Rome Destroyed Timeline...900 BC to 300 BC
Here is a revision of the first segment of the timeline (down to 450 BC) along with a new segment bringing it down to 300 BC. ROME DESTROYED IN 450 B.C. Sorry...no maps at this time, but I will probably make some and post them in the future.
c. 900 BC--Etruscans arrive in Italy, probably from Asia Minor. Over the next two
centuries they establish themselves as a ruling caste over local Villanovan villages in the
northern part of Italy, which begin to grow into city states under Etruscan rule.
814 BC--Carthage founded by Elissa (Dido), sister of the King of Tyre.
800? BC--First Phoenician presence on Sardinia.
c. 800 BC--The Greek version of the Phoenician alphabet is first used, and the earliest
iron age societies...proto-Celtic peoples...develop in Germany and Austria.
c. 800 BC onward--Greece is gradually emerging from the Dark Ages following the fall
of the Mycenaean civilization. An increase in trade and the establishment of
governmental defense fortifications allows for the emergence of Greek city-states (the
Polis) from tribal communities. These grow up around marketplaces and include cities
such as Athens, Thebes, Sparta, Corinth and Megara on the Greek mainland. For the most
part, the Greek city-states are similar in their political evolution, with the exception of
Sparta's elite dictatorship. Most begin their political histories as monarchies, evolve to
oligarchies, are overthrown during the age of the tyrants (c. 650-500 BC) and eventually
establish democracies in the sixth and fifth centuries. Of the Greek city-states, Athens
and Sparta will be the two most important.
770 BC--Founding of Gadir, gateway to Spanish silver.
760 BC - Founding of the city of Cumae as a Greek trading station by Euboean colonists.
753 BC--Traditional date for the founding of Rome (legendary) by Romulus and Remus.
After killing his brother, Romulus reigns as the first Roman king. Rape of the Sabines at
Rome.
750-500 BC--Heavy Greek colonization of Sicily, Southern Italy, Southern Provence,
Andalusia and Cyrenaica, encircling Carthaginian and Etruscan territory.
c. 750 BC--Etruscan voyages towards southern Tyrrhenian Sea and start of Etruscan
'thalassocracy.' Etruscan sea power and merchant trading begins to make itself felt all
over the western Mediterranean. Also at this time, Euboean Greeks found Naxos and
Megarian Greeks found Megara Hyblaea in Sicily.
c. 750-650 BC--Hoplite phalanx adopted by cities of Greece. Previously fighting was
carried out by a relatively few warriors with a shield, sword and spear with no armor and
were not organized in a phalanx. Hoplites had defensive armor and fought in close
formation, phalanx, a series of rows. Later on, the phalanx will be adopted by the
Romans and Etruscans as a result of contact with the Greeks.
c. 735-716 BC--First Messenian War. Sparta conquers the neighboring state of Messenia.
The population of Messenia is enslaved and becomes the “helot” class in Spartan society.
733 BC--Syracuse founded by Corinthian Greeks in Sicily.
730 BC - Date of founding of the city of Rhegium by Greeks from Chalcis.
716 BC--Romulus, the legendary founder and first King of Rome, dies. Numa Pompilius
becomes king of Rome.
c. 710 BC--Achaean Greeks found Sybaris and Croton, Laconians (Spartans) found
Tarentum, all in southern Italy. Also at about this time, the Etruscans adopt the Euboean
Greek alphabet.
c. 700 BC--Etruscan city states unite in a loose confederation which begins to dominate
northern and central Italy.
c. 700-670 BC--Rhodian Greeks and Cretans found Gela, Locrian Greeks found Locri
and Epizephyrii, Greeks from Colophon found Siris, all towns in Sicily and southern
Italy.
673 BC--Death of Numa Pompilius, King of Rome. Tullius Hostilius becomes king of
Rome. During his reign, he builds the Curia Hostilia, the Senate House.
654 BC--Carthage founds colony in the Balearic Islands at Ibiza.
642 BC--Roman King Tullius Hostilius dies. King Ancus Marcius succeeds him.
c. 615 BC--King Ancus Marcius dies in Rome. Shortly afterward, Rome is occupied by
the Etruscans, possibly as the result of an invasion. From this point, for the next 100
years, Etruscan Kings will rule in Rome, beginning with the rule of Tarquinius Priscus.
600 BC--Carthage fails to prevent the Phocaean Greek colony at Massilia (Marseilles), on
the south coast of what is now France. The Greeks of Cumae (on the coast south of
Rome) found the city of Neapolis (modern Naples) on the coast to the south of Cumae.
Also in this year, Rome conquers the city of Alba Longa, marking the beginning of it’s
expansion at the expense of it’s Latin neighbors.
580 BC--First attempt by Greeks to drive Phoenicians out of Sicily. Also at this time, the
Roman Forum is established during the rule of Tarquinius Priscus.
579 BC--Death of Tarquinius Priscus, Etruscan King of Rome, who is axed in the head by
two farmers. He is succeeded by Servius Tullius.
574 BC--Tyre falls to Nebuchadnezzar. Carthage on its own more than ever.
550 BC--Carthage allies with the Etruscans against the Greeks. Also in this year, a
Carthaginian force led by Malchus defeats the Greeks in Sicily, but is vanquished in
Sardinia. Malchus is banished, marches on Carthage, but is caught and executed.
550? BC--Carthaginian colonies formed along coast of Africa, Algeria, Hadrumetum,
Leptis.
