Quaerere Caelis

[sts-200]

Something must be done​

-This is something, therefore we must do it

The origins of one of the most famous projects in of the 20th Century are, like so much in history, an odd series of accidents, flavoured with national pride, economics and the quest for ever better weapons.

Despite a heavy financial disadvantage, in the 1950s the British government was determined to go head-to-head with the USA in nuclear, aircraft and missile development. Having been cut off from US atomic research after the war, it was hoped that the 1954 agreement to split the development of short and long-ranged missiles would lead to renewed technical co-operation between the two great powers of the free world.

A combination of spy scandals, technical failures, attempts at imperial grandstanding and ever increasing American self-confidence meant that it was not to be. Although kept from the public, the failure of two British H-bomb tests in 1957 left American leaders certain that there was no point in co-operating with any lesser power in this field. A long and inglorious history of leaks and defections would seem to guarantee that any “atomic secrets” shared with Britain would be sent to Moscow in the time it took some disaffected Ministry official to read them.

Britain’s fleet of V-Force aircraft looked impressive and could certainly have “delivered the goods” if the worst came. But, in April 1957, the day of the manned aircraft was declared to be over. The Defence White Paper recommended the cancellation of all new manned aircraft projects. Missiles were the way of the future.

On the 4th of October, this controversial view appeared to be vindicated as the Soviet Union made the world a much smaller place. A trip that might once have taken 80 days was made by Sputnik every 90 minutes.

America responded while Britain dithered. In December, the newly formed National Astronautics Agency (NASA) launched America’s “Explorer” satellite and made the first scientific measurements in space, which showed that the Earth was surrounded by “belts” of charged particles.

The USSR responded with Sputnik 2, a probe twenty times heavier than the first (and over a hundred times heavier than the US effort). On a mission that provoked complaints from the Kennel Club to the Soviet Ambassador in London, the doomed mutt "Laika" showed that life could survive in the cold, weightless vacuum of space. Where dogs could lead, man might follow. The Space Race had begun.

“Technical problems, Treasury interference and a steady series of cancellations and cuts” is a good description of Britain’s defence program in 1958. The “Blue Streak” IRBM programme staggered on, while everyone wished for more, or better, or just different systems.

The Air Force wanted “Blue Steel” missiles for its bombers, the Army wanted tactical rockets and the Royal Navy kept talking about an American system called “Polaris” (despite the fact that America hadn’t yet built it and refused to sell it anyway).

Despite a successful British H-bomb test early in the year, President Eisenhower tells Prime Minister Macmillan that there will be no nuclear special relationship. Nonetheless, in expectation of future favours, Macmillan agrees to make the UK into an American missile base by hosting Thor missiles, with the sweetener that these will be operated by the RAF.

In true bureaucratic fashion, it was time to form a committee. Like Britain’s H-bomb, the first one was a dud. The Powell committee of January 1959 said only what everyone knew. The cruise missile “Blue Steel” was running late and would be obsolete before deployment. The report suggested replacing it with an equally dubious concept; an air-launched Black Knight rocket fitted with a warhead. The name of this pig-in-a-poke concept said it all, the “Black Knight Stand off Weapon” or Black SOW.

A range of long term options were suggested, from Blue Streak and various supersonic bombers to the fanciful idea of orbital platforms. The report “does not seek to come to any firm conclusion”.

Doing nothing might have seemed attractive, but it meant becoming a second rate power with an obsolete deterrent. Resources were limited and time was not on Britain’s side. The US and USSR were developing bombs, aircraft and rockets so fast that Britain could not hope to keep up. The special relationship still showed no sign of maturing into a nuclear family.

Developing weapon after weapon to match every move the “other superpowers” made was not an option. Britain could only afford to build one system which must guarantee an effective deterrent for years to come. The question was; what should that one system be?

 

[sts-200]

Hello All,
A (hopefully) fun story I have been working on for some time. I was going to write it all up as series of "articles", but unfortunately don't have the time, so it will be part timeline, part article.

It probably suffers from under-editing, so if you find it a bit slow to start with come back later, it gets better.

Enjoy.

 

[mlp]

Solid British space programme? Hopefully?
It obviously has entails great significance. An air-strong Britain may even compete with the US in NATO, etc. Who knows, they may even take the road out like the French.

 

[sts-200]

Quaerere Caelis - 2

I don't plan to give away too many spoilers, but yes this thread will be about space. So far, Britain doesn't have access to US nuclear technology so will have to keep going its own way, or give up having an effective deterrent.
A timeline-style update for now:

Apr-59
The Treasury insists that funds for Blue Streak development be minimised or held up while deterrent projects are under review. Never missing a chance to cut expenditures, it is pointed out that there is a precedent for putting the project on hold - in 1956 and 1957 funds were held up while designs were being finalised. At the insistence of the PM, funding is continued, although other ministries continue to have to chase for any payments to be made.

In a letter to the Admiralty, Air, Supply and Treasury ministries, the PM states that delaying or cancelling Blue Streak or Blue Steel without a clear replacement plan would damage the international perception of the capability of the UK's deterrent and the resolve of the country to maintain that deterrent. The cancellation of significant aviation projects in 1958 makes it unpalatable to subject the industry to further cuts at this stage. Nevertheless, if better or cheaper options can be found, these should be vigorously pursued. It is suggested that a committee be formed to draft a white paper on future delivery systems.

Britain is passed details of the proposed "Skybolt" stand off missile by the US. Planned for introduction in 1963, it is a missile with a range of 1000mi with a "megaton class" warhead. No details of the warhead are available, but it is clear to British engineers that the US is developing very lightweight weapons, as the design calls for a re-entry vehicle of around 1,000lbs mass. Even if "megaton class" only means around 600Kt, it is clear the US has progressed a long way. 1Mt designs from AWRE intended for Blue Streak weigh 4,200lbs including the re-entry vehicle.

The obscurely named "Strategy Scientific Policy Committee" is formed under the chairmanship of Sir Solly Zuckerman. It will report with a White Paper in the summer.

May-59
Determined to present a wide ranging report, with analysis from military, economic and scientific perspectives, Zuckermann forms 3 working groups - Defence, Economy and Effects. Defence group will study the systems and technology needed to ensure an effective deterrent. Economics group will study the costs of possible systems, development times and resources required. Effects group will evaluate the vulnerability of a deterrent force to pre-emption.


Jun-59
BK4 The first operational Black Knight rocket flight from the Woomera Test Range in central Australia. An experimental re-entry vehicle is boosted to 499miles altitude. Telemetry from blunt-nose vehicle is received until impact

BK5 Black Knight flight with bi-conic re-entry vehicle. Attempt at higher speed entry. Missile body hit the RV after separation. All telemetry lost at this point.

Scientists at the RAE and GPO start to study the technical issues involved in relaying telephone or TV signals using a spacecraft.

Jul-59
Saunders Roe propose a 58" diameter Black Knight vehicle for future re-entry tests, and as a potential upper stage for a Blue Streak based launcher. This is the largest diameter that can be accommodated without facility changes at the High Down test station.

A team from the University of Manchester start to consider the design of a general purpose computer, one with the capability to guide a space probe to the Moon. Purely a theoretical exercise, they are attempting to determine how computers can be made smaller and respond to inputs as they occur, rather than always following the same sequence. This, and a similar project in the US are the roots of what we now know as embedded computing - the ability for a machine to accept sensor inputs and act accordingly in real time.

Rolls Royce acquire the design of a cancelled US rocket engine, the E-1, which was to have been built by NAA Rocketdyne. This project had been cancelled at the end of 1958 when NASA decided to use an existing engine design for its new Saturn launcher.

Aug-59
A Ministry of Aviation report on Blue Streak suggests that responsibility for the electrical systems should be re-assigned to Ferranti as DeHavillands are still overstretched.

First twin engine firing of a Blue Streak test vehicle at Spadeadam. The successful firing lasts 3.5sec. Future tests will be much longer.

Aug-59 Overseas
NASA launches a prototype Mercury capsule on an Atlas booster. The booster fails 68s into the flight, but the boilerplate capsule is thrown free and recovered.

Sep-59
Discussions are started with the Australian government regarding a joint deterrent force. It is still hoped that UK-US nuclear cooperation will be resumed.

Sep-59 Overseas
An Atlas launch pad at Vandenburg AFB is declared operational – the first ICBM site in the US. The USAF launches its first operational ICBM test later that day, achieving a 4,900mi range.


I thought a brief glossary (adapted for this story) might help:
Black Knight
A research rocket used for high-altitude test of re-entry vehicles from Woomera. Early versions were 36” diameter, later versions 58”. Later adapted to other uses.

Blue Steel
A rocket powered cruise missile, planned to be dropped from a bomber. Would have carried a Megaton-class warhead. Currently running several years late.

Blue Streak
A ground launched medium range ballistic missile (IRBM). Designed to carry a 1Mt warhead over at least 1,500miles. Used two Rolls-Royce RZ-2 rocket engines. Later adapted to other uses.

Green Granite
A family of experimental British H-bomb designs, later adapted for various uses. Developed versions formed the basis of later Yellow Sun gravity bombs and the Blue Streak warhead.

Atlas
America’s first ICBM. Capable of carrying a 1.4Mt warhead over at least 6,500miles.

Thor
American IRBM. 60 missiles were based in the UK and operated by RAF personnel, although firing commands could only come from the Americans.

 

[sts-200]

Quaerere Caelis - 3

Learn to Love The Bomb​

The Report of the Strategic Scientific Policy Committee

“The Soviets must be convinced that the British deterrent is capable of inflicting such a level of destruction on the lands and people of the Soviet Union that it would never be worth the risk of attempting to strike the UK first.“

The SSPC produced a wide-ranging report that would shape Britain’s nuclear and missile programmes for years to come. It was led by the highly respected and well-connected government scientist Sir Solly Zuckerman. Its conclusions therefore benefitted from being those of a leading Whitehall mandarin as well as enjoying both scientific and political support.

