Excerpt from The History of the Roman State
Chapter V – Rebirth and Interauctoritas (Augustus’ Empire)
“He was ‘tristissimus hominum’, the gloomiest of men and thrusted into a life he never really wanted. The unfortunate Tiberius was forced to divorce the woman he loved, compelled to marry a woman he despised, and expected to adopt the tyranny of authority he never desired” – Pliny the Elder, Natural Histories XXVIII (5.23) [1]
After Tiberius’ successful campaign against the Marcomanni he returned to Rome at the end of 6 BC and was voted tribunician power for five years and imperium in the East. These were great honours previously bestowed on Agrippa. Yet even with all these honours, at the height of his career and in the prime of his life he suddenly decided to retire from politics as completely as possible.
Although there were several principle reasons possible for his self-imposed retirement, in all likelihood the sudden decision was motivated by a combination of factors. First there was his unhappy marriage to Julia, in which he was deeply unhappy and resentful. The extent of his feelings was only revealed after the passing of Augustus, and even then only in private to his brother. A letter from that time reveals the deep loathing Tiberius beared for Julia, and his inability to charge her with adultery or divorce for her scandalous behaviour due to being the daughter of Augustus.
Secondly there were contemporary allegations made that the retirement was a cynical ploy to increase his reputation by a prolonged absence, so that the need of his services would become apparent to Augustus.
Finally another theory is that the coming of age of Augustus’ adopted children, Gaius and Lucius, compelled Tiberius to voluntarily resign his position as the successor to the Roman State and leave the political field open to them. Marcus Agrippa had done the same thing when Marcellus had begun his public career – retiring to Mytilene so as to not be mistaken for a rival. Whether Tiberius was really motivated by jealousy or a magnanimous duty to the state will probably never be known. Certainly he gave the latter reason for his decision at a later date. At the time, however, he merely applied for leave of absence on the ground that he was weary of office and needed to rest.
It did not occur to Tiberius that he may be making a mistake, such was the depths of his misery at that time. It is known that his mother, the Empress Livia, pleaded for him not to leave. Even Augustus openly complained in the Senate that this was an act of desertion. Suetonious reports that these events had little effect on him:
“On the contrary, he defeated their vigorous efforts to blunt his resolution by a four days’ hunger strike. In the end he sailed off; leaving his wife and son behind at Rome, he hurried down to Ostia without saying a word to any of the friends who came to say goodbye, and kissing only very few of them before he went aboard his ship.” – Suetonious, The Twelve Caesars Tiberius (10.19)
There were contemporary stories, likely apocryphal, that Augustus went so far as to stage a serious illness in order to motivate Tiberius’ immediate return. The news of Augustus’ illness reached Tiberius off the coast of Campania, where it is recorded he cast anchor for a while. It is known that Tiberius received a letter from his brother Drusus at this time, urging him to reconsider his folly but also conceding the great unhappiness to which he was burdened. Tiberius awaited further reports of Augustus’ illness, but when rumours and accusations reached him that he was merely waiting in the hope of seizing power he immediately departed for Rhodes.
Although the many stories and rumours of the lamentation of Augustus at this time such as the above were likely not true, the circulation of such stories illustrate the great anxiety for which Augustus felt at the time. Augustus was 57 years old by this point, several years older than Agrippa when he had passed and this was something which tormented his mind to no avail. With the departure of Tiberius there was no clear successor in place. His adopted sons were still in their teens, and Drusus, although a stepson and given considerable honours by this point, had not yet been officially adopted as heir. It is clear the retirement of Tiberius was almost disastrous for Augustus’ succession plans, and it was an act for which Augustus would never forgive him.
Tiberius had chosen Rhodes as his place of exile, apparently cherishing pleasant memories of the island during his return voyage from Armenia. He is reported to have resided within a modest town house and modest country villa. Accounts from this time also indicate that he would dismiss his lictors and staff members and stroll about the gymnasium, greeting and chatting with ordinary Greeks as if they were his social equals.
Although Tiberius still held tribunician power he is recorded to have only used it once in his stay at Rhodes. It is understood that Tiberius frequented the schools and halls where professors lectured and would listen to the discussions. On one occasion when two sophists started a violent argument, an audience member abused him for daring to intervene and support one sophist over another. Tiberius retired to his house, when he shortly reappeared with a group of lictors where the man was arrested and set before a tribunal.
In 2BC Tiberius learnt of the exile of his erstwhile wife Julia. Julia had been arrested for adultery and treason, and Augustus sent her a letter in Tiberius’ name declaring the marriage null and void. He also indicated before the Senate that she had been plotting against his own life with one of her lovers, namely Iullus Antonius (son of Mark Antony and Fulvia). Iullus Antonius was forced to commit suicide and Julia herself was exiled to the tiny island of Padateria. She was forbidden to drink wine, and was permitted no guests without express permission of Augustus. After five years she was transferred to the mainland where she received milder treatment, but Augustus never entertained her recall from exile. On one occasion when the Roman people interceded on her behalf he retorted before a popular assembly, ‘May the gods curse you with daughters as lecherous as mine, and with wives as adulterous!’
Although it is clear that Tiberius bore no affection for his wife, he nonetheless felt it his duty, even in exile, to urge reconciliation between Augustus and her. Despite Tiberius knowing of her scandalous nature and being privately of the belief she deserved her fate, he appeared to embrace the image of a merciful husband and allowed her to keep whatever presents she had at any time received from him. It is possible he embraced this image to influence Augustus own treatment of him. For by this stage Tiberius had seen the error of his decision and he is known to have asked Augustus leave to return and visit his family, who he greatly missed, and he confessed at last that he departed to Rhodes only to escape the suspicion of rivalry with Gaius and Lucius. Since both were now adults and acknowledged heirs, his reasons for staying away from Rome were no longer valid. Augustus, however, turned down his request, telling him to abandon all concern for his family, who he had been so eager to desert.