540-535 BC--Etruscan-Carthaginian coalition against Phocaeans of Corsica. Naval battle
of the Sardinian Sea is a defeat for the Greeks. As a result, the Phocaean colony in
Corsica is destroyed, the Etruscans establish control of Corsica, and Carthage takes first
steps towards conquest of Sardinia.
539 BC--Asian Phoenicia falls to Cyrus the Great of Persia.
535 BC--Death of the second Etruscan King of Rome, Servius Tullius. He is succeeded
by King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus (“Tarquin the Proud”).
c. 530 BC--Etruscan power in central Italy at its height.
524 BC--Battle of Cumae; Greeks halt Etruscan expansion to the south.
509 BC--Overthrow of the Etruscan king Tarquin the Proud and destruction of the
monarchy in Rome by Lucius Junius Brutus. Foundation of the Roman Republic; Roman
domination of Latium begins.
508 BC--The city of Rome is attacked, but not captured, by King Lars Porsenna of
Clusium. Porsenna is the head of a loose confederation of Etruscan city states and is
trying to restore Etruscan rule in Rome.
507 BC--Treaty between Carthage and Rome.
506 BC - A planned invasion of Rome by Tarquin the Proud and Lars Porsenna and an
army of Etruscans is defeated by the Latin League and Aristodemos of Cumae in a battle
at Aricia. Later that year, a Roman noble named Horatius Cocles stops another attempted
Etruscan invasion, when he bars the bridge into Rome. While he is defending the bridge,
his comrades chop it down to prevent the enemy crossing. Horatius swims, fully armored
across the Tiber to safety.
505 BC--Cleisthenes founds democracy in Athens.
c. 500 BC--Etruscan expansion in northern Italy. Celtic tribes settle in Britain.
498 BC--Hippocrates and Theron seize control in Syracuse and attempt to throw the
Phoenicians off the western part of Sicily.
496 BC--Battle of Lake Regillus between the Romans and the Latins. The divine twins,
Castor and Pollux were supposedly seen at the battle fighting with the Romans. Also in
this year, the deposed King Tarquinius Superbus dies in Cumae, where he had been
granted refuge.
495-450 BC--Wars between Rome and various Umbrian (Volsci, Aequi, Hernici,
Sabines) and Oscan (Aurunci) hill tribes. These flare up intermittently for the next half
century, until the destruction of Rome itself.
495 BC--Battle of Aricia of the Romans against the Aurunci. Also in this year, the Roman
forces capture the town of Seussa Pometia. The Romans sign a military pact with the
Hernici.
494 BC--Verginius Tricostus Caeliomontanus is appointed Dictator of Rome, and
appoints M. Valerius as his Magister Equitum (master of the horse) after a battle against
the Italian Volscians. A bloody battle occurs between the Romans and the Volscians at
Velitrae. First Secession of the Plebs in Rome; creation of the tribunes of the plebs, two
of whom are elected annually.
493 BC--A treaty known as the Foedus Cassianum is signed by Rome and the Latins in
order to protect themselves against incursions from mountain tribes such as the Aurunci,
Volsci, Aequi, and Hernici. The Roman general Gnaeus Marcius captures the Volscian
town of Corioli and is thus given, by decree of the senate, the surname Coriolanus. Also
in that year, the Volsci are defeated in a battle at Antium.
491 BC--The famous Roman general Coriolanus is exiled for threatening to raise grain
prices during a famine. He is sent to the Volsci but switches sides, and at the head of a
Volscian army, captures the Roman cities of Circeii, Satricum, Longula, Polsuca, Corioli,
Lavinium, Corbio, Vitellia, Trebium, Labici and Pedum. Just before he is about to invade
Rome, he is turned back by a plea from his mother. Later that year, the temple of Fortuna
Muliebris is built, to comemerate the memories and actions of the women who stopped
Coriolanus.
490 BC--The Athenian Greek forces under Miltiades defeat the invading Persian force
sent by King Darius of Persia at the battle of Marathon.
487 BC--The army of the Hernici (Italic hill tribe) is defeated by the Romans.
482-474 BC--Intermittent wars between Rome and the Etruscan city of Veii occur in this
period.
481 BC--Both Athens and Sparta join the Hellenic League against Persia
480 BC--Invasion of Greece by the forces of King Xerxes of Persia. The 'Spartan Last
Stand' occurs under Leonidas at Thermopylae. The Spartans are eventually defeated after
being betrayed by a traitor, Ephialtes. Later that year, the Greek forces under the general
Themistocles defeat the Persian navy under King Xerxes at the battle of Salamis.
Meanwhile, Carthage allies with Persia against the Greeks, but meets defeat in Sicily at
the Battle of Himera. Revolution in Carthage overthrows the kings of the Magonid
Dynasty and establishes the Court of 104 Magistrates. Carthaginian Republic begins.
479 BC--The battle of the Cremera occurs, when the Romans attack and defeat a Veiian
army. The battle of Platea takes place in which the Persian army in Greece is decisively
defeated.
479-450 BC--Re-buffed in Sicily, Carthage focuses on Africa, conquering most of what is
now Tunisia. Colonies in North Africa founded or strengthened. Mago's expedition
crosses the Sahara.