At the time it was regarded as a fair and complete analysis of the deterrent problem. Exotic solutions such as nuclear-powered aircraft and deploying weapons in high Earth orbit were seriously studied. The space based solution was actually praised as “the members of the committee studying this option can foresee no system that could offer any effective defence against attack from space”. It was, however, likely to be eye-wateringly expensive.

Zuckerman is believed to have included a submarine based option as a favour to his old friend Lord Mountbatten (then First Sea Lord). The sub-based option was completely unrealistic without access to American “Polaris” technology. British warheads were too large and solid rocket technology was not close to producing the motors needed.

It came down to a debate over whether a high-speed, low altitude bomber or a ballistic missile would be the best long-term solution. The report concluded that bombers were too vulnerable to “first strike” attacks and could still be destroyed in the air. By 1970, it was thought possible that simple ballistic missiles (like Blue Streak) could also be shot down by the anti-missile systems that the Soviets and Americans were known to be working on.

In order to guarantee an effective deterrent until 1980, something altogether more advanced was needed. Ideas such as decoys, depressed trajectories, radar jamming, nuclear pulses and steerable re-entry vehicles all surfaced for the first time. All these concepts would take time to develop and would require a very powerful missile to carry them as well as the heavier British-designed warheads.

On the cost side, it was a coin toss; manned bombers were cheaper to build, but costly to operate. An advanced ballistic missile would be expensive to develop, but they wouldn’t cost much once they were sitting in a silo.

The idea of basing nuclear weapons away from the islands of the UK was very attractive. In a nuclear exchange in which the Soviets targeted bomber bases, missile silos or submarine docks, most of Britain would be rendered uninhabitable. Putting the deterrent “out of sight” might encourage some of those on the left and the anti-nuclear campaigners to put the issue “out of mind”.

It also had strategic advantages. If Britain’s weapons were all far away; maybe on islands in the Pacific, the Soviets would have to use vast numbers of large, long range missiles or heavy bombers to pre-empt them. If such weapons were being used against otherwise worthless islands, they could not be used against targets in Europe or America. In other words, the USSR would be forced to build and target hundreds of valuable missiles at “the middle of nowhere”.

Blue Streak was therefore only an interim solution. It should still be deployed, but efforts should quickly switch towards the “new system”.

Today, the whole report can be seen as biased in favour of pre-determined conclusions. After the 1957 Defence White Paper, aircraft were out of favour and the Old Boy Network of politicians, scientists and industrialists all quietly conspired to push for a missile.

For instance, at one point the survivability of bombers is evaluated against 3Mt Soviet warheads, while missile silos assume only 1Mt strikes. The assumption of a 1 mile CEP for Soviet missiles is also quite convenient - it makes little difference to the survivability of aircraft, but is of great significance when calculating the number of warheads needed to disable a silo-based missile force. The report concluded that the Soviets would need a minimum of 338 missiles to disable 95% of an “advanced missile force”. A more realistic CEP assumption of 3000' would have halved the number of missiles needed.

However, at the time, the ongoing refusal of the US to allow access to advanced warhead designs and missile technology meant that Britain had to go it alone. The deterrent options presented reflect that reality and the fact that the UK could afford to develop only one system (at the time, America had four long range systems in development as well as a half-dozen smaller ones).

Four weeks after initial draft publication, the full SSPC report was circulated (classified as Top Secret, UK eyes only), including additional pages of “summary and recommendations”, some of which do not appear in the original report. The summary includes:

Near term deterrent options
The V-Force in its existing form will be vulnerable to Soviet defences by 1962. Investigations should be made into the possibility of flying at low level. This could extend the effective life of the force into the late 1960s.

Blue Steel will not be ready until 1962. Flying at only Mach 2.5 it will be vulnerable to Russian missiles by 1964 at the latest. The project should be cancelled.

The only UK-developed system that would undoubtedly provide a credible deterrent until 1970 is Blue Streak.

Long term options
Blue Streak is likely to be effective to 1970, but is not capable of carrying the re-entry systems and decoys needed to be effective after that date.

Low altitude bombers are marginally credible. They are somewhat vulnerable to pre-emption and also to conventional defences, such as fighters. Development and deployment costs of around £500M are favourable.

Long range missiles represent the best option for carrying the deterrent through to 1980. While slightly more costly than the bomber force to develop and deploy, they would be cheaper to operate. With a sufficiently large missile, a wide variety of ABM countermeasures could be developed and added as needed. The possibility of putting several bombs on a single missile shows promise in both cost-effectiveness and in enhancing penetration capability.

Space based deterrent systems are effectively invulnerable to pre-emption and ABM defences. The cost of such a system cannot be predicted. The figure of £1100M quoted in the report papers should be regarded as an absolute minimum. Running costs are likely to be high.

Attached to the copies of the report for the PM, Chancellor and Minister of Defence is a handwritten note from Zuckerman:
"We must not waste our limited resources on systems that will be obsolete within a few years. We should plan two steps ahead and this means a large, long range ballistic missile. An orbital system is not practical."

…….
Who knows, maybe Britain should have gone to America for a missile system in 1959?
Perhaps in some strange alternate reality she did just that, and never set off the chain of events that led to the effort To Seek the Heavens.

 

[sts-200]

Missiles are the future

Oct-59
Black Knight 6 Repeat of BK5 using a tape to record data. RV hit by stage after separation, accidentally deploying the parachute on ascent. Some RV tape data was recovered.


Nov-59
Cabinet Defence committee is briefed on the SSPC report. They are presented with the full range of options and final recommendations. The initial consensus is in line with the 1957 Defence White paper, that manned aircraft should not be developed further. Attempts to acquire a system from the US would involve difficult negotiation, the success of which cannot be guaranteed.

Treasury officials start to delay payments in respect of Blue Steel development. They note that the system is not living up to its promise and it has been suggested the entire project should be cancelled. Contracts for a longer range follow-on version have already been suspended. The Air Ministry requests that the project continue uninterrupted until a final decision is made.

Due to ongoing delays at DeHavillands, Ferranti are assigned responsibility for most of the Blue Streak electrical system.


Dec-59
The first full duration test firing of a Blue Streak missile is completed successfully at Spadeadam.

The SSPC Report is discussed in full Cabinet session.
For the first time, Blue Streak receives little criticism (although is by no means enthusiastically supported).
The MoD is still receiving advice from the Admiralty on the inherent superiority of a submarine based system, despite there being no obvious means of procuring one.
The Air Force is clearly content with Blue Streak, with their V-Bombers retained in reserve or for tactical use.
Blue Steel is discussed and despite some progress in recent months, the system appears to be unsuited to future requirements. A report is requested on the costs that would be incurred in cancelling the project.
Longer term options are the subject of greater debate. It is argued that if Blue Streak is deployed it will be effective until 1970 and that any decision on an “advanced missile” can be delayed until at least 1962/3. However, it is also argued that the long development time associated with any advanced system suggests that an early start is made, at least in preparatory research.

Dec-59 Overseas
NASA Mercury capsule MJ-3 carries monkey "Sam" up to 135miles altitude on a 22 minute flight.

Jan-60
The RAAF offers the loan of a Hercules transport aircraft to move Blue Streak missiles and associated equipment to the test site at Woomera. The offer is immediately accepted, as this will considerably reduce the length of time needed to test the vehicle, cutting the transit time from Britain to Australia from two months to nine days.
It is also agreed that an exchange of RAAF personnel will take place to help them prepare for a future deployment to Australia by Valiant bombers.

The Minister of Aviation asks how quickly an interim version of the Blue Streak missile could be deployed. Reduced accuracy and surface or semi-hardened shelters would be accepted.


Feb-60
The MoS reports that Blue Steel will be ready for test flights later this year and could be put into service by 1962. There is little initial reaction to the report. It is marginally more favourable than had been feared, even though the useful life of the missile might only be 2 years.

Sperry tests a prototype gyro platform for Blue Streak. The missile’s high burnout acceleration is still causing problems, but this is the first successful test of an inertial reference system that could actually guide the rocket. Earlier versions would not have worked at all.
Initial tests of the rocket will use radio-inertial guidance, a totally different system which does not require the high accuracy gyros being developed for this all-inertial system.

Anglo-Australian discussions take place concerning the possibility of deploying British nuclear weapons on Australian territory. In principle there are few objections, although the Australian government restates that it is not interested in entering into a co-operative development program. There will be continued Australian support for the Woomera range and the Maralinga test site.
Basing British missile forces on the Australian mainland is unlikely to be acceptable (if the UK doesn’t want the sites at home, why should Australians make themselves into a major target?)
Basing on outlying islands is regarded as being more acceptable. There is some interest in a limited Australian deterrent – which could consist of V-bombers purchased from the UK.

The Cabinet Defence Committee meets to discuss deterrent systems.
Discussions with the Americans are leading nowhere. The US continues to refuse to supply any details of nuclear technology, guidance systems or their newer missile projects. It is noted there has even been some reluctance to discuss existing missile programmes, on which co-operation had previously been close, with links between firms such as DeHavillands and Convair. It therefore seems unlikely that any US-built weapons system could be acquired within a reasonable time frame, except by allowing complete US control.
Blue Steel is discussed, but does not have much support left. The system was supposed to be operational in 1960, but has still not flown a single test. The committee is advised that the missile will be obsolete before it could be deployed.
Reports of Blue Streak development are more encouraging and the situation continues to improve. The first test flight is scheduled for the middle of the year. Rolls Royce has made excellent progress with the RZ-2 engines and promises that production versions will be uprated to 150,000lbs thrust each (although this version will not be available for the early tests).
The committee concludes that Blue Steel should not be pursued further and that the resources should be put into deploying Blue Streak.

Feb-60 Overseas
MA-2. NASA launches a second Mercury test on an Atlas rocket. The capsule is boosted to near orbital velocity and is recovered after a 28 minute flight.


Mar-60
A prototype missile silo is demonstrated in a ravine near Woomera. Tests with steam jets and small rocket engines inside show the potential for firing the engines of a missile while still underground.
Gas flow issues and concrete erosion are seen, but these are not thought to be insuperable problems.

