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Splendid Isolation: The United Kingdom, Empire and Europe (1855-1866)

Lord Palmerston (Henry John Temple), the dominant statesman of the period
The British had cautiously welcomed the liberal revolutions which had established new nations within Europe, which provided a useful counterbalance to any expansionism which could disrupt the European balance of power. [1] Following the collapse of the Graham government in 1855, Palmerston succeeded to the premiership heading a Whig government. [2] The new government found itself drawn into conflict in China, with resentment against the imposition of the "unequal treaties" resulting in a British boat being impounded and it's crew arrested in Canton, with the incident sparking a brief war which later involved French troops, as well as small forces from Russia and the United States. [3] The British bombarded the city of Canton and eventually entered after destroying the four forts that guarded entrance to the city. The conflict remained localised however, as both China and Britain found themselves facing large rebellions against their rule. [4] The conflict with China would end in 1858, following the occupation of Canton and the signing of the Treaty of Tientsin. [5]

Palmerston faced a more significant crisis in India, where long standing tensions and resentment towards East India Comapny rule exploded into open rebellion in the first months of 1857. The company's expansionist policies and probitions of Indian religious customs caused significant disquiet, particularly the openly preferential treatment given to Christian societies and converts, with many fearing that the British wished to forcibly Christianise the entire region. [6] The Company's taxation policies, particularly in regards to land, with many having their land forcibly seized and auctioned off, which caused deep anger and hostility towards the British in northern India, where the policy was most practiced. The Company, under the command of men who had nothing but distaste for India and the Indian people, had also alienated the troops under their command by reducing the powers of commanding officers and abandoning the adoption of local practices to foster morale. [7] British troops were stationed in India, though they were small in number, and several had been redeployed to the occupation of islands in the Persian Gulf following the Tehran incident and China to occupy Canton. [8] The resentment within the British Indian armies, was exacerbated by the abolition of the "foreign service" renumeration and their deployment to Burma, as well as the slow promotion process within the army, which had began to increase it's number of European officers to the detriment of local troops. This disquiet increased upon the introduction of new rifles, whose paper cartridges were rumoured to be greased with pig and cow fat, offensive to both Muslims and Hindus.

The rebellion began in Calcutta after an altercation between Mangal Pandey and his British officers over his refusal to follow an order turned into a mutiny, as a contingent of sepoys based Barrackpore fired upon their British officers. The British eventually re-established order, and hung the mutineer before disbanding and stripping the offending regiment of it's uniform, though this punishment of "shame and disgrace" was viewed as unduly harsh within the Bengal Army and further exacerbated the situation. The 3rd Cavalry, ordered to parade, refused to accept the cartridges and were sentenced to ten years hard labour as a result. Their successful escape from prison in Meerut and advance on Dehli, began the Bengal Army's rebellion.

The proclamation of Bahadur Shah II as Emperor of India, though whether he willingly accepted the offer of the crown or was coerced into it is still a matter of debate. Regardless, the uprising pushed the British back with significant outbreaks of unrest, and the killings of European civilians creating a storm of panic within the British press and parliament. Palmerston's slow reaction to the rebellion, and handling of the war in China saw him censured in parliament, to which he responded by calling a general election, which the Whigs went on to comfortably win. [9] Pamerston was able to force through several acts of parliament before the deterioating situation in India forced an opposition vote of censure supported by rebellious Whigs forced him to resign, whereupon he was succeeded by the short-lived ministry of Edward Smith-Stanley, the Earl of Derby. [10]

The war in India had now denigrated into widespread atrocities by both sides, as the Indian rebels and the British forces indiscrimately massacred civilians and destroyed settlements. While the British would eventually regain the upper hand, the bloodiness of the conflict left an indelible mark upon the British imperial psyche. The brutal reprisals committed by the British in response to reports of civilian massacres and mass rape European women, were decried in some elements of the British press and parliament and celebrated in others. [11] In the aftermath, the East India Company was abolished with the governance of India transferred to the British Crown. As a a result a new Indian Office was created, along with a Governor-Generalcy. The new office, under the direction of the British government aimed to resolve the tensions which had led to the outbreak of rebellion. [12]


Lord Granville, first Liberal Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