478 BC--The Hellenic League conquers Cyprus and Byzantium from the Persians.
477 BC--The League of Delos is formed, with Athens in the leadership position. Shortly
afterward, Sparta responds by forming the Peloponnesian League with other cities
opposed to Athens. The Delian League begins as a voluntary association of cities for the
purpose of common defense against Persia, but over time, power accrues to Athens at the
expense of the other members, and it becomes a de facto “Athenian Empire.”
474 BC--An army of Etruscans is defeated near the town of Cumae by Hiero of Syracuse.
This is the first contact of any kind with Syracuse by the Romans. Rome begins to make
common cause with the Greek colonies on the southern Italian coast against the Etruscans
of central Italy. Later that year, a peace agreement between Veii and Rome is signed. It is
a shaky peace at best.
471 BC--Second secession of the plebs in Rome. The plebeian assembly is made into a
tribal affair, in that the tribes of Rome are asked to vote to pass plebiscites.
462 BC--A tribune of the plebs, G. Terentilius Harsa, begins to agitate for the
establishment of a committee to write down the laws of Rome. Dissatisfied plebeians in
Rome begin to riot.
461 BC: Pericles promotes the ideals of democracy and peace. First Peloponnesian War
between Athenians and Spartans.
458 BC--A Roman general L. Minucius is defeated by the Aequi at Mt. Algidus, but the
army is rescued from complete annihilation by L. Quinctius Cincinnatus, who left his
plow to become dictator. He ruled for 16 days, then retired back to his farm.
456 BC--Third secession of the plebs in Rome. The plebeians of Rome are granted land
to live upon.
454 BC--Pericles of Athens has the treasury of the Delian League removed to Athens (it
had originally been held on the island of Delos). This is generally held to mark the point
at which the League of Delos became a de facto, if not de jure, Athenian Empire.
451 BC--The Code of the Twelve Tables is published in Rome. The number of the
tribunes of the plebs is raised to ten. Sparta and Athens sign the Five Year Peace ending
the First Peloponnesian War.
c. 450 BC--The first bank is founded in Athens by Antisthenes and Archestratos.
Herodotus writes the first non-theological history. Hippocrates lays the foundations of
modern Medicine. The sculptor Pheidias completes the great statue of Zeus at Olympia,
which will be accounted one of the seven wonders of the world.
450-448 BC--The War of the League of Volumnius. In 450 BC, King Volumnius of Veii
forms a league of Etruscan city-states located south of the Po River (with the exception of
Caere, which is a Roman ally) which concludes a treaty of alliance with Carthage against
Rome and the Greeks. Carthage lands an army at the mouth of the Tiber which invests
Rome from the south, while the Etruscans, lead by King Volumnius, attack Rome from
the north. Rome appeals to the Greeks of Cumae and Syracuse for aid, but the Greeks
arrive too late. The Roman army is defeated, and Rome itself is captured. Volumnius
orders the town razed to the ground, and the population is sold into slavery. Rome ceases
to exist, and the other towns of Latium are forced to accept Etruscan Kings. In 449 BC,
the combined Carthaginian and Etruscan armies place Cumae under a six month siege.
However, the combined Carthaginian and Etruscan fleets are defeated by the fleets of
Cumae and Syracuse, and the Carthaginian army is cut off from it’s source of
reinforcement and supply, forcing the abandonment of the siege. Carthage sues for peace
shortly afterward, leaving the League of Volumnius to face the Greeks alone. The war
continues in 448 BC with several inconclusive battles. Finally, toward the end of the year,
King Volumnius and the League conclude a treaty of peace with Cumae and Syracuse,
ending the war.
449 BC--The Delian League signs a peace treaty with Persia, ending the Persian Wars.
446-444 BC--The League of Volumnius lay siege to the city of Caere, an Etruscan city
which has refused to join the League and which sided with Rome and the Greeks during
the recent war. Caere holds out for two years, but finally falls to the besiegers. As
punishment for siding with the Greeks against other Etruscans, the League decrees that all
the males in the city be killed and the women and children sold into slavery. Caere is
razed to the ground.
446 BC--Sparta and Athens sign a treaty called The Thirty Year Peace. Unfortunately, it
won’t last that long.
442 BC--King Volumnius has been looking at the arrangements which Rome, prior to it’s
destruction, was making with it’s Latin allies, especially the Foedus Cassianum, and
recognizes that a similar arrangement between the Etruscan cities would have great
benefits. Volumnius meets with the leaders of the other Etruscan cities at Clusium. In a
speech to the assembled Kings, Volumnius notes that throughout Etruscan history, the
Etruscan cities have joined together in a religious league for joint worship of the common
Etruscan gods. They have also, from time to time, joined together in military alliance,
such as the recent League of Volumnius. But they have, too commonly, been disunited
when faced by external threats. He cites the recent example of Caere, and argues that the
time for such divisiveness has come to an end. Volumnius then proposes nothing less
than a formal political union of the Etruscan cities, based on the principles of the Roman
Foedus Cassianum. According to this proposal, the Etruscan cities would pledge to keep
perpetual peace among themselves, aid each other in the case of attack, prevent the other's
enemies from crossing their own territory, divide the spoils of joint campaigns equally,
and provide mechanisms for resolving disputes between the citizens of different
communities. Volumnius proposes that the legislative and executive power of this union,
to be called the Etruscan League, be invested in a Great Council, to consist of all the
kings of the various Etruscan cities, or representatives nominated by those kings. The
Council would have power to legislate only on matters which pertain to all the cities of
the League...local government would be left in the hands of the local Kings...and to
arbitrate in disputes between member cities. No measure would be passed without a
majority vote of this Council. To ensure that no member state could be coerced by the
League, the Council would be forbidden to declare war on any Etruscan city which is a
member state of the League, with two exceptions...if any member state refuses to
participate in a war declared by the League Council, or if any member state declares war
on any other member state without the approval of the League Council. In those cases
only, the Council may declare that member state an enemy, and the League will deal with
it as it did Caere. Volumnius also argues that the Latin cities formerly allied to Rome,
which since the War of Volumnius have been ruled by Etruscan Dynasties, be also
allowed to join this League, or, if they choose, remain independent of it. After much
often acrimonious debate, most of the Etruscan Kings accept Volumnius’s proposal, but
with one major amendment...any Latin cities which join the League at a later date will not
have voting rights on the Great Council, but may send non-voting delegates to participate
in debate during the decision-making process. The rulers of the cities of Volsinii,
Populonia, and Felsina all decline to join the League, but the remaining Etruscan cities
south of the Po River do join.