The first complete Blue Streak missile leaves the UK for Woomera on a RAAF transport plane.

The RAE publishes the first of a series of studies into the potential uses for satellites. This report looks at communications, notes the 24 hour "stationary" orbit but concludes that lower orbits of 2, 6 or 12 hours would be more easily reached with the small rockets that are likely to be available. The possibility of a "record-playback" satellite in low Earth orbit for communications is studied, with the conclusion that this might be more reliable and secure, if more costly, than existing short-wave radio systems.

DeHavilland reply to the Air Ministry on the availability of Blue Streak. If the initial flight tests show no major problems, the missile could be available in early 1962 with radio guidance and an accuracy within the design CEP of 3000'. An inertial system might take a few months longer and possibly reduce accuracy. 6000-7000' CEP is the best that can be achieved with the current design.
Surface pads with blast enclosures are all that could be available in 1962/3. Full scale silo tests will be happening in the summer, meaning that silos could not be operational before 1964.


Apr-60
A follow on Black Knight programme is proposed. A long range missile system will need improved RV designs and continuing the research programme would provide information to trade with the US, or as a basis for co-operative research. Saunders-Roe have already proposed a high performance version of Black Knight with a 54" or 58" body.

The Blue Steel programme is officially cancelled. Many of the guidance and electrical engineers are ultimately transferred to Blue Streak.

Cabinet Committees have further discussions on the long term recommendations of the SSPC report.
Most members are broadly in agreement with the proposal for an improved ballistic missile.
Some dissention comes from Defence, primarily backed by the Navy, who support further investigation of space based options (it is felt they are simply being awkward, having lost the submarine debate). No one seriously considers the concept of nuclear armed Royal Navy "space cruisers" to be anything other than a joke.
The RAF seem content to operate the missile force, while retaining existing bombers as a tactical or reserve force. The Defence Research Projects Committee (DRPC) is in favour of a ballistic missile.
Treasury backing is marginal as the initial costs would be significant. Long term costs appear to be lower and would remove the need for the continuing expense of developing an endless series of aircraft, all of which rapidly become obsolete. However, the view of the Treasury is still that most of the development could be deferred for several years.

The concept of basing the deterrent away from the UK, on remote Colonies, Overseas Territories, or with the agreement of "secure" Commonwealth nations is regarded favourably, although this would still leave tactical weapons and US forces based in the UK.
Ministers agree to start basic research into engines, re-entry vehicles and guidance systems to support an "improved Blue Streak".


May-60
Rolls Royce starts production of the improved RZ-2 engines that will power all operational Blue Streak missiles. Several early test variants are already integrated into Blue Streak vehicles 1 to 5. The version to be used on vehicle 6 and on is more powerful and has a limited throttling capability.

A group of leading academics publishes a letter supporting the need for a scientific space programme. Astronomers, Physicists and Geographers all sign. The letter calls for Britain to develop and launch a series of small scientific satellites, either alone or as a joint effort with other nations.

BK8 First two stage Black Knight to test higher speed entries. Second stage does not separate, likely due to an electronics failure. Mission failed.


Jun-60
Saunders Roe is contracted to produce an improved Black Knight vehicle, which should use as many existing components and facilities as is practical. The contract calls for development and construction of 8 vehicles together with launch support from Woomera.

BK9 Two stage Black Knight with Blue Streak type RV. RV broke up at low altitude but 90% of the planned data was received before the failure.

The Blue Streak F-1 missile is erected on its launch pad at Woomera. Pad tests, ground firings and checkout will take several months before a launch is attempted.

The MoA issues a request for proposals for a long range missile. Responses will aid in the development of an Operation Requirement, which could lead to a development contract. A series of limited study contracts are awarded to several firms that have expressed an interest.


Jul-60
Ferranti are instructed to proceed with the development of a simplified, lightweight guidance system for Blue Streak. This will not be a purely inertial system as was originally planned. Instead, it will use lower accuracy gyros and accelerometers and will rely on being updated by radio command at intervals throughout the flight. Their design incorporates a lot of new technology, including the use of transistors instead of valves. It will be able to cope with the 12G burnout acceleration of Blue Streak. The new concept eliminates the need to shut down one engine while in flight, something that is likely to disturb flight stability [in light of the later stage sloshing and stability issues this was a wise decision].


BK7 Single stage Black Knight with high drag RV, similar to American designs now in service. Used as a calibration test. Excellent quality data returned.


RAE report titled "Observations by Satellites" highlights the potential for mapmaking, weather forecasting and ocean observations using spacecraft. The report keeps clear of "spy satellites", an area in which it is known the US has a very significant program. Instead, it focuses on Radar and Infra-Red detection of enemy activity and the accurate mapping of large areas of land.
A system to "sweep" the oceans using a Radar equipped satellite appears possible, providing global monitoring of ship movements.
Satellites returning regular images would be invaluable in weather forecasting. An on board system to record and transmit TV pictures would be needed, as film could not be returned in sufficient quantity. Unlike an earlier RAE report on communications, this recommends a definite course of action; to develop a satellite platform capable of carrying a camera or radar sensor.
This would need to fit on a Blue Streak derived vehicle, be able to operate in a stable attitude (to provide a steady view for the camera or Radar) and be capable of storing and returning data to a ground station.


Aug-60
The GPO is supportive of the idea of developing a communications satellite platform.
Advances in radio transmission systems have made small relay systems practical - small enough to fit on a satellite.
Current and projected transatlantic telephone cables have a capacity of only 48 circuits and costs are very high. Links with Europe are cheaper, but the capacity issue is still there. A radio repeater in orbit - ideally a synchronous orbit over the equator - would potentially allow for hundreds of circuits. Development of the radio systems would not be unduly expensive and a strong financial case is made for a satellite system. It is noted that the case is stronger if the basic satellite design is shared with other projects.

DeHavilland respond to the RFP for long range missiles.
The firm suggests a "Super Blue Streak" vehicle, effectively doubled in size with a second stage based on the RZ-2 engine. The proposal suggests such a vehicle could be developed within 4 years from go-ahead, and be capable of carrying a Megaton class warhead over intercontinental ranges.

Saro (Saunders-Roe) completes their initial production designs for the 58" diameter improved Black Knight vehicle. This will be equipped with 8 of the new Gamma 301 engines and a transistorised control system. A solid fuelled second stage is to be fitted for higher speed or altitude tests. Production of the vehicles will start later this year, with the first launch planned in late 1961.


Sep-60
Saro respond to the RFP on long range missiles.
They propose several different two stage missiles with advanced HTP/Kerosene fuelled engines, ranging from a vehicle to carry a single warhead over 4,000miles to an intercontinental missile with 3 warheads, each ejected at a pre-set time to spread their impact. While not a true “MIRV” system as we now know it, this is the first known definite proposal for an ICBM with multiple warheads, each intended to hit different targets.

The firm also revises a proposal from 1959, this time with the assistance of DeHavillands. They offer a design for a satellite launch vehicle which they call “Blue Star”. This consists of a Blue Streak booster with Saro's improved Black Knight as a second stage. A solid motor is suggested for deep space uses, or a liquid fuelled "Satellite Upper Stage" which would form both the third stage of the rocket and the chassis for a variety of payloads. Options such as restartable engines and attitude control thrusters are mentioned.

The third and final report on satellite applications is published by the RAE. Somewhat prosaically titled "Lighthouses in the Sky", it details the potential for navigation and emergency relay satellites. Although primarily for ships, it may also be practical to fit equipment into large aircraft. The report notes the US has a system in development called "Transit" which will consist of a large number of satellites in low Earth orbits.
An active system (in which the ship also transmits a signal to the spacecraft) could be more accurate and easier to build, but would potentially give away the vehicles' position - unlikely to be acceptable for the military.
A passive system (in which the satellites transmit and the ship only receives) is thought more likely to be useful but requires precise positioning of the spacecraft in known orbits.
If several satellites were arranged in a geostationary orbit, they could transmit a timed pulse or rotating beam of known frequency (very similar to the navigation beacons now used by aircraft).
These signals could be received and range and bearing information determined. A navigator could work out his position using 3 such signals.
A computer system is suggested to automatically determine the position in real time, although it would require a significant amount of signal conversion and data processing equipment which is currently too large and heavy to be portable.
The report recommends that laboratory testing of radio and signal processing systems be done to verify the ideas outlined. Techniques for maintaining and controlling the position of a spacecraft should also be researched.

The government announces the sites for the first Blue Streak launchers. 4 pads will be built above ground at existing RAF bases in East Anglia. These will provide initial operational capability and will then be used for training and test firing.
28 "Hardened Shelters" will be built at RAF bases in the East of England. 6 pairs of shelters will also be built around naval facilities in the Orkneys and near existing test ranges in Scotland. This comprises all 40 permanent launch sites of phase 1 (plus the 4 interim/training pads). Phase 2 will be announced next year and is expected to raise the total number of launchers to 60.
It is intended that this represents a clear commitment to the UK deterrent, large enough to be credible (both to the Soviets and the US), while staying below the full cost of deploying 120-200 missiles in silos. This force of 60 missiles should be capable of attacking all of the UK's primary targets with at least one missile, leaving secondary and follow-up strikes to the RAF's V-Force.

 

[sts-200]

To the Edge of Space

F-1 flies​

The first Blue Streak test launches from Woomera at 10:16 local time on the 5th October, carrying nothing more valuable than a dummy 2300kg load. Engineers working on the missile say they will consider it a success even if the flight only lasts a few seconds. It does far better than that, but is certainly not a perfect flight.
The rocket starts to oscillate at 130s into the flight, and this pitching becomes divergent at 139s. Fuel sloshes about inside the tanks of the wildly bucking missile, leading both engines to shut down due to fuel interruption at 141s. The missile itself remains intact and coasts, still spinning, to an altitude of 365km. It breaks up on re-entry at T+12m15s, 30km up and 1511km from the launch site. Data is received from on-board until shortly after peak altitude is achieved.
In an era when the first flights of missiles usually ended before they had begun, with an explosion on the launch pad, the flight of Blue Streak was considered a stunning success.

