Grey Wolf
Donor
For what could France do ? Its major ally in the Eastern Mediterranean, the lynchpin of its entire policy in the theatre, and a nation with which they were negotiating rights to build a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, was teetering on the brink. Could France have let her fall ? With investments, with loans, with manpower, materiele and time all invested so heavily ? No, King Ferdinand's government had no choice in their eyes to try and intervene, and overturn the setbacks that the reign, but most especially the death, of Abbas had brought to the Egyptian sultanate.
French support for Greek ambitions, political backing for King George's intervention in Epirus and Thessaly ensured that Austria, although seething at the bit, could not and did not intervene. The British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, under its Lord Commissioner, William Ewart Gladstone, had been instructed by London not to interfere but to protest if the Austrians or French violated their neutrality. Together, these twin pressures allowed the rebellion in Epirus to capture Janina, and a well-armed, competently-led rebel army to take the field against the Ottomans when they finally dispatched an army to put down the revolts in their rebellious Western provinces.
By this time, the great Battle of Rhodes had taken place. A French frigate fortuitously sighting the Russo-Ottoman fleet in the evening, and by dawn the Franco-Egyptian force being in a perfect position to engage. Attempts by the Ottoman portion to cut and run proved disastrous as the French outmanoevred them and cut them to ribbons. The Russians, staying and fighting to the end suffered even more heavily. By nghtfall, only a handful of major vessels survived to escape back to Smyrna. The victorious French proceeded to the Lebanon. leaving the Egyptians to return to Crete and keep an eye on what was left of their adversaries. During this time, a British squadron of ships of the line had been dispatched from Malta, and ordered to watch but not to get involved. This was a conflict in which the Radical government of William Lovett, in London, had no wish to become involved.
Secret memoranda later made public in London did, however, make clear that despite much reluctance Lovett had come to the conclusion that if an Ottoman counter-offensive threatened the very existence of Greece, Britain would have to ally with France to preserve the independence of that kingdom. As it was, no such action was necesarry.
Further East, the army that Said dispatched to his rebellious province of Syria was perhaps the best-equipped that Egypt had ever put into the field. Despite the difficulties of Abbas' reign, the armed forces had retained their position in the state, and the French-equipped army, trained according to the French system instituted by Mohammed Ali after the previous war with the Ottomans, proved more than a match for the few rebel forces it came up against.
But the war in Syria was not to be decided by the Syrians. The Ottoman Empire had dispatched an army to the theatre, and despite heroic efforts this army failed to dislodge Said's forces, or achieve more than to force a stalemate. Had this been the sum of the armed forces involved, it is likely that a repeat of the previous conflict would have resulted, and the Ottomans been forced to back down and see Egypt reoccupy its rebellious province. But this was not the sum of the armed forces involved.
A Russian army, acting under the terms of the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi had requested permission to traverse Eastern Anatolia and take the field in Syria. Despite misgivings, Sultan Abdulmecid was unwilling to provoke his sole reliable allies, and the Russian army duly marched South. It arrived in time to co-ordinate its offensive with the latter non-productive pushes of the Ottoman force, pushing against a solid defence from Said's army. But, the Egyptians could not hold out against two forces and soon were forced to abandon Damascus to jubilant Syrians, and pull back to the South, and West.
On the Lebanon littoral the French fleet had already landed several marine units to take and hold the coastal cities. Other French units, including veteran forces shipped directly from Algiers pushed inland to the mountains. As the Egyptians fell back, they succeeded in establishing a defensive line in Northern Palestine, and in joining with rapidly increasing French forces in the Lebanon.
Further West, the Greek rebels had won a spectacular victory against the Ottoman army sent against them, and revolution appeared to be about to spread throughout Macedonia. But this was not to be, the incipient movements were nipped in the bud by the Ottomans, but Greek control of Epirus and Thessaly seemed assured.
Prince Henri of Orleans, Duke of Aumale and younger brother to King Ferdinand of France visited Cairo to meet with Said. The exact details of the meeting are unknown, but Ferdinand's government afterwards put out peace feelers to the Ottomans and Russians, through the good offices of Prussia. In early 1855 a new treaty was signed.