440-430 BC--Beginning of Samnite expansion into Campania. The Etruscan settlement
at Capua is threatened.
440-431 BC--The Umbrian hill tribes of the Aequi and the Volsci once again begin
encroaching on the fertile plain of Latium. The Latin cities appeal to the Etruscan League
for aid, which is given. The Aequi and Volsci are decisively defeated in 431 BC by a
combined Latin and Etruscan army at the Battle of the Algidus Pass. In the aftermath of
this victory, most of the Latin cities apply for membership in the Etruscan League.
Fighting with the Aequi and Volsci will continue sporadically until the end of the century,
but they will never again be a serious threat to the Etruscans or their Latin allies.
438 BC--The Parthenon is inaugurated in Athens
431 BC--Beginning of the Peloponnesian Wars in Greece.
429 BC--Plague in Athens. Pericles, the great leader of Athens, perishes. Plato born,
possibly in Athens.
425 BC--Phoenician explorer Himilco travels from Carthage to Brittany.
423 BC--The Samnites attack Capua. Capua, which is not a member of the Etruscan
League, calls on the League for assistance, which is given. The Samnites are severely
defeated and driven back into the mountains. Nevertheless the Etruscans are impressed by
Samnite fighting prowess, and they begin to bargain for an alliance with these hardy
hillmen. Capua formally joins the Etruscan League.
420 BC--The Etruscan League, in alliance with the Samnites, attacks Cumae. The Greeks
are decisively defeated and Cumae is captured and destroyed. The lands formerly held by
Cumae are given to the Samnites as a reward for their service to the League.
419 BC--The Etruscan League, in alliance with the Samnites, forces the surrender of the
Greek colony at Neapolis. All of Campania is now in the hands of the Etruscan/Samnite
alliance.
418 BC--Volsinii and Populonia join the Etruscan League.
415-413 BC--Athenian Expedition against Syracuse. Athens finds Syracusan resistance
to be more than she bargained for, and sends embassies to the Etruscan League and to
Carthage seek help. While Carthage does not respond, the Etruscan League, seeing a way
to eliminate an old enemy and rival, allies with Athens, and a large force of troops and
warships is sent. These prove decisive. Even though Syracuse receives a reinforcement
from Sparta, it is not enough to break the Athenian siege, and Syracuse falls in 413 BC.
The Athenians, with Etruscan support, decide to sell the entire population of Syracuse
into slavery, sack the city, and raze it to the ground. The Athenians and Etruscans soon
establish control over all the other Greek cities on the island, which are forced to join the
Delian League.
413-408 BC--Bolstered by the plunder from Syracuse and the resources and manpower of
Sicily, Athens goes on to defeat Sparta and it’s allies in the Peloponnesian War. Sparta
itself is destroyed in 408 BC, and the other cities of the Peloponnesian League are forced
to join the Delian League under the leadership of Athens. For the first time in history,
almost all of Greece is united under a single banner...that of Athens.
412 BC--The Samnites in Campania break their alliance with the Etruscans and attack
Capua again in an effort to take all of Campania for themselves. The Etruscan League
decisively defeats them...so much so that the Samnites will be crippled for some time to
come. The Samnites sign a new treaty of alliance with the Etruscan League.
410 BC--King Darius II of Persia allies with Sparta against Athens. Although the
infusion of Persian gold helps Sparta, it is not enough, and Sparta still goes down to
defeat. Athens will not forget this treachery. Also at this time, Phoenicians in Spain join
with the native Celtiberians to secede from Carthage, denying the Carthaginian state
important silver and copper revenues. The overland tin trade cut off, and as a result,
Carthage begins looking for a sea route to acquire tin. Approximate time of Himilco's
expeditions in the Atlantic and Hanno's expeditions to Morocco and Senegal. As a result
of Himilco’s voyages, Carthage soon begins importing tin directly from Britain.
407-398 BC--The War of Revenge on Persia: At the urging of Athens, and citing Persia’s
recent treachery during the Peloponnesian War, the Delian League declares war on Persia.
The League declares the war to be a holy war of revenge, and common hatred of Persia
among the Greeks encourages all the polei to contribute troops and ships for the
expedition. At this same time, a rebellion has broken out in Egypt, lead by a native
Egyptian prince named Amonirdisu, and it is decided to land in Egypt to support this
rebellion. From there, the Greek army can advance into the Levant, and thence into the
heart of the Persian Empire.