Oct-60
Avro respond to the Request for Proposals on long range missiles. The firm has limited experience in missile design, so its proposal relies more on theory. It consists of a three stage solid fuelled booster to deliver a one ton warhead over a distance of 6,500miles. The upper stage would include a liquid fuelled engine to fine tune the trajectory. Avro look at the history of solid rockets in the UK and conclude that a motor of sufficient size could be developed within 5 years, with the missile itself available by 1969.
The missile would be physically smaller than a liquid fuelled equivalent and likely more robust, with near-instant launch available at any time.

"Precision guidance thrusters" are added to the design for the fully operational Blue Streak. These will provide the final precise impulse needed to target the re-entry vehicle effectively and are the final piece of the puzzle required to achieve the desired 3000' CEP. The mechanical and electrical designs for Blue Streak are then frozen for production. Guidance and electronic changes will continue throughout the development program (and in fact throughout the missile’s service life).

Nov-60 Overseas
The Polaris A-1 weapons system is declared operational on board a USN nuclear submarine.

Nov-60
Vickers respond to the RFP on long range missiles. In many ways, their proposal is the most advanced as it is free of the inhibitions of other firms with their close involvement in Blue Streak.
A single stage booster with jetassonable engine pods would launch a “warhead carrier”, which could re-enter when commanded or after a pre-programmed flight.
On board jammers and decoys would be used to reduce the chance of interception on longer flights.
This "one and a half" stage design has the advantage that all engines are started before liftoff and there are no shocks caused by staging events. A higher performance engine than the RZ-2 is needed.
A series of initial studies in collaboration with Bristol Siddeley suggest a Methane-Oxygen or Hydrazine-Oxygen based rocket motor.

Nov-60 Overseas
An unmanned NASA "Mercury" spacecraft orbits the Earth and splashes down after a 2 hour flight.

Dec-60
The Ministry of Aviation approves plans for an upper stage test vehicle for Blue Streak. The operational rationale for this is to test high speed re-entry heads and more advanced inertial guidance systems for the proposed long range missile. Internal memos to the RAE, RAF and Navy suggest that this system could also be used to test any satellite technologies they may be interested in. To minimise costs and timescales, this upper stage will be a modified 58" Black Knight first stage, with four long nozzle engines instead of the usual eight short nozzle versions.

Cabinet meets to be updated on the status of deterrent programme and to discuss the long range missile concept.
The RAF Vulcan and Valiant bombers are being upgraded to B.2 status, including improved engines and jamming systems. Upgrades should be complete by late 1961 and should help the force remain effective until 1963/4.
The Blue Streak system is currently on schedule, with 3 test flights planned for 1961. The first flight was largely successful and the issues with the control system have been identified.
It is anticipated the new Ferranti guidance system will be ready in time for the production missile tests (starting with the 6th flight) in mid-1962.
The RAF are planning to deploy the missile on surface pads in 1963, with the first hardened shelters being available in 1964 with a "Mark 2" inertially guided missile.
AWRE have completed the designs for the Blue Streak warhead. Tests by Black Knight have validated the re-entry vehicle design, which is well ahead of US designs (a fact the US has acknowledged). The follow on Black Knight program will be a joint UK-US effort and includes the use of US ground systems and telemetry equipment.

A long range missile program is regarded as more important now than a year ago.
Long range concepts fall into two categories:
-A small missile, possibly modified from Blue Streak with additional stages. This could carry a single warhead over ranges of at least 6,500miles.
-A new design of missile to propel several warheads which are then released to hit different targets.

The Defence and Supply related ministers all argue for the more advanced system, as this is the conclusion of the SSPC and it has since become clear that that the USSR and US are engaging in ever more ambitious programmes which the UK cannot match "step for step". Skipping to the next stage in missile development is the only way the UK can expect to retain an effective deterrent through the 1970s.
Treasury opinion is not that this approach is wrong, but that new developments should start only after Blue Streak is operational. Funds should not be committed to a second round of expensive missile development at this point in time.
Although the cabinet does not reach consensus over the timing, the general opinion is similar to that of previous meetings; basic research into the advanced technologies needed for a long range missile should be continued. The MoA should issue an Operational Requirement for such a missile and investigate if British industry can realistically deliver.
Co-operation with the US should be encouraged at any level the Americans are prepared to accept. The ongoing Black Knight program has shown that the UK can deliver designs and techniques which are superior to those of the US in certain specialist areas.

Notes sent to senior ministers suggest that the technical co-operation with the US as discussed recently should be one of several means to work towards re-starting nuclear co-operation.
“A strong guided missile program will help show the Americans that we are prepared to go it alone if needs be. The basic research is not expensive and may deliver systems or ideas to trade.”
Informal discussions between Zuckerman and Defence staff in the US have shown that the US is not interested in collaboration in the satellite field. They regard the UK commitment as being far too small to make any difference.

With the missile systems already under development, it is suggested that a small satellite program be put in place: "If it could be done for the cost of a few Blue Streak rounds (say £4M for the launchers and £3M for a few small satellites), it would be the clearest signal we could send that the UK has the know-how to be a first rate player."
An anonymous handwritten note scribbled in the margin of a copy in the MoA archives reads "and help keep the boffins quiet for a bit".


Jan-61
The Ministry of Aviation issues OR.369 for a Long Range Ballistic Missile.
At this stage it merely specifies a range of over 6,000 miles with a "high yield" warhead. All four respondents to the previous RFP are to be consulted and further design studies will occur before a specification is issued.

As is to be expected, the Treasury is opposed to any increase in spending on space research when there is already an expensive missile programme in place.
The question "Where is the financial gain from space research?" is asked by the Chancellor on the advice of his officials. In the past, this type of question has usually served to silence or neutralise the proponents of such "expensive adventures". It is noted that the US spent the equivalent of £200M on their civil space programme in 1960 and this number is expected to rise to over £300M this year, in addition to a vast military programme from which the civil side can benefit. UK civil space research (including astronomy) stands at £12M, all of which is allocated for this year. Even a small satellite program of £5M per annum would require funding to be taken from University or MoA sources.

The MoA writes to the Department for Education, leading Universities, the Meteorological Office and the GPO to ask for proposals for experimental or research satellites. It is emphasised that projects should be kept small and be capable of being delivered within 2-3 years, while providing "worthwhile new research". A separate request to the Air Ministry and Admiralty is made, however this suggests directly that military communications and navigation systems should be studied.

Early contacts with the new US administration have met with the usual pleasantries, however it seems that US policy regarding the sharing of nuclear and missile technology will remain unaltered.

Jan-61 Overseas
NASA launches MA-5, an unmanned Mercury capsule. It completes 3 orbits before splashdown in the Pacific.

Feb-61
The Met Office indicates that a TV equipped satellite would be a considerable benefit to its operations, but notes that the technology to achieve this is some way off and that in the short term such a programme could not be a priority.
The GPO sees the potential for communications satellites, however the "low orbits" achievable with Blue Streak based vehicles are not of interest (an interesting turn-around from its position of a year ago, when low orbits were considered to be the best place to start). An experimental relay system would be of great developmental value, however the GPO will not fund a complete satellite to support it. If this system could be carried on an existing satellite, funding might be found to supply the payload.
There is considerable enthusiasm from the Universities, however the funding position is not encouraging, with the sum of £50,000 "for instrument development" being mentioned. Clearly this is far off the £2-3M it is thought will be needed to develop a satellite.
The replies from the Air Ministry and Admiralty reflect the rivalries between the services. The Air Ministry can see the potential for satellite communications around the globe and with aircraft in flight. The Admiralty, still sulking from the perceived "loss" to the Air Force over Blue Streak, expresses no interest in satellite development.

From the various replies, it seems there may be sufficient enthusiasm to support an experimental satellite to test communications systems and carry a few experiments (Charged particle detectors and UV telescopes have been mentioned by several researchers).
There may also be some medium-term demand for high Earth orbit applications. Papers on this subject by Saunders-Roe and DeHavillands from 1959 and 1960 suggest a third stage based on a small HTP/Kerosene engine. Saro are asked to update their most recent proposal.

F-2
Second Blue Streak test with a revised feedback system. Carries only a light telemetry payload in an attempt to maximise range. The rocket engines burn to a pre-planned cutoff at 156s. The missile coasts to 936km altitude at 714s and is tracked for 1016s. Impact is over the sea at an estimated range of 2,465 miles from the launch site. Carried a dummy nosecone, no separation was planned. Some oscillation is seen in the last seconds of flight, with the rocket observed to be in a slow spin after burnout.

BK13
Single stage vehicle with conical entry head. Attempt to film re-entry shocks failed due to a timing fault. The re-entry head is recovered and the ablation of the Durestos heatshield is measured. Fuel use telemetry is received from the booster.


Mar-61
DeHavillands analysis of the F-2 flight anomalies lead to some changes for the next flight, currently scheduled for June.
“Slosh baffles” will be fitted to future Blue Streak vehicles to help minimise the oscillation of the stage. Engine control feedback will be further altered to reduce transients during engine shutdown.
Telemetry was interrupted by atmospheric or rocket plume effects on F-2, so radio antennas on the vehicle will be repositioned allowing the gain to be increased.

Exploratory discussions with the US are leading nowhere. At this stage the official US line is that policy is still being formulated and further details will be forthcoming at a later date. Private discussions at a less formal level reveal that the new US administration does not believe that small nuclear deterrents are credible and that they should not be encouraged, while a concept for a NATO nuclear force is under development.

 

[CrazyGeorge]

This is great

 

[sts-200]

This is great

Many thanks. Keep coming back, plenty more to come.

 

[sts-200]

The Clock has Started

On Monday March 27 1961, shouting with joy that “The clock has started”, NASA astronaut Alan Shepard blasts off aboard Mercury-Atlas 6. His capsule “Freedom 7” reaches orbit after six minutes and safely separates from the top of the rocket.

