For the Want of a King TL: Prussia loses the War of Austrian Succession
Part 1: The War of Austrian Succession 1740-1742:
The War of Austrian Succession began in 1740 as Prussia objected to the Pragmatic Sanction and the succession of Maria Theresa. Austria was supported by the naval powers of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. The first action of the war was the Prussian invasion of Silesia.
The Prussian forces swiftly advanced across Silesia and by winter had occupied the majority of the Silesian fortresses. The Austrian counter-offensive under General Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg relieved the siege of Neisse and marched on Brieg threatening to encircle the Prussians and cut them off from their homeland. On the 10th April 1741 the Prussian forces under Frederick II met the Austrians at the snow covered fields of Mollwitz. However, all did not go as planned. The Austrians had succeeded in capturing some of Prussia’s scouts, who gave away the Prussian position. This allowed Neipperg to draw up the Austrian forces to fight the Prussians head on. The Austrian cavalry charge decimated their Prussian counterparts and captured Frederick II. Unaware of his King’s capture General von Schwerin attempted to hold the Prussian infantry line against the General Rommer’s cavalry. They succeeded in driving the cavalry back, but suffered heavy losses which were increased by the Austrian artillery. Neipperg then ordered the Austrian infantry to advance, the Prussian infantry surrounded by the Austrians and suffering heavy losses surrendered after Schwerin was killed by an Austrian shell. The Battle of Mollwitz had ended in a resounding Austrian victory. The capture of Frederick II and death of the Prussian Chief of Staff von Schwerin would result in the defeat of the Prussian Silesia Campaign.
The Austrian forces have suffered 5300 men dead, but had destroyed the Prussian army and captured their king. After reinforcements arrived from Bohemia (freed up by the lack of France forces in Bavaria unlike OTL) Neipperg mopped up the remaining Prussian garrisons who were heavily demoralised by the capture of their king. Augustus William I had been appointed regent, but did not inspire confidence among the troops in their current state. Thus 2 of the garrisons surrendered without a fight.
Prussian infantry charge at Mollwitz
Under the Treaty of Vienna:
Interlude 1: Military and Economic Reform 1742-1750:
Following the Treaty of Vienna Maria Theresa was left with a victorious but vulnerable empire. Since 1733 Austria had lost all its Italian possessions (except Lombardy and Tuscany), and all land south of the Danube (including the fortresses of Orsova and Belgrade) had been ceded to the Ottomans and Silesia had almost been lost to a minor power. This series of losses and the near loss of the nation's most economically advanced province spurred Maria Theresa into action. She needed to create an adequate economic basis to underpin her nation's status as a great power. Her Secretary of the State Conference Bartenstein realized that the key issue was the unwillingness and inability of the Estates to provide adequately for the payment and supplies of the army. This was due to the Estates being principally concerned with minimizing the burden on their province. In response Maria Theresa decided to raise the subsidy demanded from each province to the level required to support a standing army of 108,000. This additional burden was to be met by taxing seigniorial land, which had previously been exempt from taxation. This plan was met with resistance from the nobility, particularly the Supreme Chancellor Count Friedrich Harrach, who attempted to get the power of the Estates increased in return for the demanded subsidy. However, such plans were rejected.
Count Friedrich Haugwitz, along with Bartenstein and the Cabinet Secretary Koch, was the chief architect of the reforms and almost single-handedly steered them through the State Conference and the Estates. His principal argument was that the ease that Prussia had occupied Silesia, showed that any of the old enemies of Austria could do the same and not be driven out again. He demonstrated the need to tax seigniorial land by reference to the 'self-evident' inability of the peasantry to pay any more than they were already paying. He also reinforced these arguments with the invocation of a general principle of equity. "As it is self-evident that the resources of the peasants do not suffice without the addition of the seigniorial land, which is normally exempt from taxation, to defray the cost of the defence required for the security of the Crown and of the privileges of the Estates, both God-pleasing justice and natural equity demand that the nobility should contribute to this necessary defence in proportion to the full extent of their resources."
Count Freidrich Haugwitz
Interlude 2: Changes in Prussia 1742-1750:
Under Frederick II the Kingdom of Prussia underwent dramatic changes. The nation’s aim shifted once more, this time reverting back to the arts. Frederick II slashed the military budget, preferring to spend money providing patronage to composers, architects and more. Prussia would become a shining light in Europe for the arts. The city of Berlin grew dramatically between the end of the War of Austrian Succession and the War of Sardinian Succession, as Frederick II brought in leading architects from across Europe to build grand new projects in the city. His aim was for Berlin to stand alongside the great capitals of Europe as a city of learning and beauty. The Frederick II University of Berlin was established in 1746 to rival the famed universities of Vienna, Paris and Britain. All of this came at a cost. Between 1742 and 1750 the Prussian army stagnated. The crushing defeat by Austria and the slashing of the budget sent the army’s standard’s into a nose dive, made even worse by the decision in 1747 to further cut the army’s budget and invest in strengthening the navy. Most historians agree that Frederick II’s ultimate aim was a nation like Holland, a nation with a strong navy, a nation that tended to keep out of major land conflicts and had an over-seas ‘empire’. By 1750 a new era in Prussian history was beginning, the Naval Era. For years to come the Prussians would remain involved in European conflict on land but there focus was always on the sea, however their position in Europe, surrounded by potential enemies, necessitated a serious army and thus the Prussians maintained a standing army capable of defending the nation, but far smaller than the army from before the War of Austrian Succession.
Frederick II
Interlude 3: The Ohio Valley Indian War 1742-1746:
In 1742 British and French colonial tensions flared up in the Americas. A Native American attack on a British outpost had gone badly and several Indians were captured, as they were searched French made gear was found on them. The British Governor (OOC: not sure if there were governors at this point, please point out if there weren’t) accused the French of arming the Native Americans and inciting them to attack British outposts. Understandably the French were not happy and denied all accusations. However Native American attacks continued and more French-made gear was discovered. Anti-French and Anti-Native American sentiment grew among colonials and some began to attack Native Americans within the French claims in the Ohio River Valley. As tensions escalated, Britain began a guerrilla campaign using their Native American allies. They clearly hadn’t learnt from France’s attempt at this and armed the Native Americans with British guns. Just like the British had done before hand, the French discovered British guns on Native American attacks. This obvious anti-French move further antagonised the French and on 2nd November 1742. France declared war on Britain, officially over the Ohio River Valley dispute. Because of this the war was sorely fought in the Americas. Britain’s first move was to invade New France and attempt to capture Loiusbourg and Quebec. The French meanwhile were gathering a force to invade the Thirteen Colonies and seize Halifax, Boston and the rest of the colony. The British army, under the command of General Forbes, entered New France, defeating a small French army on the border and marching towards Louisbourg. The French army seized British outposts in Ohio and assumed total control of the Ohio valley area. By this point, however, each nation had realised that that they were being invaded. The French army (which was smaller, 14 000 men, compared to 20 000 men in the British force) continued its invasion in an attempt to gain more than the British and hold a stronger negotiating positon, whilst the British army split into 2 armies numbering 10 000 each. One under Forbes pressed on towards Louisbourg, the other turned around and marched back where they had come from to fight the French. Despite this the British army reached and besieged the fort of Louisbourg, before capturing it on the 22nd December, before famously holding a Christmas banquet in the courtyard that would become known as the Louisbourg Christmas. The French forces captured Fort Necessity and were marching north to Philadelphia. The British army of 10 000 met the French army of 12 000 (2 000 men having been lost or assigned to garrison captured forts). The British were routed following several mistakes by their in-experienced commander, but managed to inflict massive losses on the French army, leaving a French army of 7 000 and a tiny British force of 2 500. The city surrendered 3 days later on the 12th January. Britain offered a status quo ante bellum peace treaty to the French, but it was rejected the French counter-offered with a treaty which would end British claims over the Ohio River Valley. Britain rejected this treaty, however, and the war eventually just ended with a white peace on the 3rd April 1745. The war didn’t officially end until May 1746 when the various Native American tribes that were being influenced by France and Britain finally agreed to a truce.
British infantry on the attack in New France
Part 2: War of Sardinian Succession 1750-1756:
The War of Sardinian Succession, known as The Empress’ War in Austria, the Italian War in Italy, the European War in the Americas and as the Franco-British War in India, began with the invasion of Genoa by Sardinia. Most modern historians agree that it would have remained a regional conflict had it not been for the death of Charles Emmanuel III in battle near Voltri, Genoa and Maria Theresa’s subsequent power play. Following Charles Emmanuel III’s death he was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus III, who was viewed by many as a weak man. Maria Theresa attempted to take advantage of this and have his younger brother Prince Benedetto, who was betrothed to Maria Anna (note: This marriage occurred because she was rejected as a potential wife by most kings because of a spine deformity, it also did not happen IOTL). Some members of the Savoyard nobility supported this idea in the hope of an alliance with Austria, but the king did not. The French then offered their support for Victor Amadeus III if he rejected Maria Theresa’s demands. Low and behold he swiftly did so, in response Austria declared war on Sardinia and sent an army under Field-Marshal Ludwig Khevenhüller to invade Sardinia. France then declared war on Austria, who promptly called the Grand Alliance into action (a recently signed treaty between Britain, Prussia and Austria) bringing the might of two great powers and one minor power on France. France roped Spain into the war on their side shortly afterwards. A British army under General James Wolfe marched from Hanover to assist in the defence of the Austrian Netherlands. Meanwhile in North America another British army under General John Forbes marched towards Louisbourg and another invaded Spanish Florida. France, then agreed an alliance with Saxony-Poland who then invaded Austria. For the next 2 years (from 1751-1753) France and her allies would dominate the war, occupying Hanover, British Canada, the Austrian Netherlands and East Prussia. Bavaria was forced/convinced to enter the war in 1752 on the French side. However a decisive battle at Leuthen, following the Saxon-Polish-Lithuanian (but the force is predominately made up of Saxon forces) invasion of Silesia resulted in the crushing defeat of the Saxon army. A dual-pronged Austrian counter-attack, wiped out the Bavarians at the Battle of Munich and the Saxons at the Battle of Dresden. A Prussian attack then smashed through West Prussia and recaptured East Prussia following the Battle of Konigsberg.
