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Chapter 9: Fear and Loathing in Central Europe
Part 9: Fear and Loathing in Central Europe (1450-1463)
The conquest of Constantinople by the Ottoman Turks brought an odd sense of dread into the hearts of many rulers across all of Christendom. The Eastern Roman Empire, the last beacon of antiquity in Europe, was extinguished. Some holdouts in Greece, like one of the Emperor's brothers in Morea, held out for a few years after the event, but even they were quick to fall. Pope Nicholas VI ordered a Crusade against the Ottomans, but none of the rulers in Central Europe answered the call. With the fall of Constantinople, and the Greek Orthodox Church falling under Turkish control, the hopes for a Union of Florence too started to fade. In 1451, a delegation from the Pope arrived to Vilnius, to the capital of the last major Orthodox state, Lithuania, to negotiate for a possible "regional reunion". Teodoras I politely - and by politely, meaning "politely kicking them out and sending them back to Italy" - gave a negative answer.
The conquest of Constantinople saw numerous developments that would impact the history of Europe for centuries to come. While it had started before the Turkish siege, the exodus of Greek refugees, mostly scholars, artists and writers, reached a record high immediately after the war. Fearing for their life and bringing numerous saved great works from Antiquity and the Byzantine Golden Age period with them, these refugees had numerous paths to take. Some fled into the Aegean, arriving to Morea or Venetian colonies and trade posts in the islands, and from there fleeing to Western Europe, most notably Italy, where a contingent of Greek figures had already established themselves. Many were caught by Ottoman troops or ships and sent back to the mainland, often ending up executed for treason. Finally, some reached Khadjibey, Lithuania's Black Sea port, and appealed to the Grand Duke to grant them protection. Teodoras I, while not particularly interested in those old books they were carrying, agreed, and settled them down near his capital in Vilnius. The effect of this action are still visible today in location names - the towns of Graikamiestis (Lith. "Greek City"), Trakiečiai (Lith. "Thracians") and Šimto Graikų Kaimas (Lith. "The town of a hundred Greeks") tell their visitors about their glorious past.
Greek settlements in Lietuva Land, even though the original inhabitants were quickly assimilated into the population, later became the centers of Lithuanian Renaissance thought and development. According to the census of 2010, approximately 15 people in the Vilnius Region today identify as "Lithuanian Greek" - even after 600 years, this important minority of Lithuanian history still clings on and is sure to remind those who ask about their impact on Lithuanian culture. Greeks brought olive oil into some dishes of the Lithuanian cuisine, for example.
However, neither delicious dishes nor ancient books were on the mind of the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon the conquest of Constantinople. His glory-hungry mind focused on far more prestigious matters. Teodoras I was quick to declare that "now that the thousand years of Eastern Roman reign upon the eternal throne of the Empire are over, the seat of Rome needs to be moved to a successor of it's traditions". Which, according to him, must be Lithuania - the last standing powerful Eastern Orthodox nation, one that received the voice of Christ in the Roman, rather than the Latin, way. Such declarations of successorship weren't widely accepted in the Christian world, at least for the time being, but Teodoras I was determined in that regard.
Historians notice that this period of Lithuanian historiography, as in, immediately after the fall of Byzantium, saw a sudden change in the interpretation of the nation's past in the Chronicle of Lithuania - in an edited rewrite in 1460, a much greater emphasis is put on Lithuania after Jogaila's baptism, glorifying his fight against the Western Schismatics and Eastern Mahometons as a defense of Orthodoxy in Eastern Europe - which couldn't be farther from the truth. This exemplifies Teodoras's quest to legitimize his claim on declaring Vilnius and his nation "The Third Rome", a title which had more claimants than ever - the Ottomans, whose new ruler Mehmed even declared himself Kaiser-i-Rum to lock down his claim, as well as Venice, the Holy Roman Empire, and even Tver.
Yet another case of twisting history for a political agenda.
Traders across Western Europe suffered a blow of their own. The conquest of Constantinople greatly severed the trade link between Europe and the Middle East that went through the city. Now held by hostile Muslims, this important city for trade was turned into a stronghold of theirs, and Europe soon witnessed a massive increase in prices of Eastern goods, most importantly spices. Spices grew more and more demanding in the Western World, and this coupled with many, many political and tariff barriers in the Silk Road, Constantinople being the newest one in the chain, meant that the prices of all goods travelling increased by up to 500 times from start to finish in extreme cases. Some navigators and traders in Western Europe, most notably in the Iberian peninsula and the massive England-France, started arguing in favor of finding a sea route to India to bypass the Muslims and their tariffs.
How? Around Africa, of course! But is it the only way? Can't we just sail directly to the west? The world is round, after all... Such discussions were still a long way from bearing any fruits, though.