In orbit, he reports “everything is A-OK”. Circling the Earth at over 17,000mph, he reaches the night side of the planet in just 22 minutes. Through an ingenious periscope-like device in the side of his ship, he spots hundreds of tiny pinpricks of light on the surface of the Earth, before sighting what is undoubtedly a city [Perth in Australia] a few minutes later. Crossing the Pacific in just under half an hour, he sees the first sunrise ever viewed from space, describing it as “Beautiful; the Earth is turning from black to silver to blue as I watch. I can see the coast, from Baja up to … that must be San Francisco. The land looks brown and the sea is brilliant blue.”

Back in sunlight, his ship is surrounded by thousands of bright flashes of light. Unable to identify the cause (and unsure if he is even really seeing them), controllers instruct him to switch his ship back to “fly by wire” automatic mode and focus on his instruments rather than the outside scope. Within a few minutes it is clear that he is not hallucinating or experiencing some odd visual effect and the flight is allowed to proceed for another orbit. Another look through the scope leaves only a mystery; the flashes can no longer be seen.

Shepard splashes down in the Atlantic south of Bermuda after a 3h 21m flight. He has flown over 52,000 miles, completed 2 orbits of the Earth, survived three hours of weightlessness and re-entry forces of over 9G. He demonstrated that man can function in space, and was able to control his ship, including making changes of attitude under both manual and automatic control.

The day after he lands, he is welcomed to lunch at the White House by President Kennedy, where he is presented with his “astronaut wings”. Shepard is greeted with ticker tape parades in both New York and Chicago before leaving on a world tour, which includes a visit to London of the 11th of April.

Two weeks later, the Soviet Union replies. Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin completes one orbit aboard his spacecraft Vostok-1, landing 1h 42m after liftoff. In the heavily controlled Soviet press, there have been no accurate reports of Shepard’s flight and Vostok-1 is reported as a glorious triumph, stating only that Gagarin is “first into space” (of course, he is the first Russian into space, but that word has been edited out).

Back in the free world, Industrialist and TV magnate Sir Robert Renwick says live on the BBC "Tonight" program that "unless Britain puts up her own satellites and spacecraft, she will become a truly third rate power".
The comment is both criticised and applauded, and several newspapers take up a "Put Britain in Space" campaign. It doesn't last long, as people soon move on to other matters, however, for the first time in Britain there has been public demand for space research.

As far as the American public is concerned, Soviet flights and British speeches are irrelevant. The humiliation of Sputnik has been erased. Headlines around the world congratulate the US and marvel at the technical advances made over the last 3 1/2 years.

The New York Times headline of 28th March says it all:
"America Wins the Space Race"

 

[Dathi THorfinnsson]

How does the Atlas rocket do so very much better iTTL? I don't see an explanation for that.

Apparently the early Atlases were highly unreliable, and it took some time and effort to man-rate them.

I take it you've dropped Mercury Redstone entirely?

 

[sts-200]

How does the Atlas rocket do so very much better iTTL? I don't see an explanation for that.

Apparently the early Atlases were highly unreliable, and it took some time and effort to man-rate them.

I take it you've dropped Mercury Redstone entirely?

Yes, early Atlases were not very reliable, but by '61 things were improving. 11 of 37 failed in '61, 12 of 46 in '62 (so not that much difference between this a Glenn's flight).
Mercury-Atlas was a rather special rocket (they weren't just ordinary production missiles), so could be more thoroughly monitored and checked out. In the story, NASA was formed a year earlier than in reality, so has had a bit more time to shake the bugs out. As you noted, there is no Mercury-Redstone program - although a monkey makes it up on a Mercury-Jupiter (they were planned, but never flown).

 

[sts-200]

BLACK ANVIL

By the middle of 1961, it is clear that there is little prospect of forming a “nuclear special relationship” with the Americans. Despite all the history, personal links and rationale, there are too many in the new administration who want the US to try to retain an absolute monopoly over the control of nuclear weapons. The only lead to have come out of the US is that “we are working on the concept of an international deterrent force”. Less formal discussions at the highest level indicate that this is unlikely to be more than a NATO-wide extension of Project Emily, a programme in which British crews operate US owned missiles.

Other areas of co-operation, such as the intelligence sharing agreements, are operating smoothly. In this arena, Britain has first class assets to trade on equal or advantageous terms with the US. It is widely felt that future technical cooperation should be based on this model.

In short, Britain must have something to trade in the technical sphere. On this basis, the advanced re-entry vehicle programmes (the new Black Knight and eventual Blue Streak based tests) are of considerable value. Other advanced concepts should be carried through, at least to an experimental stage. The Americans might be interested in real designs and technical data, they will not be interested in “paper studies”.

The near-term prospects for the independent deterrent are very good. AWRE have completed a deployable weapon based on the "Granite" type designs. These will enter service this year with the V-Force and will form the basis for the Blue Streak warhead. Prototype weapons are available in the event that nuclear testing is resumed, although British policy is not to conduct any nuclear tests unless the USA or USSR does so first.

At a Defence Committee meeting in May, it is concluded that it is essential to start research into an advanced ballistic missile. The existence of such a programme will show that the UK is determined to maintain a credible, independent deterrent and might also provide technology to trade with the US in the future.

The potential costs of such a system are discussed. Figures depend on the scope of the project, however it is clear from several studies that a long range missile will be cheaper than any other credible system. The nonsense and bickering that surrounded air-based or (laughable) space-based deterrents is now largely in the past.

Rapid advances in anti-missile technology suggest that single warhead systems could be vulnerable by the end of the decade. Multi-warhead concepts devised by the RAE and several British firms could ensure that an anti-ballistic missile system would never be sufficiently effective to neutralise the threat of long range missiles.

One early concept was simply to build an "improved Blue Streak", however technical and scientific advice is that the missile will never be powerful enough to accommodate the sophisticated decoys and guidance needed to defeat an ABM system. Rather than try to match every US or Soviet development piecemeal, there should be just one highly advanced system, capable of defeating any practical defence system and flexible enough to be improved to meet evolving threats through to 1980.

Despite some reservations from the Chancellor, cabinet unanimously agrees to authorise development of a weapons system to meet these requirements.

After years of studies and months of detailed planning, on the 5th June, the Ministry of Aviation issues specification WS/61/01026 calling for a long range ballistic missile. With the need to go two steps ahead of the US and USSR, the specification includes the requirements for:
- "Unlimited range" - the ability to put a nuclear payload into orbit and re-enter automatically.
- Multiple re-entry vehicles, each capable of carrying a megaton class warhead and of being targeted independently (detailed RV and Warhead specifications will be issued after the completion of Black Knight Mk2 tests).
- CEP of <2500' after ballistic flight. CEP of 1 mile is acceptable after an orbital flight.
- Provision for both decoys and jamming systems.
- On board guidance and control (no ground commands required after liftoff).
- Capable of being held in launch condition for at least 7 days, with launch within 2 minutes, or being readied from standby condition within 1 hour.
- Capable of being placed in an underground or hardened shelter (specification to be issued separately).

In a period of reorganisation within the defence ministries, the system is one of the last to be assigned a Rainbow Code: BLACK ANVIL

The Top Secret specification is received with surprise, not to say shock, by the firms who will have to bid for it and build it. Along with the technical challenges, it represents a new way of doing business. For the British aerospace industry, Black Anvil will be the only game in town. It will not be a single-place contract in the fashion of most previous defence projects. Several large firms will be used to supply major systems, with the work distributed between them. This approach forms one part of a rationalisation of Britain’s defence industry, in which it is felt there are too many small firms that are unlikely to survive in the long term.

However, the first definite action to be taken is not directly related to building of missiles or bombs. Black Anvil is so advanced that it will be a two-stage project. Although the theoretical principals are now understood, the technology needed to build the system will have to be developed before the system itself can be built.

At the request of the DRPC, the MoA issues a series of technology development contracts to help prepare the systems needed. These contracts include restartable rocket engines, miniaturised stable platforms, star and Earth-facing navigation sensors, computer development and research into the space environment. Some of these will be purely ground based research projects, but components such as engines and sensors will need to be tested under realistic conditions.

The first of these is a grant to a team based at Manchester University. They will develop and test miniature computer systems and programs designed to control a “space probe” (there is no specific mention of missiles at this stage). Partly theoretical and partly hardware development, the grant allows for the development of existing work and of several new concepts being studied at the Computing Lab.

 

[sts-200]

Proposals and Possibilities

May-61
BK14 Two stage Black Knight vehicle, carrying a conical re-entry head and cosmic ray detector. Second stage failed to fire leading to data recording systems not being activated. No data is returned. Mission failed.

In a speech to Congress, President Kennedy calls on his country to build on its technical and scientific advances and specifically hails "the promise of nuclear power".
He calls for a massively expanded nuclear power programme, capable of delivering "vast amounts of clean energy, at a cost every American can afford".
[This speech is widely conflated with the expression "energy too cheap to meter" - which Kennedy did not say]


Jun-61
Rolls-Royce test fire an uncooled experimental thrust chamber at Spadeadam. A low-priority project which they have worked on since 1959, the chamber is purely for research purposes, rather than a practical engine. Based on a cancelled American design, it is the largest rocket fired in the UK, producing 402,000lbs of thrust for just over 1.2s

F-3
Blue Streak test from Woomera. The vehicle carries new anti-slosh baffles, a prototype separation system and a boilerplate RV. Missile achieved full burn duration of 157s. Test separation is successful and the missile body is tracked to 1,134km altitude (the boilerplate payload carries no instruments).
Contact lost at 1,148s at 742km altitude when the missile drops below the horizon. Estimated range 2,061mi. Minor booster oscillations are still measured, but are well within acceptable limits.

BK17 Black Knight with low drag RV experiment. 2nd Stage did not fire until re-entry due to component failure. RV recovered, but tape recorder ran out before entry.
Some results are obtained from the Durestos erosion experiment.


Jul-61 Overseas
MA-7. NASA manned flight. Astronaut John Glenn completes 6 orbits of the Earth aboard his Mercury spacecraft “Friendship 7”. He splashes down safely after a 9h 8m flight.