Prussian infantry at the Battle of Konigsberg
Saxony-Poland and Bavaria surrendered on the 3rd March 1755 allowing Austria to turn on France. However, in North America the French had defeated the British invasion at Louisbourg and had now invaded the 13 Colonies and British Canada. British Canada was swiftly occupied, but the 13 Colonies put up more of a fight. Even capturing Spanish Florida had been occupied. In India, meanwhile the French-backed Hyderabadi forces were scoring victory after victory against the British-backed Maratha Empire and a French force was massing to invade Bombay from the south. This brought Austria and Britain to the negotiating table and France was happy to agree to a peace. The Treaty of Voltri was as follows:
Interlude 3: The Great Movement 1757-1759:
Following the French ‘defeat’ of sorts (they were angry at their small gains), in the War of Sardinian Succession unrest began to grow in France, they had been fought to a standstill in America in 1745 and had now lost (largely) the war in Europe. The gains in the Americas and of their allies in India did next to nothing to improve the public mood. Thus in 1757 riots broke out in Paris, Toulouse and other cities across the nation, aggravated in part by the great French thinkers, such as François-Marie Arouet (known by his pen name Voltaire) and Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target. However the riots were swiftly crushed the army. The riots, however, had a lasting effect on the country. Louis XV, further restricted free speech and implemented total censorship on written works. This lead to, what became known as, the Great Movement. Many of the French thinkers and writers left the country, some such as Voltaire moved to Louisiana, others moved to New Spain and some more moved to Austria.
François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire)
Part 3: Third War of Polish Succession or 6 Year’s War 1765-1771 Section 1:
The Third War of Polish Succession began in 1765 after the death of Augustus III of Poland, but soon spread from Eastern Europe to engulf most of Europe and the Americas. It is known by many, therefore, as the 6 Year’s War. Augustus III of Poland died in 1764, leaving behind an unorganised nation, crippled by internal unrest. Empress Catherine of Russia now made moves towards the annexation/partitioning of Poland. However, Maria Theresa had other plans for Poland. She determined to support Fürst Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski for the position of king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Fürst Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski went on to win the election with Austrian support in 1765. Russia was not happy and began to stir up a rebellion in Podolia. Adam I called on Austrian aid and in late 1765 Austrian forces entered Podolia to quell the rebellion. The Austrian-Polish army met the Podolian rebels outside Lwow, the battle ended in an Austrian-Polish victory. The poorly armed rebels were routed and the rebellion was subdued. The crisis seemed to be over, until Catherine decided to resort to war. A Russia army under feared general Count Pyotr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky marched into Podolia under the pretence of restoring order to the province. This blatant lie allowed Austria to call the Grand Alliance in to action for the second time. Prussian troops marched into Poland to help shore up Polish defences and the British sent naval forces to attack Russian ports in the Black Sea. The Austrian-Polish army met the Russians at Lwow, where they had set up a garrison. The Austrian-Polish forces were routed by the Russians and Podolia and everywhere east of it was occupied by the Russians. At this point the Russians called upon their French allies to occupy the Austrians in Germany, to allow the Russians to crush Poland. The French subsequently invaded the Austrian Netherlands under Louis Philippe d'Orléans and defeated an Austrian army near Brussels. The Austrians retreated into British Hannover, leaving the Netherlands under French control. At the dawn of 1766 the Franco-Russian Alliance was dominant.
Austrian infantry at the First Battle of Lwow
As 1766 began the Austrians and their allies were facing the first true defeat to face the Austrian nation for many years. South-east Poland was under Russian occupation and the Austrian Netherlands under French occupation. These small gains for the Franco-Russian Detente hid their dominance. In fact, most historians agree that, the Austrians and their allies should have lost the war. The Grand Alliance, however, began 1766 with a counter-attack through Poland. A united Grand Alliance army under Field-Marshal Franz Moritz Von Lacy, containing Austrian, British, Polish and Prussian troops marched from Konigsberg to invade Russia. The Grand Alliance army met the Russians near Tannennberg, the Russians having begun a second invasion of Poland, the army of the Grand Alliance drew up into battle formation and the right cavalry wing, charged the Russian right flank. The Russian right wing was shattered and much of it fled the field. von Lacy then ordered the main body of Grand Alliance force to charge the Russians, with the left cavalry division sweeping behind to block Russian escape. This brutal, arguably accidental, tactic crushed the Russian forces between two pincers and a hammer blow. (This tactic would be refined by generals throughout history and become known as the von Lacy Two-Horned Hammer.) The Russians, with two wings of cavalry smashing into their rear ranks and the bulk of the Grand Alliance force charging their front, were routed and suffered the horrendous losses. The Battle of Tannennberg marked the beginning of Grand Alliance dominance on the Eastern Front. However, the French were still reigned supreme in the West. British attacks on the French Americas and French India did little to deter the French from further advance in Germany.
A British force under General Wolfe had attempted daring invasion of Louisiana and even reached New Orleans, before begin defeated at the Battle of the Mississippi. This Battle fought near New Orleans on the banks of the River Mississippi ended in disaster for the British who were driven, almost, into the Mississippi River itself by the French. This did not happen but the whole British force along with General Wolfe was captured by the French. This allowed the French to invade the 14 Colonies. Under information forced out of Wolfe the French smashed into British Florida, slaughtering the garrisons of several forts and getting within 21 miles of the Atlantic Coast. The French army under Marquis De Montcalm (who was killed at Quebec IOTL) reached Fort King George where they faced a British army under the Duke of Cumberland. The battle lasted 3 days as neither side gave an inch. The British cavalry broke the French right flank, before being driven off by a French cavalry counter-attack. The French infantry charged the British line 5 times through the battle, but was driven off each time. As the battle dragged on the French were looking increasing worse for wear and at noon on the third day British reinforcements arrived from Philadelphia. The arriving cavalry shattered the French rear-guard and the French fled the field of battle retreating back to Louisiana. By April 1766 the position of the Détente was looking significantly less powerful.
The British cavalry charge on the French rear guard at the Battle of Fort King George
However, things took a turn for the worst the following month, as far as the North American Front was concerned. On the 14th June 1766 open rebellion broke out in the 14 Colonies. The anti-British sentiment had been brewing for years and had been exacerbated by the loss of British Canada ten years previously. The belief that the British homeland was in no position to defend the colonies had become dominant since 1756 and the French drive to Fort King George was the nail in the coffin. Armed riots broke out in Philadelphia, encouraged by the lack of a garrison (it having been sent to aid the British forces at the Battle of Fort King George), Boston, Charleston and Halifax. Despite this, the British looked likely to regain control swiftly, but the ‘Battle’ of Halifax changed all that. The garrison of Halifax attempted to seize back the town but were met by armed rebels in the town square. A ‘warning’ shot from a rebel struck and killed the garrison’s commanding officer and the garrison, panicked and unsure what to do, fired upon the rebels. At this point rebels charged the redcoats and fierce hand-to-hand combat began. The rebels were eventually defeated after loyalist colonials joined the ‘battle’ and the rebels were driven from the town. The British won a military victory, but the rebels a propaganda one. The rebels suffered 43 dead and 76 injured, whilst the British suffered 29 dead and 41 injured, the rebel propaganda machine chirmed out newspaper reports of the Halifax Massacre and by 1767 the rebels were widely supported and in control of most of the major towns and cities of the Thirteen Colonies. Meanwhile in New France a second rebellion broke out in July 1766. Mainly made up of British loyalists and some pro-British tribes, the rebellion centred around the Hudson Bay. The rebels swiftly gathered support and six months after the rebellion broke out had secured the whole of formerly British Canada. These two rebellions greatly distracted the British and French from the war in Europe. The British withdrew from the war entirely, but still allowed the other Grand Alliance members to pass through Hanover, whilst the French merely scaled down their designs on the Rhineland, for now.
The Grand Alliance (obviously minus Britain) carried on the fight against Europe, even gaining the North Italian League as an ally. The Grand Alliance aimed to remove the Russians from Podolia and stir up rebellion among the Cossacks of Ukraine, whilst driving through Italy, taking out Sardinia to ensure France gained no more allies, and into France. The Grand Alliance main army, under von Lacy still, marched down from Tannennberg to meet Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky’s army in Podolia and met them at Lwow for the second time. The Third Battle of Lwow, began ordinarily enough as each side attacked each other with cannon and tentative cavalry manoeuvres. Both commanders were legendary and the battle would not remain quiet for long. von Lacy initiated the fighting with his, now trademark, two pronged charge and the Austrian and Prussian cavalry wings swept around into the Russian flanks. The Russian right wing broke, but the left wing held and scattered the Austrian cavalry. Then Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky brought his victorious left wing round to encircle the Prussian cavalry and crushing them. The Grand Alliance infantry had advanced by this time and now charged the now out of position Russian army. The two armies, both now largely cavalry-less, met in brutal hand-to-hand combat, however, the winning blow would come from the small detachment of Polish cavalry who charged Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky and body guard, capturing the Count. Leaderless the Russian forces fled the field. The Third Battle of Lwow was a truly meaningless victory for the Grand Alliance, yes the main Russian force had been broken and Podolia largely liberated, but the casualties were so great that no attempt press on into Russia could have been considered wise. Thus, the army of the Grand Alliance camped in Lwow awaiting reinforcements. The capture of Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky was the only real reward gained by the Third Battle of Lwow, as it stripped Russia of a talented general and allowed the Grand Alliance an insight into the Russian tactics. 1766 ended with a far different situation to that that 1765 had.