It takes over a year to prepare the expedition, but the Greek force finally sets sail under
the command of the famous general Alcibiades (with a capable young man named
Xenophon as second-in-command) in 406 BC. The Greeks lands at Naukratis, in the
Nile Delta, in late 406 BC, link up with the Egyptians, and begin to battle the Persian
garrisons. The Persians put up surprisingly strong resistance, and Egypt is not freed until
early 404 BC. Amonirdisu is crowned Pharaoh of Egypt, and makes a formal alliance
with the Delian League.
In late 404 BC, King Darius II of Persia dies, and is succeeded by Artaxerxes II.
Artaxerxes offers to make amends for his father’s treachery against Athens by paying
10,000 talents of gold, if the Greeks will return home and cease interfering in Persia’s
internal affairs. Alcibiades takes this offer to the Assembly in Athens. There are many
in the Assembly who argue that honour has been satisfied, and that the expedition should
be withdrawn...especially since word has now come of Carthaginian aggression against
Delian League cities in Sicily. Acibiades, however, argues that “10,000 talents is a mere
trifle to the Persian King. Let us have our revenge, and have ALL that he owns!” His
argument is persuasive, and the Assembly votes to reject the Persian offer.
In 403 BC, with Alcibiades again in command, the combined Greek and Egyptian armies
move north into Palestine, while the Greek and Egyptian fleets land a marine
expeditionary force at Tyre. This marks the beginning of a campaign which will see the
Greek forces brush aside one Persian army after another as they advance deeper into the
Persian Empire. As they go they liberate the subject peoples of the empire, many of them
rallying to the Greek standard. Finally, in 400 BC, a decisive battle is fought near the
ruins of Nineveh in northern Mesopotamia. King Artaxerxes II himself is killed in battle,
and his army is shattered by the steady Greek phalanx. The Persian Empire effectively
collapses as uprisings against the local Persian satraps flare up throughout the empire.
The Greek army marches into Susa and then to Persepolis by the end of 399 BC. The
huge treasury of the Achaemenid Kings is captured at Susa, and the Greeks plunder the
opulent palaces of Persepolis before setting them on fire in retaliation for the burning of
Athens during the Persian Wars. By the end of 398 BC, the last remaining members of
the Achaemenid royal house are captured and executed. The Persian Empire is no more.
406-400 BC--The First Sicilian War. Hannibal Mago, grandson of Hamilcar, attempts to
conquer Sicily for Carthage, but in 405 BC he and hundreds of troops die in epidemic
outside fortified town of Acragas. He is replaced by his relative Himilco. As the Delian
League is currently fully engaged in it’s War of Revenge on Persia, it has no troops to
send for Sicily’s defense, and Athens appeals to the Etruscan League for aid. But the
Etruscan League, which only intervened in the Peloponnesian War in order to eliminate
the threat posed by Syracuse (which was a dangerous military rival and trade competitor),
has no desire to see Greek power in Sicily maintained. The League, therefore, while it
was willing to work with Athens earlier in order to eliminate the threat posed by
Syracuse, refuses to intervene in the current crisis. The Carthaginians reduce the Greek
towns of Sicily by siege, one by one, over the course of the next six years, and by the end
of 400 BC, Carthage is in control of the entire island.
404 BC--King Darius II of Persia dies, and is succeeded by Artaxerxes II.
402 BC--The Etruscan League renews it’s alliance with Carthage.
c. 400 BC--Celtic tribes begin to cross the Alps and assail the Etruscan cities located
north of the Po River. The cities north of the Po River are not formally members of the
Etruscan League, and they quickly fall to the onslaught of these fierce tribesmen.
Incursions south of the Po are beaten back by the military forces of the League, however.
399 AD--Pharoah Amonirdisu of Egypt dies. With him dies the Twenty-Eighth Dynasty.
The throne of Egypt is taken over by a prince from a royal house in the city of Mendes,
who reigns as Pharaoh Nefaarud I and ushers in the Twenty-Ninth Dynasty of Egypt.
Nefaarud and his successors will resume Egypt’s traditional interventionist policies in
Palestine. Nefaarud will also reorganize the Egyptian army on the Greek model. The
core of the army will be a Hoplite phalanx, supported by a force of foot archers and both
heavy and light cavalry.
398 AD onward--At the conclusion of the War of Revenge, Alcibiades and the other
Greek leaders realize that they cannot hope to hold onto the huge area formerly ruled by
Persia. The Greek army takes it’s plunder and returns home, leaving a power vacuum
which is quickly filled by resurgent native dynasties in Lydia, Babylonia and Egypt.
While the new dynasties in the major regional states are consolidating their rule, the
“small fry” also enjoy a brief interlude of independence. The city states of Phoenicia
re-assert their independence. And, in the tiny little state of Yehud, King Zadok...first
king of the House of David to rule over the Jews in almost 200 years...rules from
Jerusalem. Meanwhile, the Iranian plateau dissolves into chaos as the powerful peoples of
the region splinter into several competing states...Media, Persia, Parthia and Bactria. The
Elamites have also re-asserted their independence, and maintain a small state centered
around Susa. None of these states has a clear military advantage over the others, and the
Iranian plateau will be beset by continuous warfare between these states for the remainder
of this century.
397 BC--Alcibiades returns to Athens. In the Assembly he is accused of treason for
having brought the Greek army home from Persia rather than trying to hold on to the
conquered territories. Supporters of Alcibiades riot against those who would seek to
banish him, and in the violence, Alcibiades himself is killed (stabbed from behind during
a melee in the Agora). Xenophon, who had served as second-in-command under
Alcibiades, escapes with his life, but is banished by the Assembly.