- Syria was to be returned to Ottoman control
- The Lebanon was to become a French protectorate under Egyptian sovereignty
- Epirus and Thessaly were to be ceded to the Kingdom of Greece
Grey Wolf
French support for Greek ambitions, political backing for King George's intervention in Epirus and Thessaly ensured that Austria, although seething at the bit, could not and did not intervene. The British protectorate of the Ionian Islands, under its Lord Commissioner, William Ewart Gladstone, had been instructed by London not to interfere but to protest if the Austrians or French violated their neutrality. Together, these twin pressures allowed the rebellion in Epirus to capture Janina, and a well-armed, competently-led rebel army to take the field against the Ottomans when they finally dispatched an army to put down the revolts in their rebellious Western provinces.
By this time, the great Battle of Rhodes had taken place. A French frigate fortuitously sighting the Russo-Ottoman fleet in the evening, and by dawn the Franco-Egyptian force being in a perfect position to engage. Attempts by the Ottoman portion to cut and run proved disastrous as the French outmanoevred them and cut them to ribbons. The Russians, staying and fighting to the end suffered even more heavily. By nghtfall, only a handful of major vessels survived to escape back to Smyrna. The victorious French proceeded to the Lebanon. leaving the Egyptians to return to Crete and keep an eye on what was left of their adversaries. During this time, a British squadron of ships of the line had been dispatched from Malta, and ordered to watch but not to get involved. This was a conflict in which the Radical government of William Lovett, in London, had no wish to become involved.
Secret memoranda later made public in London did, however, make clear that despite much reluctance Lovett had come to the conclusion that if an Ottoman counter-offensive threatened the very existence of Greece, Britain would have to ally with France to preserve the independence of that kingdom. As it was, no such action was necesarry.
Further East, the army that Said dispatched to his rebellious province of Syria was perhaps the best-equipped that Egypt had ever put into the field. Despite the difficulties of Abbas' reign, the armed forces had retained their position in the state, and the French-equipped army, trained according to the French system instituted by Mohammed Ali after the previous war with the Ottomans, proved more than a match for the few rebel forces it came up against.
But the war in Syria was not to be decided by the Syrians. The Ottoman Empire had dispatched an army to the theatre, and despite heroic efforts this army failed to dislodge Said's forces, or achieve more than to force a stalemate. Had this been the sum of the armed forces involved, it is likely that a repeat of the previous conflict would have resulted, and the Ottomans been forced to back down and see Egypt reoccupy its rebellious province. But this was not the sum of the armed forces involved.
A Russian army, acting under the terms of the Treaty of Unkiar Skelessi had requested permission to traverse Eastern Anatolia and take the field in Syria. Despite misgivings, Sultan Abdulmecid was unwilling to provoke his sole reliable allies, and the Russian army duly marched South. It arrived in time to co-ordinate its offensive with the latter non-productive pushes of the Ottoman force, pushing against a solid defence from Said's army. But, the Egyptians could not hold out against two forces and soon were forced to abandon Damascus to jubilant Syrians, and pull back to the South, and West.
On the Lebanon littoral the French fleet had already landed several marine units to take and hold the coastal cities. Other French units, including veteran forces shipped directly from Algiers pushed inland to the mountains. As the Egyptians fell back, they succeeded in establishing a defensive line in Northern Palestine, and in joining with rapidly increasing French forces in the Lebanon.
Further West, the Greek rebels had won a spectacular victory against the Ottoman army sent against them, and revolution appeared to be about to spread throughout Macedonia. But this was not to be, the incipient movements were nipped in the bud by the Ottomans, but Greek control of Epirus and Thessaly seemed assured.
Prince Henri of Orleans, Duke of Aumale and younger brother to King Ferdinand of France visited Cairo to meet with Said. The exact details of the meeting are unknown, but Ferdinand's government afterwards put out peace feelers to the Ottomans and Russians, through the good offices of Prussia. In early 1855 a new treaty was signed.
- Syria was to be returned to Ottoman control
- The Lebanon was to become a French protectorate under Egyptian sovereignty
- Epirus and Thessaly were to be ceded to the Kingdom of Greece
Grey Wolf
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