Jul-61
The newly formed British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) expand on the earlier Vickers missile proposal. The separate engine pods are gone and the design is now a true "stage and a half" rocket, with a central sustainer and an outer ring of six engines which will be jettisoned in flight. The Bristol-Siddeley BS.802 rocket engines would use Methane fuel to achieve the required performance. A hybrid geodetic-pressure stabilised structure is proposed to minimise weight of the propellant tanks. An RV dispenser stage will be mounted on top of the tanks, equipped with small engines for fine-tuning each RV’s trajectory. Guidance, computers and star trackers are to be built into the dispenser. Each RV will be ejected by a pressure cartridge and spin-stabilised.
The proposal has been extensively studied in the 6 months since the RFP, and is now backed by two of the country's leading aviation firms, BAC and Bristol Siddeley.


Aug-61
Avro are awarded a contract to develop an experimental orbital vehicle which is to be capable of manoeuvring in space. Versions of this vehicle will also be used as a carrier for tests of guidance systems, sensors and telemetry equipment for the planned WS/61/01026 (Black Anvil).
The vehicle will be placed into orbit by a two-stage Blue Streak/Black Knight rocket, which is already under development for high speed entry tests.

To help "disguise the project in the open", the Avro contract is made public under the name "Satellite Upper Stage". It will be used as the basis for a plasma physics and communications research satellite. A launch vehicle consisting of a Blue Streak, an Advanced Black Knight and the SUS will be called "Blue Star". The announcement of this and the payload "Ariel" (a charged particle detector experiment) is greeted enthusiastically by the press as the start of Britain's Space Programme.

Blue Streak production missiles will be available for testing before the end of the year. To save time and reduce costs, it is proposed that the F-5 prototype test is cancelled in favour of moving straight to tests of these production missiles with their uprated engines, larger fuel load, improved guidance electronics and terminal guidance thrusters.
Some query the purpose of firing F-4, as this is also a prototype missile, however it is felt that launch teams and range facilities are best kept busy until F-6 is ready.

Aug-61 Overseas
MA-8. NASA orbital flight, a near-repeat of MA-7, with 6 orbits completed in 9h 16m.

Vostok-2. Soviet cosmonaut Gherman Titov completes a 1d 3hr flight, making 18 orbits; more than all of the three US astronauts who have flown to date.


Sep-61
DeHavilland and Saro submit their proposal for WS/61/01206. As the only firm currently in the ballistic missile business, DeHavillands were expecting something closer to their proposal for a long range version of Blue Streak (a missile more in keeping with US developments such as "Titan"). At the suggestion of the Ministry, the firm has worked with Saunders Roe to provide a joint proposal to meet the specification. Their missile is a hybrid of the two firm’s original proposals. It would use a new, large Oxygen/Kerosene engine (to be developed by Rolls-Royce) to power the first stage. The second stage engines are based on the RZ-2, modified for high-altitude flight. An upper stage will use "storable propellants", which are still under study, although an N2O4/Hydrazine blend is favoured. This upper stage will complete orbital injection and serve as the RV carrier until just before re-entry.

Avro engineers are dissatisfied with the performance of the Gamma 301 engine proposed for their new Satellite Upper Stage (SUS) and ask Bristol Siddeley to study the use of Hydrazine based fuels in place of Kerosene. They believe this to be the quickest and cheapest way to improve the performance enough to allow a useful payload to be manoeuvred in space.

F-4
Blue Streak test from Woomera. Missile kept at lower altitude to help checkout the tracking system for later flights. Peak altitude of 297km, estimated range 1,456mi. A deliberate sharp steering correction was made near the end of the flight to test the missile’s stability and the effectiveness of the anti-slosh baffles. Dummy nosecone, no separation system carried.


With the successful test of F-4, the F-5 flight is formally cancelled to allow testing on the production missiles to be speeded up.

Without warning, the USSR resumes nuclear testing. The following day the Americans announce that they will continue with their own series of tests.

Despite some objections to their use of the facilities, Bristol Siddeley test fire an experimental combustion chamber at Spadeadam during a lull in Blue Streak testing. The chamber is simply a solid copper block, not a developed engine, but it does achieves several major firsts. Methane-Oxygen combustion is sustained for 0.62s, producing a thrust of 351,000lbs with the remarkably high chamber pressure of 1,060psi (in contrast, Blue Streak's engines run at just over 500psi). The test is used to validate heat transfer models and test combustion efficiency, although this turns out to be disappointingly low.

Sep-61 Overseas
NASA launches SA-1, an experimental rocket with 8 engines producing 1.3Mlbs of thrust at liftoff. This first stage will form the basis for a new series of large “Saturn” launch vehicles.


Oct-61
AWRE is instructed to proceed with a new series of nuclear tests. Codenamed Grapple-P, these will prove the fully developed warhead for Blue Streak and the new V-Force bomb. A series of smaller tests are also planned to develop advanced triggers.

The USSR carries out the largest nuclear test in history on the 30th. At an estimated 60Mt, the shockwave is detected around the world. US and British reconnaissance aircraft retrieve samples of airborne fallout from recent Soviet tests.


Nov-61
Engineers from both BAC and DeHavilland continue to explore the possibilities for satellite launch vehicles. Both firms have turned their research divisions towards Black Anvil and concepts based on this are starting to emerge. Blue Streak based rockets will only be able to carry tiny payloads to high orbits, but Black Anvil based concepts could launch very large satellites into twelve-hour or geostationary orbits, or even away from the Earth towards the Moon or other planets.
BAC's English Electric operations are investigating the possibility of building large communications satellites, which might allow mobile point to point relay anywhere on Earth. The GPO is continuing basic research into communications satellites and has close contacts with several US firms involved in such development.

After an intense period of negotiation, BAC are awarded the WS/61/01206 contract. Despite the adoption of the new code system, the project is almost invariably referred to as “Black Anvil” outside of official documents. Bristol Siddeley are awarded the contract to develop the engines, which will be based on the firm's BS.802 design.
Their competitors at DeHavillands and Saro consider the various ways they might be able to change the decision; coming only two months after they submitted their proposal, it looks as if they have been sidelined. They are advised that they are unlikely to get very far with any attempt, the BAC proposal was technically superior in every way. However, the Ministry will be requiring BAC to take on subcontractors for the RV carrier and control systems, and a proposal from a large integrated firm (such as a merger of DeHavilland and its owners Hawker-Siddeley) would be looked on favourably.


Nov-61 Overseas
MA-9. NASA manned flight. Originally planned as a long duration attempt, problems with the Mercury capsule force astronaut Walter Schirra to re-enter after just five hours in orbit. Spacecraft and pilot are safely recovered in the Atlantic.


Dec-61
F-6
Blue Streak test from Woomera. The first of the production missiles, F-6 has 150,000lb thrust engines, terminal guidance thrusters and a Ferranti radio-inertial transistorised navigation system. Carries a dummy payload with no separation system. Engines shutdown deliberately at 146s. Apogee 407km, Range 1,308mi. Despite telemetry problems during flight, the vehicle performed as planned with the engine throttle and the new guidance system working as designed.

A hydrazine fuelled version of the Gamma engine, the 401, is test fired at RAE Wescott. Due to the simple design of the Gamma, the conversion has proved relatively easy and the engine delivers the thrust predicted in the first series of tests. However, poor catalyst performance and low combustion efficiency mean that the engine does not achieve the predicted efficiency.


Jan-62
Due to the increased emphasis on ballistic missiles, the contract for the final batch of 40 Vulcan bombers is placed on hold. These were due to be delivered in 1964.

Despite the lack of co-operation between the US and UK in missiles and nuclear technology, the Joint Intelligence Agreement continues to benefit both nations and inter-service contacts are as strong as ever. Thanks to this close co-operation, the UK has access to US satellite intelligence, including photographs and plans to intercept enemy signals. In return the UK has provided ground based intelligence and air reconnaissance. The UK suggests a joint programme of radar equipped satellites to track enemy ships - an idea that is popular with both US and Royal Navies.


Feb-62
BK20 Advanced Black Knight test flight from Woomera. New 58" Black Knight with 8 Gamma 301 engines and Goldfinch solid rocket stage. An experimental transistorised autopilot is carried as a secondary system. No other experiments carried. Apogee 406mi. Second stage fired at 185mi.


Details of the USAF “Skybolt” missile’s warhead have been making their way by various means to the UK. Through inter service contacts and scientific exchanges, specifications and dimensions have been acquired or deduced. These have given AWRE scientists several valuable hints as to practical methods for producing lighter and smaller warheads.

British scientists test a 1.4Mt H-bomb near Malden Island. This is the first in a series of experimental and proving shots. This "Unicorn-C" test is a pre-production version of the Blue Streak warhead, a variant of which is also being fitted into gravity bombs and used to re-equip the V-Force.

Anti-ballistic missile programme Violet Friend is abandoned, on cost and technical grounds. It is intended that Black Anvil be capable of penetrating any Soviet defences and it is therefore not considered worthwhile trying to defend against any Soviet equivalent. Concepts such as space based weapons and multiple re-entry vehicles make missile defence practically impossible.

 

[Dathi THorfinnsson]

After years of studies and months of detailed planning, on the 5th June, the Ministry of Aviation issues specification WS/61/01026 calling for a long range ballistic missile. With the need to go two steps ahead of the US and USSR, the specification includes the requirements for:
- "Unlimited range" - the ability to put a nuclear payload into orbit and re-enter automatically.
- Multiple re-entry vehicles, each capable of carrying a megaton class warhead and of being targeted independently (detailed RV and Warhead specifications will be issued after the completion of Black Knight Mk2 tests).
- CEP of <2500' after ballistic flight. CEP of 1 mile is acceptable after an orbital flight.
- Provision for both decoys and jamming systems.
- On board guidance and control (no ground commands required after liftoff).
- Capable of being held in launch condition for at least 7 days, with launch within 2 minutes, or being readied from standby condition within 1 hour.
- Capable of being placed in an underground or hardened shelter (specification to be issued separately).