The Russian left cavalry wing charge at the Third Battle of Lwow
Part 4: The Third War of Polish Succession or 6 Year’s War 1765-1771 Section 2:
1767 was a quieter year in the 6 Year’s War, neither the Russians nor the Grand Alliance made any significant effort break the stalemate in Poland and the main action of the year occurred in North America where 14 Colonies (the original 13 plus Florida) Rebellion and Canadian Rebellion went on in full swing. The Canadian rebels emulated the British army before them with Christmas in Louisbourg having seized Quebec and edged towards Newfoundland, where a third rebellion was breaking out. The 14 Colonies rebels remained engaged in vicious fighting with the British, even negotiations went on. By 1768 the Canadian rebels had declared the United Republics of Canada and Newfoundland (URCN or just simply Canada) and were occupying most of Canada. The 14 Colonies rebels were doing less well, having gained minimal territory but they had reinforced their position in areas already held.
1768 opened with much more fighting than 1767 had seen. The Grand Alliance finally began their attempt to whip up a Cossack rebellion. They promised an independent Cossack state and military support for their rebellion. Unsurprisingly the Cossacks rose up against Catherine and her government. Armed Cossack bands attacked Russian garrisons and began raiding towns in an around the Don area. Whilst a distraction to the Russians, it was hardly on the scale the Grand Alliance had hoped for. Thus they marched into Russia in June, with the aim to reach the core Cossack area before winter. The Grand Alliance army, now under Generalissimo Baron Ernst von Laudon, routed a Russian force outside Kiev and occupied the city, installed a Polish garrison in the city and then the army of the Grand Alliance marched on to Pereyaslav which was occupied without bloodshed. The first major battle of the, so-called, von Laudon Offensive was the Battle of Poltava, against a Russian army under Count Pyotr Saltykov. The Grand Alliance army, having captured some Russian scouts had discovered the position of the Russian army and advanced on them from behind. The Grand Alliance cavalry charged the Russian rear-guard, shattering their ranks. The Grand Alliance infantry followed up the cavalry charge and set upon the Russian centre. The Russian forces crumbled and fled the field of battle. The remnants of the Russian army retreated to Kharkov where they awaited reinforcements from Catherine.
At this point Austria sent envoys to Sweden and the Ottomans offering them Russian land in the peace treaty, if they entered the 6 Year’s War on the side of the Grand Alliance. Both nations agreed, Sweden eager to regain land lost in the Great Northern War and the Ottomans keen to consolidate their Ukrainian holdings. Thus on the 23rd August an Ottoman force marched from the Crimea to aid the Cossacks in the Don Region, this unlikely alliance brought about by negative cohesion and clever Austrian diplomacy. 6 days later a Swedish army besieged Viborg in Karelia. The Russians responded well to this three pronged attack, raising the siege of Viborg and defeating the Ottoman expeditionary force on the banks of the Doneta, however this could not disguise the growing unrest among the Russian people.
Swedish artillery at the Siege of Viborg
The Cossack rebellion fuelled by the Grand Alliance and armed with Grand Alliance guns successfully captured Sarai in October 1768 and looked likely to threaten Astrakhan. Meanwhile the Tartars, inspired by the Cossacks also rose up in September 1768 and two months later the two rebel groups agreed an alliance with the aim of creating a unified Ukrainian state for the Tartars and Cossacks. Catherine responded with great force to the Tartar rebellion sending a large army to crush the rebels. This plan succeeded and the main Tartar force was slaughtered outside Kharkov. Unfortunately for Catherine, however, this major attack allowed the Swedish to launch a second offensive to take Viborg, and take it they did in April 1769. A month later a Cossack-Ottoman army captured Astrakhan. Russia was crumbling in front of Catherine’s eyes. The nobles of the court took action, on 1st June 1769 Catherine’s son Paul was kidnapped by the nobles, who planned to place him on the throne as their puppet. Two days later a Polish-Swedish army took the city of Riga. This left Russia with no Baltic coast, Estonia and the rest of Livonia having already mean occupied. The Russian nation was in a dire way. On the 12th June Catherine was overthrown in a coup and Prince Paul declared Tsar. The nobles who had engineered the coup, realising that they could not hope to roll back the loses they had suffered agreed to the Treaty of Kiev on the 2nd July 1769, a day that would go live long in Russian memory as the worst humiliation of the empire. Under the Treaty of Kiev:
Part 5: The Third War of Polish Succession of 6 Year’s War 1765-1771 Section 3:
After the resounding victory over Russia von Laudon and von Lacy decided the time was right to launch the North Italian Plan. Austria assembled a second army, made up of soldiers from across the North Italian Confederation and Austria, under Field-marshal von Lacy to attack Sardinia. However, the Sardinians got word of the army build up and declared war on the Grand Alliance at the start of 1770. They invaded Genoa, just as they had done in the War of Sardinian Succession, this time Genoa, the bulk of its army in Venice with the North Italian Confederation army, was defeated within the month. By this time von Lacy had received word of the Sardinian action and marched to meet the Sardinian army.
The French meanwhile had given up on New France and formally acknowledged the URCN. This allowed them to turn their attention to Europe once more. A French army under Louis Philippe d'Orléans marched through Germany to Bavaria, where they hoped to join a Bavarian force to invade Austria. A second French army under Marquis de Montcalm marched in to Sardinia to support their new allies. The French support met the Sardinian army in Genoa and from there the two armies, now unified, marched to meet the army of the North Italian Confederation and Austria. The two forces met near Milan. The Franco-Sardinian army scored a resounding victory and drove the North Italian forces back to Venetian territory. Less than a week later the Genoans surrendered to the Sardinians and the nation was annexed by Sardinia. 3 days after that the Bavarians declared war on Austria, under French pressure, and the Franco-Bavarian army under Marquis de Montcalm invaded Austria. Fortunately for the Austrians, the victorious Austrian soldiers that had fought in Russia arrived 3 days after the French and Bavarians laid siege to Linz. The Battle of Linz ended in a draw with the French and Bavarians freshness counter-acting the battle-hardened Austrians. Despite the battle’s actual result the Austrians claimed victory, as the Franco-Bavarians retreat back to Bavaria shortly afterwards due to the heavy casualties they had sustained. In north Italy the war was at a stalemate. The Grand Alliance had won the Battles of Vercelli, Casale and Alessandria and prevented the further advance of Sardinian forces into Lombardy. However, the Sardinians had advanced south from Genoa and defeated a North Italian Confederation army at Massa and against at Lucca. This meant that, whilst they had been forced out of Milan, they had occupied Massa and the Republic of Lucca. The war in Italy was still undecided as 1771 dawned.
Meanwhile Canada declared support for the 14 Colonies rebels and invaded New England in May 1770. They defeated the British in 3 successive battles and smashed their way down the Atlantic coast. In response the 14 Colonies rebels redoubled their efforts and met the last major British force in America outside Perth Amboy, New Jersey. The army of the 14 Colonies, under Lord Stirling fought the British force, under George Washington to a standstill and then watched as the remnants of the British army that had once ruled the 14 Colonies fled the Americas by sea. By January 1771 all of British America was in rebel hands and on the 1st February 1771 the United Republics of America (or URA) was formed by the leaders of the 14 Colonies Rebels.
The Battle of Perth Amboy
The Grand Alliance launched the final campaign of the 6 Year’s War in June 1771. A Grand Alliance army marched into Bavaria from Austria, whilst a Prussian army invaded from the north. The Prussians were defeated swiftly, but had played their part. They had drawn away Bavarian forces from the south, allowing the main army, under von Laudon to reach Munich. At Munich von Laudon’s army met a Franco-Bavarian army under Maximilian III, Prince-Elector of Bavaria, and Marquis de Montcalm, Prince-Elector Maximilian III having demanded to be placed in joint command of the army. The Grand Alliance army engaged the Franco-Bavarians on the shores of Lake Würm. The Franco-Bavarians were drawn up to the north-east near the town of Berg when the Grand Alliance forces arrived. The woods bordering the lake impeded the cavalry and thus infantry played a key role in the Battle of Berg. von Laudon ordered his army to round Lake Würm to allow them to attack the Franco-Bavarians from behind. He then ordered his cavalry to charge through the woodland pass Berg, drawing out the Franco-Bavarian forces from the safety of the town. Things did not go as planned. Only half of the Franco-Bavarian army, the Bavarian soldiers under Maximilian III attempted to attack the Grand Alliance cavalry. This left von Laudon in a tricky position, if he attacked the Bavarian troops he could defeat them, but would leave half of the enemy still safe in Berg. He decided to attack, ordering the Grand Alliance infantry to line up between Berg and the Bavarian troops, thus blocking any retreat and also any French counter-attack. The Grand Alliance cavalry turned and crushed the Bavarian forces against the Grand Alliance infantry, just like a hammer on an anvil. Witnessing the shattering of the Bavarian forces Marquis de Montcalm send an envoy to von Laudon as he camped outside offering to surrender providing they could return to France un-harassed, von Laudon agreed and entered Munich victorious as de Montcalm and his forces retreated from Bavaria.