In Central Europe, a far different crisis was brewing. The conquest of Constantinople didn't put a stop to the rising tensions between two rising great powers, Bohemia-Hungary and Lithuania, only temporarily paused them. Meanwhile, what was already known as the "Polish Succession Crisis" or the "Siemowitian Interregnum", was escalating to never before seen heights. Mikhail Ignacy Lubomirski, the head regent of the incapable Siemowit III, was, in essence, the ruler of the Kingdom of Poland along with the Council of Krakow, a gathering of szlachta who would collectively decide in the kingdom's matters while the King was unable to rule. Of course, Lubomirski was quick to use this power to further his and his class's power in the already decentralized Kingdom. In 1455, Siemowit III "signed" the Convention Pact, declaring the official establishment of elective monarchy in Poland. The office of "King of Poland" was no longer hereditary, but rather elected by all Polish nobles upon the last King's death. The powers of the King were also drastically cut, and the nobility - gathered in the Sejm - had their powers in the ruling process greatly expanded.
Poland entered a state of chaos. The lands of the King were divided up between the biggest families of the szlachta. There was almost no centralized rule, the nobles avoided serving in the army, instead keeping their own small forces and feuding across the nation. Jan Dlugosz, one of the most well known Polish historians of the Medieval Era, and a contemporary of the Siemowitian Interregnum, described it in his works as "the downfall of Poland; it is no longer a free nation, no matter how many titles and rights Lubomirski adds to his clan". Wladyslaw I, the uncle of the reigning King, and one of the last major supporters of keeping Poland centralized, died in 1455. His son Janusz, only 16 years old upon his father's death, continued on the efforts to take the crown, but the numbers of his supporters dwindled. A Januszist uprising in Lesser Poland was taken down by a surprise Lithuanian intervention - Teodoras I wanted a weak, fractured Poland as a buffer between his nation and the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia-Hungary.
In 1457, Charles I of Bohemia-Hungary came to age, bringing the regency to an end. A capable ruler, Charles was groomed in the court by an Italian humanist, passing on the ideas of the springing Renaissance to the young King. Charles I soon adopted the military ideas proposed by the now deceased John Hunyadi, succeeded by Matthias Corvinus, a Hungarian general and voivode just as capable as his father. Both knowing that war was coming near and that his reign over two countries was not the most stable, Charles I went in an effort to innovate the military of the Dual Crown. Charles I supported Corvinus's proposal to create a professional mercenary force - the Black Army of Bohemia and Hungary - whose organization and modernized composition soon became the model of the Bohemo-Hungarian army.
In 1461, civil conflict erupted in the Teutonic Order between the Grand Master and a confederation of burghers and cities, centered in Elbing, the Prussian Confederation, and Lithuania was quick to intervene, supporting the Confederates. Charles I used this as an opportunity to gain influence in Poland - he stationed a regiment of about 500 men in Krakow to oversee the regency, and offered sizable bribes to numerous Polish nobles in exchange for support. Teodoras I of Lithuania immediately saw this as an intrusion into his sphere of influence, and after attacking the outskirts of Konigsberg and looting the province, he sent a letter to the court in Esztergom, demanding them to move back. Charles I ignored the letter.
While Lithuania prepared for straightforward military action, gathering resources like food and weapons for a campaign, Bohemia-Hungary was more secretive - they hoped to influence the szlachta to obtain the crown from their hands. This is where they clashed with Janusz - Siemowit III's cousin, and a claimant to the throne, supported by Lithuania. Poland started to appear more and more like a piece of cloth, tugged into two sides by two giants. And when such a tug of war begins, it can take only a single tap to rip the whole thing apart...
And then, in 1463, the King of Poland, Siemowit III, died softly in his bed.
The reasons for his death are still uncertain. It's likely that his mental condition dramatically lowered his lifespan, but the possibility of an assassination by the Januszites or the supporters of Charles I is not pushed away to the side. After all, even to Mikhail Lubomirski the King was starting to become a thorn at the side... Nevertheless, while Poland under Siemowit III was chaotic and on a straight trip down, this was nothing compared to what happened when the poor man finally kicked the bucket.
Janusz Piast, now stylizing himself as Janusz I of Poland, immediately declared his claim to the throne via the old succession law, but the Convention Pact declared that a gathering of szlachta will choose the new King - and it, despite oh so much foreign influence against it, elected Mikhail Ignacy Lubomirski as the new King of Poland, on the promise of keeping the new rights of the nobility sacred. Both Charles and Janusz seemed "threateningly pro-centralization" to them. Bohemia-Hungary immediately responded with military action, the Januszites rose up in favor of the "legitimate claimant", and Lithuania, who was carefully watching the events unfold in Poland, was quick to intervene. A string of war declarations followed - Janusz I against Poland, Bohemia-Hungary and Charles I's supporters in Poland against Poland and Janusz, and Lithuania, supporting Janusz I, against both Poland and Bohemia-Hungary.