397 onward--Lacking a restraining influence, the Assembly of Athens begins to follow
more and more tyrannical policies toward other Delian League states. The Persian
Plunder is claimed by Athens as it’s just restitution for the burning of Athens in 480 BC,
and used to further beautify the city and build up an even more powerful military, which
is used primarily to keep the other member states of the Delian League in line.
395-390 BC--The Second Sicilian War. Athens launches an expedition to Sicily to
recover the Greek cities which were captured by Carthage while the mainland Greeks.
Carthage calls for aid from the Etruscan League, with which it has a treaty of alliance.
The Etruscans land an army to cooperate with the Carthaginians against the Greeks in
Sicily, and the combined Etruscan and Carthaginian fleets fight the Athenian fleet to a
standstill off the coast of the island. The Greek army suffers a major defeat in at Gela in
391 BC, and is forced to surrender the following year. This is a major disaster for Athens
from which it will not fully recover. Other Greek cities, which have been chafing under
Athenian domination, begin plotting rebellion.
395 BC--Pharaoh Nefaarud I of Egypt invades Palestine. This is more of a plundering
expedition than anything else, but while he is there, Nefaarud forces King Zadok of
Yehud into tributary status.
394 BC--In Lydia, a new dynasty has assumed the throne last held by Croesus before the
Persian conquest. The new king, who has taken the royal name of Gyges II, soon begins
to make aggressive moves toward other Anatolian states. By the end of his reign, he will
have unified most of Anatolia under his rule, with the exception of the Greek cities along
the coast, which he wisely leaves alone for fear of incurring the wrath of Athens.
393 BC--Pharaoh Nefaarud I of Egypt dies, and is succeeded by Psammuthes. However,
Psammuthes dies later that same year, and is succeeded by Hakor.
390 BC--In Babylonia, a new dynasty has taken power, founded by a Chaldean chieftain
who takes the royal name of Nebuchadnezzar III.
390-385 BC--Pharaoh Hakor of Egypt leads yearly expeditions north into Palestine and
Syria. He brings the Phoenician and Aramaean city states of Lebanon and Syria under
Egyptian domination, for a time, at least.
c. 398 BC--Since the end of the War of Revenge, Iran has splintered into several
competing states...Media, Persia, Parthia and Bactria. The Elamites have also re-asserted
their independence, and maintain a small state centered around Susa. None of these states
has a clear military advantage over the others, and the Iranian plateau is beset by
continuous warfare between these states. This situation will continue for some time.
388-381 BC--King Zadok of Yehud makes war on the surrounding peoples in Palestine
(Ammonites, Moabites, Samaritans, Edomites, Philistines). The Jewish army, which
Zadok has organized on the Greek model like that of his Egyptian overlords, outclasses
anything fielded by his neighbors, and by 381 BC, all of Palestine is subject to Zadok’s
rule. His overlord, the Pharaoh, is pleased, as this brings all of Palestine within the
Egyptian sphere of influence as well.
389-385 BC--Nebuchadnezzar III of Babylon moves into northern Mesopotamia,
conquering the old lands of Assyria. He also makes forays across the Euphrates into
Syria, but is defeated and turned back by the Egyptians.
386 BC--The Gallic tribes of the Senones and the Boii cross the Po River and attack the
Etruscan city of Felsina, which is not a member of the Etruscan League. Felsina appeals
to the League for aid, which is granted. The Etruscan League army meets the Gauls at the
River Allia, and defeats them. The Gauls are driven back north of the Po River.
However, this will not be the last incursion of the Gauls into Etruscan League
territory...fighting with the Gauls will consume the resources of the Etruscan League for
much of the remainder of the century. Felsina joins the Etruscan League.
382-370 BC--Period of warfare between Egypt and Babylon. Beginning in 382 BC, King
Nebuchadnezzar III of Babylon begins making yearly campaigns in Syria, where he tries
to push out the Egyptians. Although there is much bloody fighting, neither side gains a
clear advantage. Finally, in 370 BC, a treaty is signed recognizing the border between
Egypt and Babylon at the Euphrates. The forces of Kings Zadok and Achim of Yehud
participate in this struggle on the side of the Egyptians.
381-371 BC--The Theban War. In the wake of the Athenian disaster in Sicily, several
Greek states, foremost among which are Thebes and Corinth, form an anti-Athenian
alliance and declare their secession from the Delian League. The Thebans are very much
the ringleaders, and the war comes to be named after them. It turns out to be a long and
brutal struggle which will last for ten years, but Thebes benefits from the brilliant
leadership of Epaminondas, and in the end, the power of Athens is broken, and the Delian
League is dissolved. Greece is no longer united, and will soon attract the notice of an
up-and-coming people to the north...the Macedonians.
381 BC--King Zadok of Yehud dies, and is succeeded by his son, Achim.
380 BC--Pharaoh Hakor of Egypt dies in battle with the Babylonians outside of
Damascus. He is succeeded by his son, Nefaarud II. Nefaruud II is, however, quickly
overthrown by one of his generals, who takes the throne as Pharaoh Nekhtnebef I. Thus
begins the Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt. Also in this year, Socrates dies of natural causes
in Athens.
375 BC--Plato writes THE REPUBLIC. King Gyges II of Lydia dies, and is succeeded by
Alyattes III.