Generalissimo von Laudon riding into Berg after de Montcalm’s surrender
With the 6 Year’s War now either resolved or at a stalemate on every front France and all members of the Grand Alliance agreed to negotiate a treaty in Munich. The Treaty of Munich was as follows:
The world at the end of the Third War of Polish Succession or 6 Year’s War
Interlude 4: The Decade of Peace 1772-1782:
After the Treaty of Munich was signed, Empress Maria Theresa decided the time was right for further reforms; however she died in 1773 before any of her reforms could be introduced. Her son Joseph II decided to continue his mother’s reforms, but on an even grander scale. One of the most controversial, at least amongst the nobility, was his complete abolition of serfdom in 1775. He also pursued an aggressive policy of centralising, not only in terms of bringing the empire together, but in terms of strengthening the power of the Emperor in nation at the expense of the nobility’s. He also pushed through numerous other reforms such as compulsory education, religious toleration, making German the Empire’s official language and others. The result was that by 1778, just 5 years after he came to the throne Joseph II had made Austria a strong, centralised and advanced state. The emergence of Vienna as the centre of the European Enlightenment following the exodus of French thinkers in Paris during the Great Movement was a major influence in Joseph II’s reforms. Not everyone in the empire approved of Joseph’s actions however. Many in the nobility felt cheated and resolved to check the future pace of reform and in the eastern parts of the Empire the decrease in the Hungarian Diet’s power angered many. These reforms, greatly eased the impact of the 6 Year’s War on the people of Austria despite the anger that some of them caused. The Bavarian conquest caused great rejoicing from Joseph II, who had long hoped for such a conquest, and he immediately, upon his ascension to the Austrian throne, set about integrating the Bavarians into the Habsburg domain. He created the Bavarian Assembly, who would hold the same amount of power as that of the Hungarians, only in Bavaria of course. This move, designed to begin to begin the process of fully assimilating the Bavarian, German, culture with the Austrian, German, culture. Joseph II’s ultimate aim was a fully centralised Austro-Bavarian-Hungarian Empire in which each culture and national identity were equal, relatively speaking for the 1700s. On top of his reforms within the empire, Joseph II, along with Doge Alvise Giovanni Mocenigo of Venice, Duke Charles II August of Zweibrücken (in his capacity as Regent of Poland-Lithuania for his son and daughter-in-law-to-be) and George III of the United Kingdom and Hanover signed the Second Grand Alliance Treaty in 1777 to ratify the alliance, following Prussia’s defection to an alliance with Holland. As for Joseph II’s aims in all this, historians argue that he was hoping to achieve a Austrian hegemony over Central/Eastern Europe, certainly his support of his nephew’s claim to the Polish-Lithuanian throne suggests as much, as does his ‘creation’ of a stronger, more Italian focussed, Venice. However others argue that he simply wanted to get as much power for his nation as he possibly could.
Joseph II of Austria
Meanwhile in France the death of Louis XV in 1773 brought to an end a 68 year reign. During this time Louis XV had done little to help the French. Whilst he had, temporarily, gained British Canada and secured the long hoped for Austrian Netherlands he had engaged the French in two major wars and one minor one. The War of Sardinian Succession had seen France gain British Canada, which they then lost, along with New France, in the Canadian Revolution. The 6 Year’s War was more fruitful for the French, despite the loss of New France, as it saw the gain of the Austrian Netherlands by its puppet the Bavarian Wittelsbachs. Despite this significant gain much of the populace were angered by Louis XV’s rule. The three wars he took French into lead to a dramatic rise in taxes, bringing more suffering on the poor of France. Fortunately for Louis XV the Great Movement between 1752 and 1759 meant that he faced no serious, organised, opposition. However this spelled doom for Louis XV’s successor. Following his father’s death Louis XV’s son Louis came to the throne as Louis XVI (OOC: this is Louis XV’s son, who has not died of tuberculosis ITTL), Louis XVI was a far more liberal minded king than his father and set forth a series of reforms. However, the French nobles opposed these reforms as they dramatically increased the taxes they had to pay and reduced their power in the nation.
Louis XVI of France
The situation in Prussia was significantly better than that faced by France. Fredrick II’s new found emphasis on the arts had meant that Prussian involvement in the 6 Year’s War had been small. This allowed Prussia to continue to develop as centre of culture and philosophy whilst its main rivals in that field were recovering from the war. Even Austria whose troubles were limited by Joseph II’s reforms would lag behind Prussia by 1782. Frederick II also took this opportunity to spend more money on modernising the Prussian navy and, ultimately, to set up a Prussian East India Company in Konigsberg.
The Frederick II University of Berlin
Meanwhile in the Netherlands things were rather less peaceful than in the rest of Europe. The gain of the Austrian Netherlands by the French was troubling for the Dutch, because the French now have a clear path to invade and take over the Netherlands. On top that, the rivalry between Republican and Orangist factions had caused significant internal strife for many years. The nation of the Netherlands was in real trouble in 1772, but fortunately for the nation the seizing of the Austrian Netherlands forced the Republicans and Orangists to set aside their differences to hold the country together. This bond was fragile, though, and the threat of further internal strife and even civil war was always on the cards. The dominance of Wilhelmina of Prussia over her husband Prince William V of Orange led to a major change in the Dutch foreign policy in 1776, Wilhelmina, who was the granddaughter of Frederick II, was very keen to establish a friendlier relationship with Prussia and pressured her husband into pursuing that aim. The Prussian ambition to gain East Indian colonies also presented the Netherlands with a way to get hold of some hard cash. Thus on the 15th August 1776 Prince William V of Orange and King Frederick II of Prussia signed the Berlin-Amsterdam Alliance Treaty. Under this treaty Prussia and the Netherlands became allies and the Netherlands ceded Dutch Timor to Prussia in exchange for Prussia financing and facilitating the construction of forts along the French border and the modernisation of the Dutch army and navy.
Wilhelmina of Prussia
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was experiencing a major revival. Under Adam I and with Austrian guidance several reforms were put in place. Adam I removed the Golden Liberty of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and totally overhauled the nation’s Constitution to resemble that of Austria. However things took a blow in 1778 when Adam I died unexpectedly, aged 44, on the 21st May. He had only one child, Maria Anna Czartoryska, aged 10, who was pledged to be married to Archduke Charles Leopold of Austria (son of Maria Amalia of Austria and Duke Charles II August of Zweibrücken OOC: born after the POD), aged 12. Joseph II, happy with his alliance with Polish-Lithuania, decided to support his nephew and niece-in-law-to-be’s claim to the throne of the commonwealth. However several Polish nobles opposed this, hoping to regain their Golden Liberty, and lead by Prince Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł they decided to kidnap the young Princess and seize control of the nation for themselves. The Radom Confederation, as it was known, that included Casimir Pulaski and Michał Jan Pac moved to smuggle away Maria Czartoryska on the 16th June 1778 but came across a large bodyguard around the Princess. Prince Karol Radziwiłł and his force were defeated by the bodyguard and captured. 2 days later Prince Karol Radziwiłł, Casimir Pulaski and Michał Jan Pac were executed 2 days later on the charge of high treason. This ended the, so-called, Radziwiłł Rebellion, but an uprising by nobles remained a serious danger even after Charles Leopold and Anna Czartoryska ascended to the throne as joint king and queen (think King William and Queen Mary of England) in 1786.
Prince Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł
Russia was undergoing serious political reform, Empress Catherine, who had been only seized power from her husband 3 years before the start of the 6 Year’s War, was in serious trouble by the time the Treaty of Kiev was signed. The Cossack-Tartar Rebellion and Grand Alliance’s victories against Russian forces had caused widespread public discontent, not just among the Cossacks and Tartars. Things went from bad to worse with the Treaty of Kiev. The loss of almost all land west of the Dneipr River was the final nail in the Empress’s coffin. Her son Paul launched a coup against her on the 27th October 1779. Paul I was hugely popular as he promised to make Russia into a modern nation like Austria and Prussia. Even the famously anti-Russian minorities of the empire supported Paul I as he promised them increased autonomy and rights. Things were looking better for Russia by 1780. By the end of the Decade of Peace Paul I had rolled out his first sets of reforms. Under these the serfs were released and the nation became increasingly modernised.
Tsar Paul I of Russia
In the United Kingdom things were going better than might be expected. The loss of the 14 Colonies was a blow to the nation, but the newly independent Canada allowed them a way back into North American affairs. In the home islands, meanwhile, the attitude of the people was becoming increasingly anti-George III, who had lost them all their North American possessions and, effectively, lost to France in the Six Year’s War. The Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, openly declared his anti-monarchy sentiment in a speech to parliament in March 1775. Things got even worse for George III in 1777 after he signed the Second Grand Alliance Treaty. William Pitt, and others, saw this as an unnecessary alliance that could easily drag the nation into another Austria versus French war that they saw as none of their business. George III disagreed, hence the signing of the treaty, as he wished to secure his German territories of Hanover against French invasion.
King George III of the United Kingdom
The Decade of Peace had seen 3 major changes in Europe, the Prusso-Dutch alliance, the succession of a Habsburg to the Polish-Lithuanian throne and the creation of a second, different, Grand Alliance. These changes re-created old rivalries on the continent. The Austrians were unhappy with the Prussian alliance with the Netherlands, as they had hoped to keep the Prussians under their thumb, thus establishing their permanent dominance over the Holy Roman Empire. In the meantime, the increasing dominance of Austria over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth made the Russians very irritated, as they themselves had long hoped to dominate Poland. However Russia was in no position to wage war over Poland, nor was Austria for that matter as both sides were still feeling the effects of the Six Year’s War. Thus the Poland crisis came to nothing. Across the Atlantic tensions were building in the remaining American colonies…
Part 1: The War of Austrian Succession 1740-1742:
The War of Austrian Succession began in 1740 as Prussia objected to the Pragmatic Sanction and the succession of Maria Theresa. Austria was supported by the naval powers of Great Britain and the Dutch Republic. The first action of the war was the Prussian invasion of Silesia.
The Prussian forces swiftly advanced across Silesia and by winter had occupied the majority of the Silesian fortresses. The Austrian counter-offensive under General Wilhelm Reinhard von Neipperg relieved the siege of Neisse and marched on Brieg threatening to encircle the Prussians and cut them off from their homeland. On the 10th April 1741 the Prussian forces under Frederick II met the Austrians at the snow covered fields of Mollwitz. However, all did not go as planned. The Austrians had succeeded in capturing some of Prussia’s scouts, who gave away the Prussian position. This allowed Neipperg to draw up the Austrian forces to fight the Prussians head on. The Austrian cavalry charge decimated their Prussian counterparts and captured Frederick II. Unaware of his King’s capture General von Schwerin attempted to hold the Prussian infantry line against the General Rommer’s cavalry. They succeeded in driving the cavalry back, but suffered heavy losses which were increased by the Austrian artillery. Neipperg then ordered the Austrian infantry to advance, the Prussian infantry surrounded by the Austrians and suffering heavy losses surrendered after Schwerin was killed by an Austrian shell. The Battle of Mollwitz had ended in a resounding Austrian victory. The capture of Frederick II and death of the Prussian Chief of Staff von Schwerin would result in the defeat of the Prussian Silesia Campaign.