Derby's minority government collapsed in early 1859, and was succeeded by Lord Granville as the first Liberal Prime Minister. [13] The new government covertly supported the Sardinian led invasion of Southern Italy, though officially they remained neutral following the French intervention. [14] Granville's ministry was frequently plgued by the conflict between Palmerstone and Gladstone who clashed over almost every issue. Palmerston's staunch support for a massive plan of coastal defence batteries was rejected by Gladstone as being too expensive, arguing instead that it would be a better idea to invest stongly in the navy. The long debate over the matter eventually led to a compromise, the Fortifications and Naval Defence (Provisions of Expenses) Act proposing to raise £9,000,000 in taxes to fund the construction of several coastal forts and investment in new naval technology and constructions. [15] Palmerston's foreign policy was primarily centred on forming a strong relationship with Frace, though the strong familial connections between the British and German royal families allowed for the development of cordial relations with the Germans. [16] Palmerston was a strong supporter of the expansion of British influence in Europe through the royal family, andd supported the foreign marriages of the Queen's children. Indeed, the period saw the first of several marriages between Victoria's children and foreign royalty. Victoria, Princess Royal married Prince Frederick of Germany [17] following seven years of courtship in 1858. This was followed by Princess Alice's marriage to William, Prince of Orange in 1862 [18] and the Prince of Wales marriage to Anna of Hesse and by Rhine in 1863. [19]

Granville's government passed several important legislative acts, including a reform and codification of criminal law in 1861 and companies law in 1862. Foreign policy in the period was dominated by debates over the tensions between the Danes and Germans over the question of Schleswig-Holstein and the American Civil War, with the British refusing to support the French plan to recognise the Confederacy or the French intervention in Mexico. [20] The tensions between the Danes and Germans finally came to a head in 1863 following the passing of a new constitution which formally annexed the territories to Denmark, outraging the local German population and the German government which declared it a violation of the Treaty of London and began massing it's forces on the Danish border, before invading in Spring 1864. The war and it's outbreak brought severe difficulties for Granville's cabinet, as the United Kingdom enjoyed favourable relations with both Copenhagen and Frankfurt. The government eventually decided to hold a conference to resolve the conflict between the two countries, wth themselves, the Austrians, French and Russians as mediators. The ceasefire, negotiated in June after the German army had rapidly advanced through the duchies, held for a month as the British brokered conference eventually reached a resolution. Schleswig would be partitioned between the Danes and the Germans with the territory north of Flensburg remaining in Danish hands, while the rest including Holstein and Lauenberg were integrated into Germany. [21] The resolution was a success for the British government, which had pushed hard for the partition plan, and as a result the Liberals increased their majority in both votes and seats. The government's response to the outbreak of Fenian violence in Canada and Ireland which saw the deployment of troops and shipments of arms to the Ontario government in Bytown [22]and plans to temporarily suspend habeus corpus in Ireland (strongly resisted by Home Secretary Lord Russell) were viewed in sections of the liberal press as overly draconian. [23] The government's cautious reform bill, introduced in 1866 proposed to enfranchise "respectable" working men, excluding unskilled workers and what was known as the "residuum", those seen by MPs as the "feckless and criminal" poor. This was ensured by a £7 householder qualification, which had been calculated to require an income of 26 shillings a week. This entailed two "fancy franchises," emulating measures of 1854, a £10 lodger qualification for the boroughs, and a £50 savings qualification in the counties. The bill was eventually passed, expanding the franchise, though it's cautious provisions drew opposition from more radical elements. [24] Plans to expand the franchise further, brought down the government as the party split, allowing the Conservatives to form a ministry in 1866.

Nevertheless, British party politics was to be forever changed.

(Extract from Radical Reform: The Liberal Governments of the Nineteenth Century, by R.H. Mumby)