373 BC--The Temple of Delphi is destroyed in an earthquake.
367 BC--Aristotle enters the Academy of Plato.
365 BC--Death of King Nebuchadnezzar III of Babylon. He is succeeded by
Marduk-apal-iddina III.
362 BC--Death of Pharaoh Nekhtnebef I of Egypt. He is succeeded by Djedhor.
360 BC--Death of Pharaoh Djedhor of Egypt. He is succeeded by Nahkthoreb. Death of
King Alyattes III of Lydia. He is succeeded by Myrsus II.
359 BC--Phillip II Temenid comes to the throne of Macedonia. Phillip had, as a youth,
been held hostage in Thebes and had observed the strategy of the great general
Epaminondas. Phillip is himself a militarily gifted man, and when he assumes the throne,
he makes radical changes to the organization and equipment of the Macedonian army. He
introduces the Macedonian Phalanx, lightly armored compared to Greek Hoplites but
armed with 15’ long pikes which are nearly twice as long as a Greek infantry spear.
Phillip trains his army to fight using combined-arms tactics where the Phalanx is used to
pin the enemy in place while light troops probe for a weak point in the enemy line. Once
a weak point is found, the cavalry then makes a decisive charge. This new army will be
devastating to all who encounter it.
358 BC--Death of King Achim of Yehud. He is succeeded by Eliud. King Eliud
continues the pro-Egyptian policies of his predecessors, and rules happily as an Egyptian
pawn throughout his reign.
350-332 BC--Period of conflict between the Etruscan League and the Samnites over
control of Campania. Neither side is able to decisively defeat the other, and the situation
ends up with an agreement recognizing the status quo ante bellum in 332 BC.
344 BC--Philip II of Macedonia conquers Thessaly, Illyria, Epirus.
342 BC--Aristotle tutors Alexander III Temenid of Macedonia, son and heir of King
Phillip II.
340 BC--Athens and Thebes put aside their differences to face the threat posed by Phillip
II.
338 BC--Philip II defeats Athens and Thebes at Chaeronea. Phillip forces most of the
mainland Greek cities into the League of Corinth, under his leadership. Death of King
Myrsus II of Lydia. He is succeeded by Croesus II. Croesus II will unwisely abandon the
policies of his predecessors and begin interfering with the Greek cities of the Anatolian
coast.
336 BC: Philip II of Macedonia is assassinated and is succeeded by his son Alexander III.
Death of King Marduk-apal-iddina II of Babylon. He is succeeded by Bel-Ibni II.
335-333 BC--Revolts flare up in several Greek cities after the death of Phillip II. The
new King Alexander puts these down mercilessly.
333 BC--Death of King Bel-Ibni II of Babylon. He is succeeded by Marduk-bel-Ikbi.
Also in this year, King Alexander III of Macedon receives an entreaty for aid from the
Greeks of the Ionian coast, which are under attack by the forces of the Lydian King,
Croesus II. He is not able to immediately come to their aid, as he is still putting down
rebellions at home.
333-331 BC--The Greek city of Taras, in southern Italy, is attacked by the Lucanians, the
Bruttii and the Samnites (native Italian peoples of the area) and calls for aid from King
Alexander Molossus of Epirus. Alexander Molossus is the uncle and strong ally of King
Alexander III of Macedonia, and is a skilled general in his own right. Alexander wins
several victories, but in the end is defeated and killed by the Lucanians (it doesn’t help his
cause that the Greeks of Taras, having decided that Alexander was planning to set himself
up as their ruler, switched sides and joined the Lucanians!). He is succeeded as King of
Epirus by Aeacides.
332-331BC--Macedonian Conquest of Lydia. In 332 BC, King Alexander III of Macedon
finally has ended all resistance to his rule at home, and he takes an army across the
Hellespont to the succor of the Greek cities of Anatolia, which are being oppressed by
King Croesus II of Lydia. Despite valiant resistance by the Lydians, Alexander succeeds
in conquering Lydia and its possessions in Anatolia within a little more than a year. King
Croesus is captured and executed, ending the Lydian dynasty. The Greek cities of
Anatolia are not formally annexed by Macedonia, but are forced to join the League of
Corinth.
331 BC--Death of Pharaoh Nahkthoreb of Egypt. He is succeeded by Nekhtnebef II.
c. 330 BC onward--The Etruscan League begins to establish relations with the Marsi,
Paeligni, Marrucini and Vestini (Oscan peoples related to the Samnites who live east of
the Apennine Mountains on the shores of the Adriatic Sea). By the end of the century,
these tribes will be allies of the Etruscan League.
330 BC--In the wake of the conquest of Lydia by King Alexander III of Macedonia,
Pharaoh Nekhtnebef II of Egypt and King Marduk-bel-Ikbi of Babylon both send envoys
to King Alexander, protesting their friendship. Alexander agrees to non-aggression
treaties with both of these powers, as he has another target in mind...Carthage.
329-318 BC--The War of Sicilian Liberation. In 329 BC, King Alexander III of
Macedonia calls an assembly of the leaders of the member cities of the League of
Corinth. At the meeting, he states his intention to embark on an expedition to liberate the
Greeks of Sicily from the “tyranny” of the Carthaginians. This project is greeted with
much enthusiasm by the representatives at the assembly, many of whom secretly hope
that Alexander’s army will meet the fate of that of Athens when it attempted a similar
project some years earlier. All the cities agree to provide funding for the project, and
several (but not most) also offer troops and ships. Alexander takes a year to prepare his
expedition, and sets sail in early 328 BC. He lands near the ruins of Syracuse in April
328, and his forces are soon engaged in combat with Carthaginian forces on the island.