Thus it was that Tiberius remained, most reluctantly, at Rhodes. He communicated frequently with his brother and his mother, both of whom could not persuade Augustus to award him the title of Legate as an official cloak for his disfavour after his tribunician powers expired. His days were shrouded with anxiety. He lived a quiet private life in the country, avoiding contact with important persons who happened to land at Rhodes. His sedentary lifestyle was afforded a welcome reprieve in 1BC when he visited his brother and stepbrother Gaius at the nearby island of Samos. Gaius had been made a commander of the East, and was on route to Anatolia to entreat with the Parthian King Phraates V. Drusus accompanied Gaius for part of the journey so as to meet with Tiberius and to deal with the Parthian King. Furthermore, by this stage Drusus’ daughter Livilla had married Gaius and as his father in law the two men were known to be close.
Despite the happy occasion there was an incident of note which provoked the attention of Augustus. Allegedly one of Gaius’ favourites, his former guardian Marcus Lollius, spread slanderous accusations about Tiberius effecting a conspiracy against Gaius. Several centurions who had previously served with Tiberius were said to have returned to camp after meeting their former master and apparently circulated mysterious messages with incitements to treason. Augustus, who had heard an account of these suspicions informed Tiberius. Tiberius response was characteristically cynical, in which he replied that a responsible person, of whatever rank, should be detailed to visit Rhodes and there keep an unceasing watch on what he did and what he said. Nevertheless, despite the sarcastic exchange, Drusus was later made aware of the accusations and arranged for the dismissal of Lollius from Gaius’ retinue. Drusus accompanied Gaius to an island of the Euphrates where he observed with considerable approval the conduct of the negotiations with the Parthian King.
It is perhaps a combination of the above incident, but also more importantly the sudden death due to illness of Augustus’ other adopted son Lucius in 2AD, that Tiberius was finally allowed to return to Rome. Augustus at last gave way to the considerable pleading of Livia and Drusus, but his condition was that Tiberius would take no part and renounce all interest in public affairs.
On returning to Rome Tiberius presented his son Nero Claudius Drusus (the future Pannonicus) to public life. He resided in a modest house in the Gardens of Maecenas on the Esquiline Hill, where he adhered strictly to Augustus’ requirements and lived in retirement, attending only to his private affairs and taking no part in public life. His fortunes would change in time, but would never reach the heights of his earlier career.
In 4AD Augustus suffered a further blow to his succession plans. Gaius Caesar, his eldest adopted son succumbed to injuries sustained in battle and died. He had been wounded fatally during a campaign in Artagira, Armenia and although relocated to Limyra in Lycia for rehabilitation he was unable to recover and died. He was 24.
The death of Gaius precipitated a crisis in the Imperial household. Already rocked by the sudden death of Lucius some two years earlier, Gaius’ death was a considerable blow as he had shown such promise and capacity for greatness at an early age. His marriage to Livilla had not produced any children and consequently there was little alternative but for Augustus to consider one of his stepsons.
A bust believed to be of Gaius Caesar, adopted son of Augustus
As a result of this event and after the lengthy consideration of Augustus, he adopted his stepson Drusus and his last remaining grandson Postumus Agrippa. Although Tiberius had earlier been shown greater favour Augustus was unwilling to forgive him for his early retirement, and considered him unworthy for Empire. Furthermore it was well known that Augustus held Drusus in such high esteem as to have referred to him several times publicly as a ‘True Roman’, whereas he had never held such regard for Tiberius – even when his star was in ascendance.
Despite the succession having been shored up considerably, there were a number of concerns. Drusus had on many occasions informed his friends that he would, if given the chance, restore the republic. He was also known to have authored a letter to his brother Tiberius, then at the height of career, to jointly persuade Augustus to surrender power to the Senate. Whatever the republican sentiments of Drusus may have been, and they were well known to Augustus, it is clear they caused no lasting harm between the two men. It is possible that Augustus admired him even more for the conviction of his principles. However, most historians agree that the stories of an aging Augustus regretting his usurpation of the Senate and expressing regret at his dictatorship are false and the product of post Drusus revisionism.
The ascendancy of Drusus was followed immediately thereafter by a major uprising in the province Germania Magna. As has already been described, the pacification of Germania was a long and gradual process. The immediate pacification of Germania to the Elbe river would take many decades to fully realise. Although the provinces of Germania Magna and Boihaemum had nominally been part of Rome since 9 BC, there were many problems in holding the provinces down. In 5 AD several Germanic tribes launched raids across the Elbe river most dangerously the Senoni and Caridi. But also added to this were the Saxones and Virudi. Although Augustus preferred to have Drusus remain in Rome, such was the importance of dealing with this threat that Drusus was once again sent to the frontier to deal with the problem.
However soon the Empire was rocked by a far more serious and deadly rebellion which would threaten Rome in The Great Illyrian Revolt of 6 AD. This revolt would demand the attention of Augustus and compel him to take drastic action including the compulsory purchase and emancipation of slaves to constitute an army – a move not having been undertaken by Rome for over two centuries since the Battle of Cannae in the Second Punic War.
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[1] A slightly edited quotation for TTL.