The Austrian forces have suffered 5300 men dead, but had destroyed the Prussian army and captured their king. After reinforcements arrived from Bohemia (freed up by the lack of France forces in Bavaria unlike OTL) Neipperg mopped up the remaining Prussian garrisons who were heavily demoralised by the capture of their king. Augustus William I had been appointed regent, but did not inspire confidence among the troops in their current state. Thus 2 of the garrisons surrendered without a fight.
Prussian infantry charge at Mollwitz
Under the Treaty of Vienna:
- The Prussian territories in western Germany are partitioned between Austria, Hanover and the Palatine. Austria received Prussian Guelders, the Palatinate received Cleves and Mark and Hanover received Ravensburg and Minden. (In exchange for Cleves and Mark, the Palatine agrees to vote for Maria Theresa/ her husband in the upcoming imperial election.)
- Saxony awarded a strip of land to connect Saxony with Poland.
- Prussia forced to vote for Maria Theresa/husband in the imperial election.
Interlude 1: Military and Economic Reform 1742-1750:
Following the Treaty of Vienna Maria Theresa was left with a victorious but vulnerable empire. Since 1733 Austria had lost all its Italian possessions (except Lombardy and Tuscany), and all land south of the Danube (including the fortresses of Orsova and Belgrade) had been ceded to the Ottomans and Silesia had almost been lost to a minor power. This series of losses and the near loss of the nation's most economically advanced province spurred Maria Theresa into action. She needed to create an adequate economic basis to underpin her nation's status as a great power. Her Secretary of the State Conference Bartenstein realized that the key issue was the unwillingness and inability of the Estates to provide adequately for the payment and supplies of the army. This was due to the Estates being principally concerned with minimizing the burden on their province. In response Maria Theresa decided to raise the subsidy demanded from each province to the level required to support a standing army of 108,000. This additional burden was to be met by taxing seigniorial land, which had previously been exempt from taxation. This plan was met with resistance from the nobility, particularly the Supreme Chancellor Count Friedrich Harrach, who attempted to get the power of the Estates increased in return for the demanded subsidy. However, such plans were rejected.
Count Friedrich Haugwitz, along with Bartenstein and the Cabinet Secretary Koch, was the chief architect of the reforms and almost single-handedly steered them through the State Conference and the Estates. His principal argument was that the ease that Prussia had occupied Silesia, showed that any of the old enemies of Austria could do the same and not be driven out again. He demonstrated the need to tax seigniorial land by reference to the 'self-evident' inability of the peasantry to pay any more than they were already paying. He also reinforced these arguments with the invocation of a general principle of equity. "As it is self-evident that the resources of the peasants do not suffice without the addition of the seigniorial land, which is normally exempt from taxation, to defray the cost of the defence required for the security of the Crown and of the privileges of the Estates, both God-pleasing justice and natural equity demand that the nobility should contribute to this necessary defence in proportion to the full extent of their resources."
Count Freidrich Haugwitz
Interlude 2: Changes in Prussia 1742-1750:
Under Frederick II the Kingdom of Prussia underwent dramatic changes. The nation’s aim shifted once more, this time reverting back to the arts. Frederick II slashed the military budget, preferring to spend money providing patronage to composers, architects and more. Prussia would become a shining light in Europe for the arts. The city of Berlin grew dramatically between the end of the War of Austrian Succession and the War of Sardinian Succession, as Frederick II brought in leading architects from across Europe to build grand new projects in the city. His aim was for Berlin to stand alongside the great capitals of Europe as a city of learning and beauty. The Frederick II University of Berlin was established in 1746 to rival the famed universities of Vienna, Paris and Britain. All of this came at a cost. Between 1742 and 1750 the Prussian army stagnated. The crushing defeat by Austria and the slashing of the budget sent the army’s standard’s into a nose dive, made even worse by the decision in 1747 to further cut the army’s budget and invest in strengthening the navy. Most historians agree that Frederick II’s ultimate aim was a nation like Holland, a nation with a strong navy, a nation that tended to keep out of major land conflicts and had an over-seas ‘empire’. By 1750 a new era in Prussian history was beginning, the Naval Era. For years to come the Prussians would remain involved in European conflict on land but there focus was always on the sea, however their position in Europe, surrounded by potential enemies, necessitated a serious army and thus the Prussians maintained a standing army capable of defending the nation, but far smaller than the army from before the War of Austrian Succession.
Frederick II
Interlude 3: The Ohio Valley Indian War 1742-1746:
In 1742 British and French colonial tensions flared up in the Americas. A Native American attack on a British outpost had gone badly and several Indians were captured, as they were searched French made gear was found on them. The British Governor (OOC: not sure if there were governors at this point, please point out if there weren’t) accused the French of arming the Native Americans and inciting them to attack British outposts. Understandably the French were not happy and denied all accusations. However Native American attacks continued and more French-made gear was discovered. Anti-French and Anti-Native American sentiment grew among colonials and some began to attack Native Americans within the French claims in the Ohio River Valley. As tensions escalated, Britain began a guerrilla campaign using their Native American allies. They clearly hadn’t learnt from France’s attempt at this and armed the Native Americans with British guns. Just like the British had done before hand, the French discovered British guns on Native American attacks. This obvious anti-French move further antagonised the French and on 2nd November 1742. France declared war on Britain, officially over the Ohio River Valley dispute. Because of this the war was sorely fought in the Americas. Britain’s first move was to invade New France and attempt to capture Loiusbourg and Quebec. The French meanwhile were gathering a force to invade the Thirteen Colonies and seize Halifax, Boston and the rest of the colony. The British army, under the command of General Forbes, entered New France, defeating a small French army on the border and marching towards Louisbourg. The French army seized British outposts in Ohio and assumed total control of the Ohio valley area. By this point, however, each nation had realised that that they were being invaded. The French army (which was smaller, 14 000 men, compared to 20 000 men in the British force) continued its invasion in an attempt to gain more than the British and hold a stronger negotiating positon, whilst the British army split into 2 armies numbering 10 000 each. One under Forbes pressed on towards Louisbourg, the other turned around and marched back where they had come from to fight the French. Despite this the British army reached and besieged the fort of Louisbourg, before capturing it on the 22nd December, before famously holding a Christmas banquet in the courtyard that would become known as the Louisbourg Christmas. The French forces captured Fort Necessity and were marching north to Philadelphia. The British army of 10 000 met the French army of 12 000 (2 000 men having been lost or assigned to garrison captured forts). The British were routed following several mistakes by their in-experienced commander, but managed to inflict massive losses on the French army, leaving a French army of 7 000 and a tiny British force of 2 500. The city surrendered 3 days later on the 12th January. Britain offered a status quo ante bellum peace treaty to the French, but it was rejected the French counter-offered with a treaty which would end British claims over the Ohio River Valley. Britain rejected this treaty, however, and the war eventually just ended with a white peace on the 3rd April 1745. The war didn’t officially end until May 1746 when the various Native American tribes that were being influenced by France and Britain finally agreed to a truce.
British infantry on the attack in New France
Part 2: War of Sardinian Succession 1750-1756:
The War of Sardinian Succession, known as The Empress’ War in Austria, the Italian War in Italy, the European War in the Americas and as the Franco-British War in India, began with the invasion of Genoa by Sardinia. Most modern historians agree that it would have remained a regional conflict had it not been for the death of Charles Emmanuel III in battle near Voltri, Genoa and Maria Theresa’s subsequent power play. Following Charles Emmanuel III’s death he was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus III, who was viewed by many as a weak man. Maria Theresa attempted to take advantage of this and have his younger brother Prince Benedetto, who was betrothed to Maria Anna (note: This marriage occurred because she was rejected as a potential wife by most kings because of a spine deformity, it also did not happen IOTL). Some members of the Savoyard nobility supported this idea in the hope of an alliance with Austria, but the king did not. The French then offered their support for Victor Amadeus III if he rejected Maria Theresa’s demands. Low and behold he swiftly did so, in response Austria declared war on Sardinia and sent an army under Field-Marshal Ludwig Khevenhüller to invade Sardinia. France then declared war on Austria, who promptly called the Grand Alliance into action (a recently signed treaty between Britain, Prussia and Austria) bringing the might of two great powers and one minor power on France. France roped Spain into the war on their side shortly afterwards. A British army under General James Wolfe marched from Hanover to assist in the defence of the Austrian Netherlands. Meanwhile in North America another British army under General John Forbes marched towards Louisbourg and another invaded Spanish Florida. France, then agreed an alliance with Saxony-Poland who then invaded Austria. For the next 2 years (from 1751-1753) France and her allies would dominate the war, occupying Hanover, British Canada, the Austrian Netherlands and East Prussia. Bavaria was forced/convinced to enter the war in 1752 on the French side. However a decisive battle at Leuthen, following the Saxon-Polish-Lithuanian (but the force is predominately made up of Saxon forces) invasion of Silesia resulted in the crushing defeat of the Saxon army. A dual-pronged Austrian counter-attack, wiped out the Bavarians at the Battle of Munich and the Saxons at the Battle of Dresden. A Prussian attack then smashed through West Prussia and recaptured East Prussia following the Battle of Konigsberg.