Carthage calls on it’s ally, the Etruscan League, for assistance. But the Etruscans have
continuing problems with the Gauls to their north, and they have heard tales of
Alexander’s conquest of Lydia and his brutal suppression of the rebel Greek cities. And
besides...the Etruscans have intervened twice on Carthage’s behalf in Sicily, and have
received precious little in return. Indeed, Carthaginian control of Sicily has meant simply
that one major trade rival has been replaced by another. So the Etruscans decide to sit this
one out. Carthage has the better fleet, and the Carthaginian navy soon cuts Alexander’s
access to supplies and reinforcements from Macedonia, but the Greek cities of Sicily are
very much behind him, and his army is able to operate even so. Alexander is a brilliant
tactician, and his army inflicts defeat after defeat on the Carthaginian forces. Carthage is,
however, able to resupply and reinforce it’s troops on the island, so the war continues,
and drags on for no less than ten years. Finally, in 318 BC, Alexander’s army is defeated
outside the Carthaginian town of Lilybaeum by a new and brilliant Carthaginian general
named Hamilcar Hannonid. The Carthaginians suffer nearly as much as the Macedonians
do in this battle, and in the aftermath, Hamilcar offers a truce. Alexander meets with
Hamilcar, and a treaty is signed, ending the War. Sicily is divided along the Halcyus
River, with everything to the west belonging to Carthage and everything east going to
Macedon.
323 BC--Death of King Eliud of Yehud. He is succeeded by Eleazar. Eleazar is not
content to be an Egyptian catspaw, and begins plotting rebellion. He makes an alliance
with King Marduk-bel-Ikbi of Babylon.
320-317 BC--Pharaoh Nekhtnebef II of Egypt learns of the schemes of King Eleazar of
Yehud. He leads the Egyptian army northward to punish the upstart king. The Jewish
army is defeated in the Valley of Jezreel, and Nekhtnebef lays siege to Jerusalem. The
city falls after a three-year siege in 317 BC. The Egyptians sack the city, but do not
destroy it. Nekhtnebef decides to remove the House of David from the throne of Yehud,
and places an Egyptian governor in Jerusalem instead. King Eleazar is executed, his body
quartered, and the parts hung at the four main gates of the city.
318-308 BC--Civil War in Macedonia. Alexander III of Macedon returns home with the
survivors of his army from Sicily. Upon his return, he finds that in the ten years he has
been under blockade in Sicily, affairs at home have not gone well. A group of
Macedonian noblemen has conspired with King Aeacides of Epirus to depose him,
replacing him with his half-witted half-brother, Philip Arrhidaeus, who they can easily
control. These noblemen arrange to have Alexander assassinated shortly after his arrival
in Macedonia. But this simply opens the door to outright civil war, as generals loyal to
Alexander lead the veteran army returning from Sicily against the conspirators. The
Greek cities of the League of Corinth take the opportunity to rebel against Macedonian
control, and the entire Macedonian realm is soon the scene of bitter fighting. Fighting
goes on for ten years, and in the end, the Macedonian Empire falls apart. Antigonus
“One-Eye” ends up in control in Macedonia itself; Ptolemy and Seleucus end up with
realms in Anatolia; and Antipater sets himself up as Tyrant of Sicily. The Greek cities
regain their independence, and form the Achaean League for mutual defense against
Macedonia. Aeacides of Epirus is deposed, and Epirus is ruled by Antigonus of
Macedonia for several years.
317 BC onward--The Jews, having tasted freedom once again, or something
approximating freedom anyway, do not quietly accept the removal of their royal house
and the imposition of an Egyptian governor. Over the next few decades, rebellion will
simmer in the province. Egyptian officials soon find it safer not to leave their protected
palaces, and there is a steady attrition of Egyptian garrison troops from hit and run raids.
Of course, the Egyptians respond with brutal atrocities, which only serves to fan the
flames of rebellion more. But the Jews are simply too weak to expel the Egyptians, and
their resistance is in vain...at least for now.
310 BC onward--Antipater orders the rebuilding of Syracuse, recognizing it’s superb
location for trading and it’s strategic military value.
c. 310 BC onward--The Etruscan League reorganizes and re-equips its military in
response to the demands made by the ongoing campaigns against the Gauls in northern
Italy. The traditional hoplite phalanx is replaced with a more flexible formation,
organized in three lines instead of one. It has been found that a single line can sometimes
be broken by the fierce Gallic charge, but if there is a second line behind it, the situation,
more often than not, can be retrieved. The third line is a reserve force, to be deployed
wherever the line is in most danger of being breached. It has also been found that,
instead of equipping the heavy infantry with a single thrusting spear, it is better to give
them a couple of javelins in addition, as the javelins can help to break up the Gallic
charge prior to impact. The new formation is supported by light troops (archers, slingers,
and javelin men) and cavalry, and provides a flexible strike force.
304 BC--The Marsi, Paeligni, Marrucini and Vestini apply for membership in the
Etruscan League. Although they are not granted membership, treaties of alliance and joint
commerce are signed between the League and these peoples.
301 BC--Death of King Marduk-bel-Ikbi of Babylon. He is succeeded by Nabu-apal-usur
II.