The flaming match has fallen into the gasoline soaked house, and now Poland once again burns.
---
Now we also have a poll at the top of the thread! Isn't this innovation? Make sure to answer it!
Oh, and I have realized that I am not a fairly good OP. I don't really interact much with you guys. Maybe it puts some of you off. Hopefully this can be the start of a better friendship.
Part 9: Fear and Loathing in Central Europe (1450-1463)
The conquest of Constantinople saw numerous developments that would impact the history of Europe for centuries to come. While it had started before the Turkish siege, the exodus of Greek refugees, mostly scholars, artists and writers, reached a record high immediately after the war. Fearing for their life and bringing numerous saved great works from Antiquity and the Byzantine Golden Age period with them, these refugees had numerous paths to take. Some fled into the Aegean, arriving to Morea or Venetian colonies and trade posts in the islands, and from there fleeing to Western Europe, most notably Italy, where a contingent of Greek figures had already established themselves. Many were caught by Ottoman troops or ships and sent back to the mainland, often ending up executed for treason. Finally, some reached Khadjibey, Lithuania's Black Sea port, and appealed to the Grand Duke to grant them protection. Teodoras I, while not particularly interested in those old books they were carrying, agreed, and settled them down near his capital in Vilnius. The effect of this action are still visible today in location names - the towns of Graikamiestis (Lith. "Greek City"), Trakiečiai (Lith. "Thracians") and Šimto Graikų Kaimas (Lith. "The town of a hundred Greeks") tell their visitors about their glorious past.
Greek settlements in Lietuva Land, even though the original inhabitants were quickly assimilated into the population, later became the centers of Lithuanian Renaissance thought and development. According to the census of 2010, approximately 15 people in the Vilnius Region today identify as "Lithuanian Greek" - even after 600 years, this important minority of Lithuanian history still clings on and is sure to remind those who ask about their impact on Lithuanian culture. Greeks brought olive oil into some dishes of the Lithuanian cuisine, for example.
However, neither delicious dishes nor ancient books were on the mind of the Grand Duke of Lithuania upon the conquest of Constantinople. His glory-hungry mind focused on far more prestigious matters. Teodoras I was quick to declare that "now that the thousand years of Eastern Roman reign upon the eternal throne of the Empire are over, the seat of Rome needs to be moved to a successor of it's traditions". Which, according to him, must be Lithuania - the last standing powerful Eastern Orthodox nation, one that received the voice of Christ in the Roman, rather than the Latin, way. Such declarations of successorship weren't widely accepted in the Christian world, at least for the time being, but Teodoras I was determined in that regard.
Historians notice that this period of Lithuanian historiography, as in, immediately after the fall of Byzantium, saw a sudden change in the interpretation of the nation's past in the Chronicle of Lithuania - in an edited rewrite in 1460, a much greater emphasis is put on Lithuania after Jogaila's baptism, glorifying his fight against the Western Schismatics and Eastern Mahometons as a defense of Orthodoxy in Eastern Europe - which couldn't be farther from the truth. This exemplifies Teodoras's quest to legitimize his claim on declaring Vilnius and his nation "The Third Rome", a title which had more claimants than ever - the Ottomans, whose new ruler Mehmed even declared himself Kaiser-i-Rum to lock down his claim, as well as Venice, the Holy Roman Empire, and even Tver.
Yet another case of twisting history for a political agenda.
Traders across Western Europe suffered a blow of their own. The conquest of Constantinople greatly severed the trade link between Europe and the Middle East that went through the city. Now held by hostile Muslims, this important city for trade was turned into a stronghold of theirs, and Europe soon witnessed a massive increase in prices of Eastern goods, most importantly spices. Spices grew more and more demanding in the Western World, and this coupled with many, many political and tariff barriers in the Silk Road, Constantinople being the newest one in the chain, meant that the prices of all goods travelling increased by up to 500 times from start to finish in extreme cases. Some navigators and traders in Western Europe, most notably in the Iberian peninsula and the massive England-France, started arguing in favor of finding a sea route to India to bypass the Muslims and their tariffs.
How? Around Africa, of course! But is it the only way? Can't we just sail directly to the west? The world is round, after all... Such discussions were still a long way from bearing any fruits, though.
In Central Europe, a far different crisis was brewing. The conquest of Constantinople didn't put a stop to the rising tensions between two rising great powers, Bohemia-Hungary and Lithuania, only temporarily paused them. Meanwhile, what was already known as the "Polish Succession Crisis" or the "Siemowitian Interregnum", was escalating to never before seen heights. Mikhail Ignacy Lubomirski, the head regent of the incapable Siemowit III, was, in essence, the ruler of the Kingdom of Poland along with the Council of Krakow, a gathering of szlachta who would collectively decide in the kingdom's matters while the King was unable to rule. Of course, Lubomirski was quick to use this power to further his and his class's power in the already decentralized Kingdom. In 1455, Siemowit III "signed" the Convention Pact, declaring the official establishment of elective monarchy in Poland. The office of "King of Poland" was no longer hereditary, but rather elected by all Polish nobles upon the last King's death. The powers of the King were also drastically cut, and the nobility - gathered in the Sejm - had their powers in the ruling process greatly expanded.