Firstly, that's an INCREDIBLY advanced spec. You want not only MRV, but MIRV and/or MARV?
Ouch!

Jul-61
The newly formed British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) expand on the earlier Vickers missile proposal. The separate engine pods are gone and the design is now a true "stage and a half" rocket, with a central sustainer and an outer ring of six engines which will be jettisoned in flight. The Bristol-Siddeley BS.802 rocket engines would use Methane fuel to achieve the required performance. A hybrid geodetic-pressure stabilised structure is proposed to minimise weight of the propellant tanks. An RV dispenser stage will be mounted on top of the tanks, equipped with small engines for fine-tuning each RV’s trajectory. Guidance, computers and star trackers are to be built into the dispenser. Each RV will be ejected by a pressure cartridge and spin-stabilised.
The proposal has been extensively studied in the 6 months since the RFP, and is now backed by two of the country's leading aviation firms, BAC and Bristol Siddeley.

,,,

Sep-61
DeHavilland and Saro submit their proposal for WS/61/01206. As the only firm currently in the ballistic missile business, DeHavillands were expecting something closer to their proposal for a long range version of Blue Streak (a missile more in keeping with US developments such as "Titan"). At the suggestion of the Ministry, the firm has worked with Saunders Roe to provide a joint proposal to meet the specification. Their missile is a hybrid of the two firm’s original proposals. It would use a new, large Oxygen/Kerosene engine (to be developed by Rolls-Royce) to power the first stage. The second stage engines are based on the RZ-2, modified for high-altitude flight. An upper stage will use "storable propellants", which are still under study, although an N2O4/Hydrazine blend is favoured. This upper stage will complete orbital injection and serve as the RV carrier until just before re-entry.

The Spec wants you to be able to fuel the rocket and let it sit 7 days. You can't do that TODAY with cryogenics, even mild ones like LOX and Methane.

 

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Firstly, that's an INCREDIBLY advanced spec. You want not only MRV, but MIRV and/or MARV?
Ouch!

The Spec wants you to be able to fuel the rocket and let it sit 7 days. You can't do that TODAY with cryogenics, even mild ones like LOX and Methane.

Both good points. I'll always try to keep the technical side fairly accurate, no matter where the story goes.

There are several points in that spec that require technology well beyond anything available in 1961. However, they are deliberately trying to design something that is years ahead of its time, as it will take resource-limited Britain a long time to develop it. Instead of trying to match US tech, they want to "jump ahead" to something better. It was a common theme in 1960's British government backed projects (and in reality it came back to bite on many occasions - e.g. TSR-2, Concorde, AGR).

Modern cryo rockets can't sit fuelled for days on end, but they aren't designed to; launch windows are typically only a few hours long. If this requirement were included from the start, so provision for things like insulation and ground-based cooling are included, it should be relatively simple (that is, until it has the simplicity designed out of it).

As a general comment, I would say that advanced aerospace projects have a long history of not meeting their original specifications...

 

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Distant Friends and Distrusted Allies

In the early 1960s, Britain would make several attempts to persuade nations other than the USA that they should co-operate on aerospace research. Foremost amongst these was Australia, as beyond the obvious historic, social and economic links, access to Australian testing facilities was essential. For the most part the Australians were keen to help the mother country, but the British establishment became aware that financially and politically, this could only be pushed so far.

Britain raised the issue of launch constraints; it is not safe to launch from Woomera heading East for equatorial orbits, or North for long range missile tests where, for security reasons, debris must not fall on foreign territory. It is agreed that the Australians would come up with proposals either to ease the launch constraints at Woomera, or consider alternative launch sites. There is no commitment to build the facilities at a new site and the issue of costs remains unanswered.

Other minds turned towards Britain’s European rival across the English Channel, and there are serious Anglo-French discussions on the possibility of conducting a joint satellite and launcher programme. Early negotiations are slow, as for much of the 1950s, Britain’s position towards France in the aerospace field was much like that of the USA towards Britain; one of offering help to a “lesser power”, but only on the right terms.

Now, however, the field is rather more equal. France already has a programme to develop small rockets, somewhat similar to Black Knight, while in the UK there is a desire to cut (or at least share) the future costs of space research.

The nationalist government of President de Gaulle wishes to expand France’s aeronautical industries and seeks to acquire the technology needed for long range missiles. With the Americans unlikely to rush to France’s aid, Britain is the obvious source for technical details of guidance and control systems, large rocket engine technology and re-entry systems.

During the early discussions, it is clear that there is little direct interest in a French satellite launcher, they are only prepared to regard such a programme as a means to an end. Discussion regarding communications and scientific satellites amounts to very little, although the possibility of launching a French scientific instrument on a British satellite does attract some interest.

After the talks, a confidential British intelligence assessment of the Anglo-French discussions is prepared. The French want to build a ballistic missile, but are several years behind the UK and are looking for the sort of technical data that Britain has obtained with Black Knight and through collaboration with the Americans. The direct technology transfer they propose is unacceptable, as the UK cannot share joint UK-US data without American approval, which is unlikely to be given. Long-standing Anglo-American agreements on intelligence gathering and aeronautical research may be jeopardised if the US even suspects that information is being passed to other countries.
In addition, recent advances in lightweight nuclear warhead design in Britain should not be passed on to the French. This imposes additional restrictions on the type of material that can be shared. For example, re-entry vehicle designs contain indirect references to the design of their nuclear payloads.

Discussions with the Government of Canada on the potential for co-operation in space research lead nowhere. The Canadians are unwilling to participate in any British space or missile programme.
In private talks, it is revealed that Canada is already working with the US to develop a satellite that the Americans will launch. Significant sums have been spent on this project and there is no desire to commit to further expenditure.

At the end of 1961, with Black Anvil development officially underway, negotiations with the Australian government are renewed with a view to establishing test and basing agreements.
The position of the Australians has not changed; they are willing to support facilities at Woomera and would allow the basing of UK missiles on Australian territory (with the implication of "territory" being not on their mainland). Several outlying islands are mentioned during the discussions.

Two sites have been found for a long range rocket test site which would allow flights to the East, well away from populated regions. One is inland near Darwin, with a safe arc of fire between the east and up to 30deg south, as well as directly south (essentially towards Woomera).
The other site offers a continuous arc, from due north to S-SE and is located on the coast north of Brisbane.
The Darwin site has the advantage that some range facilities currently used for Woomera launches could be re-used and, like Woomera, it is far away from any potential observers. However, later investigations suggest that the Darwin site is too remote and that the inland location would make transport difficult (an issue that has also affected Woomera). From a technical and geographic point of view, the site north of Brisbane is preferred.

In 1962, Britain and France nearly embarked on a very different path. With tacit government backing, Britain’s BAC and France’s Sud Aviation discuss the possibility of a building a supersonic airliner. Both firms have studied the concept for several years, and it does not take long for them to bring their ideas together to create two cutting-edge concepts. A short range version for intra-Europe (and hopefully domestic US) services, and a long-range version to cross the Atlantic.

Meanwhile, the position of the French regarding space research has changed subtly, with the suggestion of a joint or possibly pan-European satellite programme, in which the UK might take a leading role.

What looks like a promising start soon turns sour. BAC’s discussions grind to a halt in May when the British realise that the French have little interest in the transatlantic airliner. They insist on building the smaller short-range version first. At much the same time, the French walk away from the satellite discussion, having concluded that the British will never give them access to the technical data they are seeking for their missile programme.

 

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The Idiot’s Lantern

Once the main development contracts for Black Anvil have been awarded, Britain’s aerospace firms start to follow up on other opportunities that may be offered by such a large rocket. First among these is the possibility of launching much larger satellites, equipped for communication or perhaps weather monitoring. Several firms, including English Electric, GEC and DeHavillands begin to float proposals.

High level contacts between British and American firms show that there are significant military and civil satellite communications programmes underway in the US, including a large US Navy satellite designed to communicate with ships at sea and aircraft in flight.

In an age of unreliable electronics, it is natural that there are also proposals for systems to service and maintain these spacecraft using manned vehicles. There are several simple outline studies, ranging from fairly simple capsules similar to the US Mercury design, to more complex lifting bodies and exotic re-usable spaceplanes.

In May 1962, the GPO forms a research group to develop and build radio systems for communications satellites. The organisation has been working with agencies in the US and Canada on the "Telstar" satellite communications system for some time and so is already familiar with most of the technical details that will be required. Contact with American engineers who have previously built experimental satellites has been of great help in understanding what is needed to cope with the thermal, vacuum and radiation environments of space. Ultimately, the group seeks to develop a small transceiver unit which can be integrated with the Satellite Upper Stage. Launched on a Blue Star rocket, the SUS should then be able to place itself into a geostationary orbit. Two prototype systems are to be built and the hope is that these can be ready to launch in 1964.

The Pilkington Report of June 1962 is a government-backed study into the future of British television. Alongside comments regarding the low quality of ITV programming and the possibility of broadcasting a second BBC channel, is a proposal that seems so fantastic that the authors hardly dared to include it.

There is strong public demand for high quality 625 line colour television, instead of the 405 line black-and-white service broadcast at present. Pilkington notes the considerable cost associated with this upgrade, which would require a higher frequency than the existing VHF network. This means dozens of new TV transmitters will be needed, in addition to the replacement of every existing transmitter. The anticipated cost of building the new system is in the region of £30-35 million.

While the report was being drafted, English Electric and Marconi were quick to submit a revolutionary proposal. The details were none too specific (although they appeared in a very colourful brochure), but amount to a proposal to broadcast TV and radio signals directly to consumer receivers from a satellite, as an alternative to upgrading the existing transmitter network. The concept requires the use of at least two very large satellites, positioned in geostationary orbit near the Prime Meridian. For public consumption, the firms claim that these satellites could be launched on “improved Blue Star” rockets.

They estimate development and launch costs to be only £30 million, while operating costs would be much lower than a traditional transmitter network, as only one or two ground stations would be needed.