Prussian infantry at the Battle of Konigsberg
Saxony-Poland and Bavaria surrendered on the 3rd March 1755 allowing Austria to turn on France. However, in North America the French had defeated the British invasion at Louisbourg and had now invaded the 13 Colonies and British Canada. British Canada was swiftly occupied, but the 13 Colonies put up more of a fight. Even capturing Spanish Florida had been occupied. In India, meanwhile the French-backed Hyderabadi forces were scoring victory after victory against the British-backed Maratha Empire and a French force was massing to invade Bombay from the south. This brought Austria and Britain to the negotiating table and France was happy to agree to a peace. The Treaty of Voltri was as follows:
- Austria renounces all claims on Sardinian throne and allows creation of North Italian League (including Genoa, Parma, Modena and Lucca).
- Britain gains Spanish Florida.
- France gains British Canada.
- Territory in south of the Maratha Empire ceded to Hyderabad.
- British control in North India confirmed as is French control in the south.
- All other borders reverted to pre-war borders.
Interlude 3: The Great Movement 1757-1759:
Following the French ‘defeat’ of sorts (they were angry at their small gains), in the War of Sardinian Succession unrest began to grow in France, they had been fought to a standstill in America in 1745 and had now lost (largely) the war in Europe. The gains in the Americas and of their allies in India did next to nothing to improve the public mood. Thus in 1757 riots broke out in Paris, Toulouse and other cities across the nation, aggravated in part by the great French thinkers, such as François-Marie Arouet (known by his pen name Voltaire) and Gui-Jean-Baptiste Target. However the riots were swiftly crushed the army. The riots, however, had a lasting effect on the country. Louis XV, further restricted free speech and implemented total censorship on written works. This lead to, what became known as, the Great Movement. Many of the French thinkers and writers left the country, some such as Voltaire moved to Louisiana, others moved to New Spain and some more moved to Austria.
François-Marie Arouet (Voltaire)
Part 3: Third War of Polish Succession or 6 Year’s War 1765-1771 Section 1:
The Third War of Polish Succession began in 1765 after the death of Augustus III of Poland, but soon spread from Eastern Europe to engulf most of Europe and the Americas. It is known by many, therefore, as the 6 Year’s War. Augustus III of Poland died in 1764, leaving behind an unorganised nation, crippled by internal unrest. Empress Catherine of Russia now made moves towards the annexation/partitioning of Poland. However, Maria Theresa had other plans for Poland. She determined to support Fürst Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski for the position of king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Fürst Adam Kazimierz Czartoryski went on to win the election with Austrian support in 1765. Russia was not happy and began to stir up a rebellion in Podolia. Adam I called on Austrian aid and in late 1765 Austrian forces entered Podolia to quell the rebellion. The Austrian-Polish army met the Podolian rebels outside Lwow, the battle ended in an Austrian-Polish victory. The poorly armed rebels were routed and the rebellion was subdued. The crisis seemed to be over, until Catherine decided to resort to war. A Russia army under feared general Count Pyotr Alexandrovich Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky marched into Podolia under the pretence of restoring order to the province. This blatant lie allowed Austria to call the Grand Alliance in to action for the second time. Prussian troops marched into Poland to help shore up Polish defences and the British sent naval forces to attack Russian ports in the Black Sea. The Austrian-Polish army met the Russians at Lwow, where they had set up a garrison. The Austrian-Polish forces were routed by the Russians and Podolia and everywhere east of it was occupied by the Russians. At this point the Russians called upon their French allies to occupy the Austrians in Germany, to allow the Russians to crush Poland. The French subsequently invaded the Austrian Netherlands under Louis Philippe d'Orléans and defeated an Austrian army near Brussels. The Austrians retreated into British Hannover, leaving the Netherlands under French control. At the dawn of 1766 the Franco-Russian Alliance was dominant.
Austrian infantry at the First Battle of Lwow
As 1766 began the Austrians and their allies were facing the first true defeat to face the Austrian nation for many years. South-east Poland was under Russian occupation and the Austrian Netherlands under French occupation. These small gains for the Franco-Russian Detente hid their dominance. In fact, most historians agree that, the Austrians and their allies should have lost the war. The Grand Alliance, however, began 1766 with a counter-attack through Poland. A united Grand Alliance army under Field-Marshal Franz Moritz Von Lacy, containing Austrian, British, Polish and Prussian troops marched from Konigsberg to invade Russia. The Grand Alliance army met the Russians near Tannennberg, the Russians having begun a second invasion of Poland, the army of the Grand Alliance drew up into battle formation and the right cavalry wing, charged the Russian right flank. The Russian right wing was shattered and much of it fled the field. von Lacy then ordered the main body of Grand Alliance force to charge the Russians, with the left cavalry division sweeping behind to block Russian escape. This brutal, arguably accidental, tactic crushed the Russian forces between two pincers and a hammer blow. (This tactic would be refined by generals throughout history and become known as the von Lacy Two-Horned Hammer.) The Russians, with two wings of cavalry smashing into their rear ranks and the bulk of the Grand Alliance force charging their front, were routed and suffered the horrendous losses. The Battle of Tannennberg marked the beginning of Grand Alliance dominance on the Eastern Front. However, the French were still reigned supreme in the West. British attacks on the French Americas and French India did little to deter the French from further advance in Germany.
A British force under General Wolfe had attempted daring invasion of Louisiana and even reached New Orleans, before begin defeated at the Battle of the Mississippi. This Battle fought near New Orleans on the banks of the River Mississippi ended in disaster for the British who were driven, almost, into the Mississippi River itself by the French. This did not happen but the whole British force along with General Wolfe was captured by the French. This allowed the French to invade the 14 Colonies. Under information forced out of Wolfe the French smashed into British Florida, slaughtering the garrisons of several forts and getting within 21 miles of the Atlantic Coast. The French army under Marquis De Montcalm (who was killed at Quebec IOTL) reached Fort King George where they faced a British army under the Duke of Cumberland. The battle lasted 3 days as neither side gave an inch. The British cavalry broke the French right flank, before being driven off by a French cavalry counter-attack. The French infantry charged the British line 5 times through the battle, but was driven off each time. As the battle dragged on the French were looking increasing worse for wear and at noon on the third day British reinforcements arrived from Philadelphia. The arriving cavalry shattered the French rear-guard and the French fled the field of battle retreating back to Louisiana. By April 1766 the position of the Détente was looking significantly less powerful.
The British cavalry charge on the French rear guard at the Battle of Fort King George
However, things took a turn for the worst the following month, as far as the North American Front was concerned. On the 14th June 1766 open rebellion broke out in the 14 Colonies. The anti-British sentiment had been brewing for years and had been exacerbated by the loss of British Canada ten years previously. The belief that the British homeland was in no position to defend the colonies had become dominant since 1756 and the French drive to Fort King George was the nail in the coffin. Armed riots broke out in Philadelphia, encouraged by the lack of a garrison (it having been sent to aid the British forces at the Battle of Fort King George), Boston, Charleston and Halifax. Despite this, the British looked likely to regain control swiftly, but the ‘Battle’ of Halifax changed all that. The garrison of Halifax attempted to seize back the town but were met by armed rebels in the town square. A ‘warning’ shot from a rebel struck and killed the garrison’s commanding officer and the garrison, panicked and unsure what to do, fired upon the rebels. At this point rebels charged the redcoats and fierce hand-to-hand combat began. The rebels were eventually defeated after loyalist colonials joined the ‘battle’ and the rebels were driven from the town. The British won a military victory, but the rebels a propaganda one. The rebels suffered 43 dead and 76 injured, whilst the British suffered 29 dead and 41 injured, the rebel propaganda machine chirmed out newspaper reports of the Halifax Massacre and by 1767 the rebels were widely supported and in control of most of the major towns and cities of the Thirteen Colonies. Meanwhile in New France a second rebellion broke out in July 1766. Mainly made up of British loyalists and some pro-British tribes, the rebellion centred around the Hudson Bay. The rebels swiftly gathered support and six months after the rebellion broke out had secured the whole of formerly British Canada. These two rebellions greatly distracted the British and French from the war in Europe. The British withdrew from the war entirely, but still allowed the other Grand Alliance members to pass through Hanover, whilst the French merely scaled down their designs on the Rhineland, for now.
The Grand Alliance (obviously minus Britain) carried on the fight against Europe, even gaining the North Italian League as an ally. The Grand Alliance aimed to remove the Russians from Podolia and stir up rebellion among the Cossacks of Ukraine, whilst driving through Italy, taking out Sardinia to ensure France gained no more allies, and into France. The Grand Alliance main army, under von Lacy still, marched down from Tannennberg to meet Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky’s army in Podolia and met them at Lwow for the second time. The Third Battle of Lwow, began ordinarily enough as each side attacked each other with cannon and tentative cavalry manoeuvres. Both commanders were legendary and the battle would not remain quiet for long. von Lacy initiated the fighting with his, now trademark, two pronged charge and the Austrian and Prussian cavalry wings swept around into the Russian flanks. The Russian right wing broke, but the left wing held and scattered the Austrian cavalry. Then Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky brought his victorious left wing round to encircle the Prussian cavalry and crushing them. The Grand Alliance infantry had advanced by this time and now charged the now out of position Russian army. The two armies, both now largely cavalry-less, met in brutal hand-to-hand combat, however, the winning blow would come from the small detachment of Polish cavalry who charged Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky and body guard, capturing the Count. Leaderless the Russian forces fled the field. The Third Battle of Lwow was a truly meaningless victory for the Grand Alliance, yes the main Russian force had been broken and Podolia largely liberated, but the casualties were so great that no attempt press on into Russia could have been considered wise. Thus, the army of the Grand Alliance camped in Lwow awaiting reinforcements. The capture of Count Rumyantsev-Zadunaisky was the only real reward gained by the Third Battle of Lwow, as it stripped Russia of a talented general and allowed the Grand Alliance an insight into the Russian tactics. 1766 ended with a far different situation to that that 1765 had.