Poland entered a state of chaos. The lands of the King were divided up between the biggest families of the szlachta. There was almost no centralized rule, the nobles avoided serving in the army, instead keeping their own small forces and feuding across the nation. Jan Dlugosz, one of the most well known Polish historians of the Medieval Era, and a contemporary of the Siemowitian Interregnum, described it in his works as "the downfall of Poland; it is no longer a free nation, no matter how many titles and rights Lubomirski adds to his clan". Wladyslaw I, the uncle of the reigning King, and one of the last major supporters of keeping Poland centralized, died in 1455. His son Janusz, only 16 years old upon his father's death, continued on the efforts to take the crown, but the numbers of his supporters dwindled. A Januszist uprising in Lesser Poland was taken down by a surprise Lithuanian intervention - Teodoras I wanted a weak, fractured Poland as a buffer between his nation and the Holy Roman Empire and Bohemia-Hungary.
In 1457, Charles I of Bohemia-Hungary came to age, bringing the regency to an end. A capable ruler, Charles was groomed in the court by an Italian humanist, passing on the ideas of the springing Renaissance to the young King. Charles I soon adopted the military ideas proposed by the now deceased John Hunyadi, succeeded by Matthias Corvinus, a Hungarian general and voivode just as capable as his father. Both knowing that war was coming near and that his reign over two countries was not the most stable, Charles I went in an effort to innovate the military of the Dual Crown. Charles I supported Corvinus's proposal to create a professional mercenary force - the Black Army of Bohemia and Hungary - whose organization and modernized composition soon became the model of the Bohemo-Hungarian army.
In 1461, civil conflict erupted in the Teutonic Order between the Grand Master and a confederation of burghers and cities, centered in Elbing, the Prussian Confederation, and Lithuania was quick to intervene, supporting the Confederates. Charles I used this as an opportunity to gain influence in Poland - he stationed a regiment of about 500 men in Krakow to oversee the regency, and offered sizable bribes to numerous Polish nobles in exchange for support. Teodoras I of Lithuania immediately saw this as an intrusion into his sphere of influence, and after attacking the outskirts of Konigsberg and looting the province, he sent a letter to the court in Esztergom, demanding them to move back. Charles I ignored the letter.
While Lithuania prepared for straightforward military action, gathering resources like food and weapons for a campaign, Bohemia-Hungary was more secretive - they hoped to influence the szlachta to obtain the crown from their hands. This is where they clashed with Janusz - Siemowit III's cousin, and a claimant to the throne, supported by Lithuania. Poland started to appear more and more like a piece of cloth, tugged into two sides by two giants. And when such a tug of war begins, it can take only a single tap to rip the whole thing apart...
And then, in 1463, the King of Poland, Siemowit III, died softly in his bed.
The reasons for his death are still uncertain. It's likely that his mental condition dramatically lowered his lifespan, but the possibility of an assassination by the Januszites or the supporters of Charles I is not pushed away to the side. After all, even to Mikhail Lubomirski the King was starting to become a thorn at the side... Nevertheless, while Poland under Siemowit III was chaotic and on a straight trip down, this was nothing compared to what happened when the poor man finally kicked the bucket.
Janusz Piast, now stylizing himself as Janusz I of Poland, immediately declared his claim to the throne via the old succession law, but the Convention Pact declared that a gathering of szlachta will choose the new King - and it, despite oh so much foreign influence against it, elected Mikhail Ignacy Lubomirski as the new King of Poland, on the promise of keeping the new rights of the nobility sacred. Both Charles and Janusz seemed "threateningly pro-centralization" to them. Bohemia-Hungary immediately responded with military action, the Januszites rose up in favor of the "legitimate claimant", and Lithuania, who was carefully watching the events unfold in Poland, was quick to intervene. A string of war declarations followed - Janusz I against Poland, Bohemia-Hungary and Charles I's supporters in Poland against Poland and Janusz, and Lithuania, supporting Janusz I, against both Poland and Bohemia-Hungary.
The flaming match has fallen into the gasoline soaked house, and now Poland once again burns.
---
Now we also have a poll at the top of the thread! Isn't this innovation? Make sure to answer it!
Oh, and I have realized that I am not a fairly good OP. I don't really interact much with you guys. Maybe it puts some of you off. Hopefully this can be the start of a better friendship.
- Augenis
- Word Count: 1.9k