a anti-Christian anti-Italian revolt. His army was more than capable of putting down this challenge to his rule, and according to an observer from the Papacy “it was clear that his army was now indeed an army rather than a horde”. However it is apparent that his faith in his ability to retain the loyalty of his mostly pagan people was deeply shaken. This doubt is apparent as the following year he accepted an offer of unconditional support from the Merchant Ministry of Verona.[3]
The spring of 760 proved decisive. In rapid succession more than a dozen settlements along the Drava river were destroyed. It was apparent that the Avars sought a final end to the Carantanian encroachment. Hotimir was also looking forward to a major engagement to end the lengthy period of monotony and uncertainty. He rallied an army that was surely larger than any other he had commanded and marched off to the defence of the settlements.
According to the Dravied[4] both sides were relatively even at around 20,000 combatants each and met at a ford in the river. The climax of the battle occurred when Hotimir lead a cavalry maneuver to flank the enemy who had found his men’s shield wall centered on Verona’s “Legio I Veronica” to be able to withstand the Avar assault. As Hotimir’s cavalry maneuvered it collided with an enemy cavalry formation that apparently had the same idea. After a bloody melee both sides fell back and their armies soon disengaged for the day. During the night the Avar army moved away. According to the Dravied this is due to the Avar Khan falling in the cavalry action. However it also has Hotimir die of an arrow wound sustained during the disengagement, even though Church records place his death three years later in Krinski Grad, so it certainly can’t be relied on for details.
The battle while indecisive in tactical terms, did represent the start of a period where the Avar Khaganate de facto yielded ownership of their northwestern frontier.[5]
Hotimir is often brought up in discussions regarding Carantania’s greatest monarchs. He won its independence from the Lombards, established it as a relevant player in European diplomacy, maintained a reasonably centralized authority, initiated the restoration of the Via Gemina ,and greatly expanded his realm to the west and east. However his military prowess was lacking to an extent, he has no decisive victory to his name, and his attempts at Christianizing his people were generally lacklustre. Any assessment of his achievements must be mindful of the situation he left to his successor.
The approximate borders of Carantania at the time of Hotimir's death in 763AD
---
[1] Think 18th century frontier blockhouses, despite being the loser of the previous part, Aistulf sure was an ingenuitive man.
[2] He seems to have also learned a preference for aggression during his time as Aistulf’s hostage, infact expanding along the Rječina is actually butting head with the Croats rather than the Avars
[3] It’s like a proto-guild, and under Verona’s city charter its basically been running rampant, up to and including establishing a citizen army (the self proclaimed “Legio I Veronica”)
[4] An epic poem composed by Antonio in the Venetian dialect circa 952, it has a few erroneous details and it likely exaggerates the role of the Veronan contingent, as it would still have been in its formative years at the time
[5] There appears to have been some sort of succession crisis, although its unknown if the Khagan fell in battle or if his fellow nobles deposed him. It is known that his successor focused on the east and attempted to bring a few more nomadic tribes into their confederation
Sorry for the wait on the update, moving back into my dorm took up a fair bit of time. As always criticism is not only welcome but highly desired. Particularly with the map. The northern border which was basically guess work.
Should I have an "intermission" to check up on what the butterflies have been up to, or at this point should I pick up right at Valtunk's coronation?
Valtunk just inherited a bomb
- SealTheRealDeal
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