The Russian left cavalry wing charge at the Third Battle of Lwow
Part 4: The Third War of Polish Succession or 6 Year’s War 1765-1771 Section 2:
1767 was a quieter year in the 6 Year’s War, neither the Russians nor the Grand Alliance made any significant effort break the stalemate in Poland and the main action of the year occurred in North America where 14 Colonies (the original 13 plus Florida) Rebellion and Canadian Rebellion went on in full swing. The Canadian rebels emulated the British army before them with Christmas in Louisbourg having seized Quebec and edged towards Newfoundland, where a third rebellion was breaking out. The 14 Colonies rebels remained engaged in vicious fighting with the British, even negotiations went on. By 1768 the Canadian rebels had declared the United Republics of Canada and Newfoundland (URCN or just simply Canada) and were occupying most of Canada. The 14 Colonies rebels were doing less well, having gained minimal territory but they had reinforced their position in areas already held.
1768 opened with much more fighting than 1767 had seen. The Grand Alliance finally began their attempt to whip up a Cossack rebellion. They promised an independent Cossack state and military support for their rebellion. Unsurprisingly the Cossacks rose up against Catherine and her government. Armed Cossack bands attacked Russian garrisons and began raiding towns in an around the Don area. Whilst a distraction to the Russians, it was hardly on the scale the Grand Alliance had hoped for. Thus they marched into Russia in June, with the aim to reach the core Cossack area before winter. The Grand Alliance army, now under Generalissimo Baron Ernst von Laudon, routed a Russian force outside Kiev and occupied the city, installed a Polish garrison in the city and then the army of the Grand Alliance marched on to Pereyaslav which was occupied without bloodshed. The first major battle of the, so-called, von Laudon Offensive was the Battle of Poltava, against a Russian army under Count Pyotr Saltykov. The Grand Alliance army, having captured some Russian scouts had discovered the position of the Russian army and advanced on them from behind. The Grand Alliance cavalry charged the Russian rear-guard, shattering their ranks. The Grand Alliance infantry followed up the cavalry charge and set upon the Russian centre. The Russian forces crumbled and fled the field of battle. The remnants of the Russian army retreated to Kharkov where they awaited reinforcements from Catherine.
At this point Austria sent envoys to Sweden and the Ottomans offering them Russian land in the peace treaty, if they entered the 6 Year’s War on the side of the Grand Alliance. Both nations agreed, Sweden eager to regain land lost in the Great Northern War and the Ottomans keen to consolidate their Ukrainian holdings. Thus on the 23rd August an Ottoman force marched from the Crimea to aid the Cossacks in the Don Region, this unlikely alliance brought about by negative cohesion and clever Austrian diplomacy. 6 days later a Swedish army besieged Viborg in Karelia. The Russians responded well to this three pronged attack, raising the siege of Viborg and defeating the Ottoman expeditionary force on the banks of the Doneta, however this could not disguise the growing unrest among the Russian people.
Swedish artillery at the Siege of Viborg
The Cossack rebellion fuelled by the Grand Alliance and armed with Grand Alliance guns successfully captured Sarai in October 1768 and looked likely to threaten Astrakhan. Meanwhile the Tartars, inspired by the Cossacks also rose up in September 1768 and two months later the two rebel groups agreed an alliance with the aim of creating a unified Ukrainian state for the Tartars and Cossacks. Catherine responded with great force to the Tartar rebellion sending a large army to crush the rebels. This plan succeeded and the main Tartar force was slaughtered outside Kharkov. Unfortunately for Catherine, however, this major attack allowed the Swedish to launch a second offensive to take Viborg, and take it they did in April 1769. A month later a Cossack-Ottoman army captured Astrakhan. Russia was crumbling in front of Catherine’s eyes. The nobles of the court took action, on 1st June 1769 Catherine’s son Paul was kidnapped by the nobles, who planned to place him on the throne as their puppet. Two days later a Polish-Swedish army took the city of Riga. This left Russia with no Baltic coast, Estonia and the rest of Livonia having already mean occupied. The Russian nation was in a dire way. On the 12th June Catherine was overthrown in a coup and Prince Paul declared Tsar. The nobles who had engineered the coup, realising that they could not hope to roll back the loses they had suffered agreed to the Treaty of Kiev on the 2nd July 1769, a day that would go live long in Russian memory as the worst humiliation of the empire. Under the Treaty of Kiev:
- Russia forced grant extra autonomy to the Cossacks and Tartars, having refused to allow the creation of Cossack-Tartar state.
- Russia forced to cede all land west of the Dneipr to the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
- Russia forced to cede small amounts of land to the Ottoman Empire.
- Russia forced to cede Estonia, Karelia and Livonia to the Swedish Empire.
- Pay reparations to all members of the Grand Alliance.
Part 5: The Third War of Polish Succession of 6 Year’s War 1765-1771 Section 3:
After the resounding victory over Russia von Laudon and von Lacy decided the time was right to launch the North Italian Plan. Austria assembled a second army, made up of soldiers from across the North Italian Confederation and Austria, under Field-marshal von Lacy to attack Sardinia. However, the Sardinians got word of the army build up and declared war on the Grand Alliance at the start of 1770. They invaded Genoa, just as they had done in the War of Sardinian Succession, this time Genoa, the bulk of its army in Venice with the North Italian Confederation army, was defeated within the month. By this time von Lacy had received word of the Sardinian action and marched to meet the Sardinian army.
The French meanwhile had given up on New France and formally acknowledged the URCN. This allowed them to turn their attention to Europe once more. A French army under Louis Philippe d'Orléans marched through Germany to Bavaria, where they hoped to join a Bavarian force to invade Austria. A second French army under Marquis de Montcalm marched in to Sardinia to support their new allies. The French support met the Sardinian army in Genoa and from there the two armies, now unified, marched to meet the army of the North Italian Confederation and Austria. The two forces met near Milan. The Franco-Sardinian army scored a resounding victory and drove the North Italian forces back to Venetian territory. Less than a week later the Genoans surrendered to the Sardinians and the nation was annexed by Sardinia. 3 days after that the Bavarians declared war on Austria, under French pressure, and the Franco-Bavarian army under Marquis de Montcalm invaded Austria. Fortunately for the Austrians, the victorious Austrian soldiers that had fought in Russia arrived 3 days after the French and Bavarians laid siege to Linz. The Battle of Linz ended in a draw with the French and Bavarians freshness counter-acting the battle-hardened Austrians. Despite the battle’s actual result the Austrians claimed victory, as the Franco-Bavarians retreat back to Bavaria shortly afterwards due to the heavy casualties they had sustained. In north Italy the war was at a stalemate. The Grand Alliance had won the Battles of Vercelli, Casale and Alessandria and prevented the further advance of Sardinian forces into Lombardy. However, the Sardinians had advanced south from Genoa and defeated a North Italian Confederation army at Massa and against at Lucca. This meant that, whilst they had been forced out of Milan, they had occupied Massa and the Republic of Lucca. The war in Italy was still undecided as 1771 dawned.
Meanwhile Canada declared support for the 14 Colonies rebels and invaded New England in May 1770. They defeated the British in 3 successive battles and smashed their way down the Atlantic coast. In response the 14 Colonies rebels redoubled their efforts and met the last major British force in America outside Perth Amboy, New Jersey. The army of the 14 Colonies, under Lord Stirling fought the British force, under George Washington to a standstill and then watched as the remnants of the British army that had once ruled the 14 Colonies fled the Americas by sea. By January 1771 all of British America was in rebel hands and on the 1st February 1771 the United Republics of America (or URA) was formed by the leaders of the 14 Colonies Rebels.
The Battle of Perth Amboy
The Grand Alliance launched the final campaign of the 6 Year’s War in June 1771. A Grand Alliance army marched into Bavaria from Austria, whilst a Prussian army invaded from the north. The Prussians were defeated swiftly, but had played their part. They had drawn away Bavarian forces from the south, allowing the main army, under von Laudon to reach Munich. At Munich von Laudon’s army met a Franco-Bavarian army under Maximilian III, Prince-Elector of Bavaria, and Marquis de Montcalm, Prince-Elector Maximilian III having demanded to be placed in joint command of the army. The Grand Alliance army engaged the Franco-Bavarians on the shores of Lake Würm. The Franco-Bavarians were drawn up to the north-east near the town of Berg when the Grand Alliance forces arrived. The woods bordering the lake impeded the cavalry and thus infantry played a key role in the Battle of Berg. von Laudon ordered his army to round Lake Würm to allow them to attack the Franco-Bavarians from behind. He then ordered his cavalry to charge through the woodland pass Berg, drawing out the Franco-Bavarian forces from the safety of the town. Things did not go as planned. Only half of the Franco-Bavarian army, the Bavarian soldiers under Maximilian III attempted to attack the Grand Alliance cavalry. This left von Laudon in a tricky position, if he attacked the Bavarian troops he could defeat them, but would leave half of the enemy still safe in Berg. He decided to attack, ordering the Grand Alliance infantry to line up between Berg and the Bavarian troops, thus blocking any retreat and also any French counter-attack. The Grand Alliance cavalry turned and crushed the Bavarian forces against the Grand Alliance infantry, just like a hammer on an anvil. Witnessing the shattering of the Bavarian forces Marquis de Montcalm send an envoy to von Laudon as he camped outside offering to surrender providing they could return to France un-harassed, von Laudon agreed and entered Munich victorious as de Montcalm and his forces retreated from Bavaria.
Generalissimo von Laudon riding into Berg after de Montcalm’s surrender
With the 6 Year’s War now either resolved or at a stalemate on every front France and all members of the Grand Alliance agreed to negotiate a treaty in Munich. The Treaty of Munich was as follows:
- Bavaria is annexed by Austria, with the Bavarian Prince-Elector becoming Grand Duke of the, newly-formed, Grand Duchy of Belgium. In accordance with this Bavaria's Electoral rights were returned to the Palatinate.
- The North Italian Confederation is disbanded.