The proposal turns a rather dull technocratic report into front page news. The idea of a spacecraft broadcasting “right into your home” provokes amazement, interest and ridicule in almost equal quantities. It seems like the stuff of science fiction, but a number of respectable scientists (among them writer and former radio engineer Arthur C. Clarke) assure the public that the idea is quite practical. The ability to provide complete coverage of the UK is widely applauded, as is the idea that such a system could bring TV and radio to every corner of large countries like Australia or Canada. The mention of an "improved Blue Star" launch vehicle also provokes questions; what is it and when will it be developed?

Although technical details are scarce at this early stage, all the press coverage serves to give the idea exactly what it needs; a second glance.

Late in the year, the GPO reports that the complexity of expanding the ground-based TV transmitter network to add new stations and permit colour broadcasts is greater than previously thought. Tests show that many more transmitter stations will be needed to give adequate coverage to more rural areas, particularly to hilly regions such as the Dales and Highlands. They now believe that the cost of upgrading the network will be £47M over 5 years, if work starts in 1963.
The desire to expand BBC programming to two channels could be met in many existing areas without the need for significant changes, providing 405 line black-and-white is acceptable.
Similarly, some areas (primarily larger cities) could be provided with a low-definition colour service without major changes to the transmitters, although this would preclude a second BBC channel.

The proposed satellite system entails unknown development risks, however cost estimates are now around £45M for the development and launch of two satellites, which could provide at least 4 channel capability. The ongoing operational costs of the satellite system are lower, due to the need for only one ground station (which already exists), versus dozens of transmitter sites (or over a hundred if the Scottish Highlands and Islands are to be included).

A decision is suggested in one direction or the other, as a "mixed" system would mean the public having to buy TV sets equipped with two or more receivers to cope with the different broadcasts. Such sets would be considerably more expensive to buy than single-receiver systems and public concern over the cost of new TV sets was highlighted in research done for the Pilkington Report.

 

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That will be the last post for a few days.

More to come next week, so don't go away.

 

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Making Plans

Mar-62
The US government announces it has awarded a risk-sharing development contract to Boeing to develop a supersonic airliner, which the firm calls the Model 7227. The outline design calls for a 250 passengers to be carried at Mach 2.2 over a range of up to 4,500 miles.

Bristol Siddeley are contracted to produce a sub-scale prototype version of their “Orion” rocket engine (the new name for BS.802, the main engine of Black Anvil) as part of the overall development programme. The factory setup and tooling to produce the full size engine will take 24 months to build, meaning full scale tests can only start in about 30 months’ time.
A sub-scale demonstrator will allow most of the concepts of the engine to be developed and proved more quickly, as it can be produced on existing tools. B-S are confident they can test fire these small prototype chambers and associated pre-heater assemblies over the next 12-18 months.

The US agrees to participate in a further series of re-entry experiments, called "Dazzle". These will use 58” Advanced Black Knight rockets to test the dynamics and radar cross sections of a range of re-entry vehicles. US involvement greatly increases the amount of instrumentation available on the Woomera range and allows higher quality telemetry to be taken. The experiments are planned to start later in the year, after several UK-only tests.

F-7
Blue Streak Test from Woomera. Originally intended to test RV separation and entry, delays with the separation system mean it is flown as a maximum range demonstration. Launched North-Eastwards, the flightpath passes south of Townsville and out over the Coral Sea. Peak altitude is 759km, range 2,068mi. Breakup of the booster on re-entry is tracked by a ship stationed near the planned target point. Telemetry shows that the guidance thrusters functioned as planned.


The UK conducts two small nuclear tests on barges off Malden Island. Both of these trigger development tests are less than 50Kt.


Apr-62
The recent Blue Streak test has emphasised the problems with Woomera as a launch range for long range rockets. On this occasion the Australian government was satisfied there was little risk and agreed to permit the flight across the relatively populated East of the country.
Larger missiles and more complex tests are planned, so the dangers of "cutting down" a missile over populated areas will increase. Launches to the north are restricted to about 1,400mi range due the need to avoid debris falling over New Guinea (for security reasons more than the risk of damage).
Given the funds already committed to Woomera, the Australians are understandably reluctant to start again at a new site. Nevertheless, requirements for satellite launchers and the Black Anvil test programme will require a more flexible range and the Australian government is prepared to accept that Woomera is not a long term option.

BAC studies into the transport and test arrangements for Black Anvil are completed. The firm plans to build two new booster pack test stands at Spadeadam for development and qualification tests. Bristol Siddeley plans to convert two of the existing Blue Streak stands for individual engine and component tests, due to start in 1963 once the pace of Blue Streak testing slows down.
Transport of Black Anvil missiles to Australia from the main assembly plant at Filton is planned to be by air if suitable aircraft can be found. Engineers are currently studying surplus Saunders Roe Princess flying boats, the Short Belfast and the yet-to-fly Lockheed C-141 jet transport. A complete booster tank would need to be mounted on top of one of these aircraft. Engines and other components could be carried internally.

Saunders Roe deliver the first adapted Black Knight for use as a Blue Streak upper stage. The stage has completed its test firing at High Down and will be flown to Australia for its flight on F-10 later in the year.


May-62
The "Commonwealth Deterrent Agreement" is signed by the UK and Australian governments.
The treaty includes provisions for the UK to base nuclear missiles and bombers on Australian territory on a permanent basis. Sites on both of the Christmas Islands and the Keeling Islands will be made available for use by UK forces. In return, the UK undertakes to maintain weapons to deter an attack on Australia. The RAAF will be equipped to operate a squadron of aircraft capable of delivering nuclear weapons. Australia also agrees to provide facilities for long range rocket launches, at a site to be built north of Brisbane. Tracking and other range systems will be the responsibility of the UK.

BK21
Advanced Black Knight with low drag conical RV. Apogee 425mi. A separation problem left the RV attached to the upper stage. Some heating data is recovered from the remains of the tape recorder.

Two tests of prototype lightweight H-bombs are carried out off Malden Island. One bomb of 1.1Mt is a lighter version of the “Granite type” Blue Streak warhead, the other is a smaller type of approximately 300Kt yield.

It is publically acknowledged that the Black Anvil programme exists and that it will be Britain’s new long-range deterrent missile, one which will greatly improve on the capabilities of Blue Streak. In practice it is already common knowledge that a new rocket is being developed. Details such as the size of the missile and the number and type of warheads are of course still Top Secret.

Jun-62 Overseas
President Kennedy announces an expanded programme of Space Research as part of the National Technology Initiative. NASA is instructed to expand US capabilities in manned and unmanned space flight by sending robotic probes to the Moon, Mars and Venus. An “orbital laboratory” is to be launched to allow US astronauts to spend long periods in space and conduct astronomical and Earth observations. Manned expeditions to the Moon are to be studied further, based on an advanced version of the Apollo spacecraft that is soon to be built. Plans for larger versions of the Saturn rocket family have been approved, including the giant “Saturn III”, a booster which will be capable of placing over 60 tons into Earth orbit.

Jun-62
Avro contracts for 18 Vulcan bombers are restored. Sixteen aircraft will be supplied to equip a new RAAF squadron equipped for nuclear delivery. An additional two aircraft will be supplied to the RAF to replace operational losses.

F-8
Blue Streak Test from Woomera. First "all up" missile test with radio-inertial guidance, separation system and a real re-entry vehicle ballasted to the correct flight weight.
Apogee 400km, range 1119.3mi, impact 4950' from planned target. The remains of the RV are recovered and heatshield ablation is found to be within expected limits. Data recorder was damaged and no G-load or thermocouple data is recovered.


Telemetry from F-8 shows that the larger than expected miss distance was likely due to a fault in the precision guidance thruster controls. The thrusters fired for longer than they should have, pushing the RV slightly higher than planned.

The MoA and MoD start a programme to deploy "store-dump" communications satellites in low Earth orbits. These will be able to record messages while flying over the UK, then play them back when they pass over a base or ship on the far side of the world. The low-power, high-frequency radio links used should, theoretically, be more secure and reliable than existing short-wave radio. A series of 4 satellites is proposed (1 development and 3 operational versions) to be launched as SUS payloads on Blue Star rockets. The plan calls for the first of these to be flown in early 1964, with the operational versions in 1964 and 65.
[In 1999 it was revealed that these spacecraft had a secondary role as part of the Joint Intelligence Agreement. They were equipped to record Soviet communications while passing over Soviet soil and relay it to ground stations in the US, UK and Australia]

Ground is broken at RAAF Gympie, a new station which will comprise an airfield, port facilities and an operations and launch area to support a missile test range over the Coral Sea and Pacific. Ground will be cleared to support the construction of a Blue Streak test & training pad, two Blue Streak/Blue Star pads and two Black Anvil launch pads.


Jul-62
BAC studies identify the surplus Princess flying boats as the most cost effective way to transport Black Anvil boosters to Australia. Although inspections show two of these boats have suffered corrosion while in storage, one is considered repairable at minimal cost and the other can be salvaged for spare parts. The third (the oldest and the only one to have flown) is in good condition and could be adapted to transport test articles and other equipment within a year. Modifications will allow the large tank of the booster to be mounted on the aircraft's back, with streamlined fairings at either end to help reduce loads on the airframe.

The MoA proposes a set of plans for research flights to be conducted by ML/60/2785 (Blue Star) as part of the Black Anvil test programme. High speed re-entry, guidance and control tests will be performed. Some flights will need to include an SUS for control and navigation tests. Their plans call for:

Sept 1962: F-10 Engineering test flight of two-stage Blue Streak, will carry a dummy RV.
Jan 1963: F-12 Two-stage Blue Streak, high speed entry test with scale model of Black Anvil RV.
June 1963: F-15 Initial test of SUS. Day-long orbital manoeuvring flight followed by a directed re-entry.
Oct 1963: F-18 SUS orbital flight. Navigation systems test.
Jan 1964: F-21 SUS orbital flight. Navigation & High speed directed entry test.

Additional flights under the civil "Blue Star" programme will start later this year with the launch of the "Ariel" scientific satellite.
Two Blue Star launches for the GPO are planned in 1964.