BRIEF NOTES

[1] This pragmatic foreign policy which was committed to limiting expansion of any one great power within Europe, was adhered to by both Liberal and Conservative governments.
[2] The queen initially asked the Earl of Derby to form a government, but after he failed to garner enough support, Lord Lansdowne was asked but declined due to his advanced age. Due to her deep mistrust of Palmerston she turned to Russell who, like Derby as unable to form a ministry. It was then that Palmerston was invited to form a government.
[3] Following the execution of a French priest, and the threatening of Russian and American trade interests the Four Powers agreed to form a joint expeditionary force to protect their interests in China, following an agreement signed in Hong Kong. The majority of the force's troops were Anglo-French, though the U.S. provided three naval vessels and the Russians sent a small force of around five hundred men.
[4] The outbreak of rebellion in India diverted British resources to India, while the Qing were struggling to contain the Taiping rebellion.
[5] The treaty specified the opening of further Chinese ports to foreign trade, and the establishment of legations for the four powers in Peking, a city which had prevously closed to foreigners. Previous travel restrictions on foreigners were lifted, as were freedom of worship restrictions on Christian within the country.
[6] Whether the East India Company were planning to Christianise India is debatable, though the policy of overt preference towards Christian groups and the general air of religious intolerance encouraged by the company in it's attitude towards local practices certainly flamed the tensions within the region.
[7] The gradual hardening of rules around the fraternisation of native troops and British officers, and the decline in use of officers who spoke local languages further exacerbated tensions between the sepoys and their superiors.
[8] The Tehran Incident had seen British troops deployed to the Gulf following the diplomatic insult of the British ambassador to Persia, who had been accused of having improper relations with the sister of the Shah's principal wife. In response the British deployed two British regiments from India, occupying two islands in the Gulf until the matter was cleared with an official apology from the Shah.
[9] Palmerston's popularity with the wider public was generally held to have won the election for the Whigs.
[10] Derby's government, despite it's difficulty in governing was successful in forcing through necessary administrative reforms in India which abolished the East India Company and transferred administrative control to the British crown.
[11] Periodicals and the popular press frequently depiced the rebels as nothing more than barbarians, while isolated voices in both the press and parliament criticised the British reprisals as equally barbaric.
[12] The new Indian Office, established by the government to replace the East India Company, was given the power to set policy to be implemented by the Viceroy of India. Higher castes and rulers of the princely states were integrated into the government structure, while the civil service was opened to Indians. Relgious tolerance was reinstituted as was the general policy of decentralised government. The decision to open the universities to Indians further set a crucial precedent with Indians encouraged to participate in colonial government.
[13] Granville's cabinet contained what the conservative press would later nickname "The Four Horseman": Granville as Prime Minister, Gladstone as Chancellor, Palmerston as Foreign Secretary and Russell as Home Secretary. The factionalism amongst the government led many to describe the various factions as the "Her Majesty's Disloyal Opposition" with numerous governmental plans scuppered by cabinet infighting. Granville, despite this did managed to weld together a working ministry, though plans for suffrage reform were defeated by Palmerston's opposition.
[14] The emergence of a unified Italy in the Mediterranean was viewed favourably in London, for providing a useful counterbalance to potential expansion by Russia, France or Austria in the area.
[15] The report, sparked by a French invasion scare called for the establishment of forts and floating batteries around the coast. Enthusiastically supported by Palmerston, it was opposed by Gladstone on grounds of cost, and by the Admiralty who believed it would be more expedient to invest the money in improving the country's naval capacity. Eventually, Granville hammered out a compromise wherein half of the money would be spent expanding the naval bases at Portsmouth and Plymouth, while the remainder would be spent on investing in coastal defences. The act passed parliament, and the construction of "Granville's Gargoyles" began.
[16] Prince Albert's influence was strong in the cultivation of ties between the two nations, while the marriage of the Princess Royal and Prince Frederick of Germany in 1858 further cememted ties.
[17] The wedding was attended by the majority of both families, excluding the emperor who was incapacitated by his stroke as well as delegates from both government's. The match was popular in both countries, with photographic prints and other memorabilia of the wedding selling well in the UK.
[18] The marriage had largely been arranged by the Prince Consort and the Anglophilic Queen Sophie of the Netherlands, who wished to develop close ties with the British. The marriage also fell into the established policy of marriages within Protestant royalty.
[19] The marriage of the Prince of Wales had been the most difficult to decide. Alexandra of Denmark had been considered but was rejected by Queen Victoria. Anna of Hesse was favoured by Queen Victoria, despite the reservations of the Princess Royal. The two eventually met and developed a fondness for each other, with the Prince of Wales describing her as a "very amicable woman." The marriage partnered the somewhat wayward Bertie with the strongwilled Anna, much to the queen's satisfaction.
[20] The debate over the civil war split the cabinet with some favouring recognising the Confederacy, though Granville's cautiousness and Prince Albert's fierce oppositon to any recognition of the Confederacy ensured the British retained neutrality. The French expedition in Mexico was swiftly ended following the defeat at Puebla and the refusal of any elegible European prince to accept the proposed Mexican imperial crown, swiftly truncated French plans in the Americas, though Napoleon III maintained interests in the Empire of Haiti supporting he imperial government against an attempted coup in 1859.
[21] The long simmering tensions along the border between the Danes and Germans erupted following the annexation of the duchies under the new Danish constitution of 1863 which abolished the parliaments of the duchies and placed them firmly under the Danish sphere much to the anger of the Germans, who following an appeal from the duchies mobilised a force of some 40,000 men. Though these troops massed on the border, the conflict remained devoid of fighting. The troops finally crossed in February and were engaged in heavy fighting around the frontier between Schleswig and Holstein. The reforms introduced after the fiasco of the first war were clearly effective, with the federal army advancing into Schleswig by April. The British government brokered the Treaty of London, which partitioned the duchies with southern Schleswig, Holstein ad Lauenberg annexed to the empire. The Daes, wary that the Germans would invade and occupy Jutland, agreed to the British brokered terms with the border set north of the city of Flensburg.
[22] OTL Ottawa
[23] The proposal to suspend habeas corpus was rejected by the cabinet as an object which would unecessarily enflame pro-Fenian sentiment. The collapse of the Fenian brotherhood due to lack of popular support eventually rendered the proposal moot.
[24] The reform, despite being comfortably passed in parliament was attacked by Tories as too radical and by radicals as insufficiently radical, though it introduced the secret ballot and adjusted seat boundaries, as well as adding an extra million men to the voter roll.

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