- Genoa and the Republic of Lucca annexed by Sardinia.
- Lombardy and Parma ceded to Venice in exchange for Dalmatia begin ceded to Austria.
- Canada and the URN are recognised by all parties. The Treaty of Munich concluded the greatest war in the world had yet seen. The 6 Year’s War brought slaughter to almost all the nations of Europe and brought two new nations to birth.
The world at the end of the Third War of Polish Succession or 6 Year’s War
Interlude 4: The Decade of Peace 1772-1782:
After the Treaty of Munich was signed, Empress Maria Theresa decided the time was right for further reforms; however she died in 1773 before any of her reforms could be introduced. Her son Joseph II decided to continue his mother’s reforms, but on an even grander scale. One of the most controversial, at least amongst the nobility, was his complete abolition of serfdom in 1775. He also pursued an aggressive policy of centralising, not only in terms of bringing the empire together, but in terms of strengthening the power of the Emperor in nation at the expense of the nobility’s. He also pushed through numerous other reforms such as compulsory education, religious toleration, making German the Empire’s official language and others. The result was that by 1778, just 5 years after he came to the throne Joseph II had made Austria a strong, centralised and advanced state. The emergence of Vienna as the centre of the European Enlightenment following the exodus of French thinkers in Paris during the Great Movement was a major influence in Joseph II’s reforms. Not everyone in the empire approved of Joseph’s actions however. Many in the nobility felt cheated and resolved to check the future pace of reform and in the eastern parts of the Empire the decrease in the Hungarian Diet’s power angered many. These reforms, greatly eased the impact of the 6 Year’s War on the people of Austria despite the anger that some of them caused. The Bavarian conquest caused great rejoicing from Joseph II, who had long hoped for such a conquest, and he immediately, upon his ascension to the Austrian throne, set about integrating the Bavarians into the Habsburg domain. He created the Bavarian Assembly, who would hold the same amount of power as that of the Hungarians, only in Bavaria of course. This move, designed to begin to begin the process of fully assimilating the Bavarian, German, culture with the Austrian, German, culture. Joseph II’s ultimate aim was a fully centralised Austro-Bavarian-Hungarian Empire in which each culture and national identity were equal, relatively speaking for the 1700s. On top of his reforms within the empire, Joseph II, along with Doge Alvise Giovanni Mocenigo of Venice, Duke Charles II August of Zweibrücken (in his capacity as Regent of Poland-Lithuania for his son and daughter-in-law-to-be) and George III of the United Kingdom and Hanover signed the Second Grand Alliance Treaty in 1777 to ratify the alliance, following Prussia’s defection to an alliance with Holland. As for Joseph II’s aims in all this, historians argue that he was hoping to achieve a Austrian hegemony over Central/Eastern Europe, certainly his support of his nephew’s claim to the Polish-Lithuanian throne suggests as much, as does his ‘creation’ of a stronger, more Italian focussed, Venice. However others argue that he simply wanted to get as much power for his nation as he possibly could.
Joseph II of Austria
Meanwhile in France the death of Louis XV in 1773 brought to an end a 68 year reign. During this time Louis XV had done little to help the French. Whilst he had, temporarily, gained British Canada and secured the long hoped for Austrian Netherlands he had engaged the French in two major wars and one minor one. The War of Sardinian Succession had seen France gain British Canada, which they then lost, along with New France, in the Canadian Revolution. The 6 Year’s War was more fruitful for the French, despite the loss of New France, as it saw the gain of the Austrian Netherlands by its puppet the Bavarian Wittelsbachs. Despite this significant gain much of the populace were angered by Louis XV’s rule. The three wars he took French into lead to a dramatic rise in taxes, bringing more suffering on the poor of France. Fortunately for Louis XV the Great Movement between 1752 and 1759 meant that he faced no serious, organised, opposition. However this spelled doom for Louis XV’s successor. Following his father’s death Louis XV’s son Louis came to the throne as Louis XVI (OOC: this is Louis XV’s son, who has not died of tuberculosis ITTL), Louis XVI was a far more liberal minded king than his father and set forth a series of reforms. However, the French nobles opposed these reforms as they dramatically increased the taxes they had to pay and reduced their power in the nation.
Louis XVI of France
The situation in Prussia was significantly better than that faced by France. Fredrick II’s new found emphasis on the arts had meant that Prussian involvement in the 6 Year’s War had been small. This allowed Prussia to continue to develop as centre of culture and philosophy whilst its main rivals in that field were recovering from the war. Even Austria whose troubles were limited by Joseph II’s reforms would lag behind Prussia by 1782. Frederick II also took this opportunity to spend more money on modernising the Prussian navy and, ultimately, to set up a Prussian East India Company in Konigsberg.
The Frederick II University of Berlin
Meanwhile in the Netherlands things were rather less peaceful than in the rest of Europe. The gain of the Austrian Netherlands by the French was troubling for the Dutch, because the French now have a clear path to invade and take over the Netherlands. On top that, the rivalry between Republican and Orangist factions had caused significant internal strife for many years. The nation of the Netherlands was in real trouble in 1772, but fortunately for the nation the seizing of the Austrian Netherlands forced the Republicans and Orangists to set aside their differences to hold the country together. This bond was fragile, though, and the threat of further internal strife and even civil war was always on the cards. The dominance of Wilhelmina of Prussia over her husband Prince William V of Orange led to a major change in the Dutch foreign policy in 1776, Wilhelmina, who was the granddaughter of Frederick II, was very keen to establish a friendlier relationship with Prussia and pressured her husband into pursuing that aim. The Prussian ambition to gain East Indian colonies also presented the Netherlands with a way to get hold of some hard cash. Thus on the 15th August 1776 Prince William V of Orange and King Frederick II of Prussia signed the Berlin-Amsterdam Alliance Treaty. Under this treaty Prussia and the Netherlands became allies and the Netherlands ceded Dutch Timor to Prussia in exchange for Prussia financing and facilitating the construction of forts along the French border and the modernisation of the Dutch army and navy.
Wilhelmina of Prussia
The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was experiencing a major revival. Under Adam I and with Austrian guidance several reforms were put in place. Adam I removed the Golden Liberty of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and totally overhauled the nation’s Constitution to resemble that of Austria. However things took a blow in 1778 when Adam I died unexpectedly, aged 44, on the 21st May. He had only one child, Maria Anna Czartoryska, aged 10, who was pledged to be married to Archduke Charles Leopold of Austria (son of Maria Amalia of Austria and Duke Charles II August of Zweibrücken OOC: born after the POD), aged 12. Joseph II, happy with his alliance with Polish-Lithuania, decided to support his nephew and niece-in-law-to-be’s claim to the throne of the commonwealth. However several Polish nobles opposed this, hoping to regain their Golden Liberty, and lead by Prince Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł they decided to kidnap the young Princess and seize control of the nation for themselves. The Radom Confederation, as it was known, that included Casimir Pulaski and Michał Jan Pac moved to smuggle away Maria Czartoryska on the 16th June 1778 but came across a large bodyguard around the Princess. Prince Karol Radziwiłł and his force were defeated by the bodyguard and captured. 2 days later Prince Karol Radziwiłł, Casimir Pulaski and Michał Jan Pac were executed 2 days later on the charge of high treason. This ended the, so-called, Radziwiłł Rebellion, but an uprising by nobles remained a serious danger even after Charles Leopold and Anna Czartoryska ascended to the throne as joint king and queen (think King William and Queen Mary of England) in 1786.
Prince Karol Stanisław Radziwiłł
Russia was undergoing serious political reform, Empress Catherine, who had been only seized power from her husband 3 years before the start of the 6 Year’s War, was in serious trouble by the time the Treaty of Kiev was signed. The Cossack-Tartar Rebellion and Grand Alliance’s victories against Russian forces had caused widespread public discontent, not just among the Cossacks and Tartars. Things went from bad to worse with the Treaty of Kiev. The loss of almost all land west of the Dneipr River was the final nail in the Empress’s coffin. Her son Paul launched a coup against her on the 27th October 1779. Paul I was hugely popular as he promised to make Russia into a modern nation like Austria and Prussia. Even the famously anti-Russian minorities of the empire supported Paul I as he promised them increased autonomy and rights. Things were looking better for Russia by 1780. By the end of the Decade of Peace Paul I had rolled out his first sets of reforms. Under these the serfs were released and the nation became increasingly modernised.
Tsar Paul I of Russia
In the United Kingdom things were going better than might be expected. The loss of the 14 Colonies was a blow to the nation, but the newly independent Canada allowed them a way back into North American affairs. In the home islands, meanwhile, the attitude of the people was becoming increasingly anti-George III, who had lost them all their North American possessions and, effectively, lost to France in the Six Year’s War. The Prime Minister, William Pitt the Younger, openly declared his anti-monarchy sentiment in a speech to parliament in March 1775. Things got even worse for George III in 1777 after he signed the Second Grand Alliance Treaty. William Pitt, and others, saw this as an unnecessary alliance that could easily drag the nation into another Austria versus French war that they saw as none of their business. George III disagreed, hence the signing of the treaty, as he wished to secure his German territories of Hanover against French invasion.
King George III of the United Kingdom
The Decade of Peace had seen 3 major changes in Europe, the Prusso-Dutch alliance, the succession of a Habsburg to the Polish-Lithuanian throne and the creation of a second, different, Grand Alliance. These changes re-created old rivalries on the continent. The Austrians were unhappy with the Prussian alliance with the Netherlands, as they had hoped to keep the Prussians under their thumb, thus establishing their permanent dominance over the Holy Roman Empire. In the meantime, the increasing dominance of Austria over the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth made the Russians very irritated, as they themselves had long hoped to dominate Poland. However Russia was in no position to wage war over Poland, nor was Austria for that matter as both sides were still feeling the effects of the Six Year’s War. Thus the Poland crisis came to nothing. Across the Atlantic tensions were building in the remaining American colonies…