Disaster at Leuthen Timeline
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“...the Prussian king’s horse bolted suddenly, whether from a noise or some other occurrence may never be known, and Frederick was tossed from his saddle. The king’s retinue could only look on in stunned horror as the monarch’s head smashed into a rock and his lifeless body sprawled out on the road. The great Frederick II was dead.” – An excerpt from ‘The Four Year’s War’ by Arthur Stonebridge.
“...the sudden and accidental death of Frederick II was the pivotal moment of the war. The Prussian army, demoralised, confused and without their great leader, was subsequently routed by the larger Austrian army at the Battle of Leuthen on December 5th 1757. The Prussian cause, already desperate, was now hopeless.” – An excerpt from Ferdinand Strauss’s ‘A History of Prussia’.
Prussian Troops advance against Austrian forces Battle of Leuthen 1758:
The collapse of their continental ally left the British in a serious state. The new British government led by William Pitt had set the goal of conquering Canada this year by attacking the French at Louisbourg and Quebec. However, the Prussian collapse had thrown doubt onto all these plans. The French and their allies were now able to shift their focus entirely against Britain. Seeing the Prussian collapse and sensing Britain’s upcoming defeat, Spain, under French pressure, declared war on Great Britain in early June 1758. The Pitt government decided that hey had to act fast to reach a position from which an agreeable peace could be reached. The British plan was therefore to quickly assemble a force in Britain which would be sent to seize Louisbourg while meanwhile creating a force of colonial troops and drive the French out of the Ohio River Valley area. Pitt sent out a passionate call to the colonials asking them for more men to drive out the French, and they responded quite strongly and the volunteers began assembling.
The French and their allies had different plans however. The Spanish began assembling troops in Florida in order to strike at the southern British colonies. Meanwhile the French and Spanish began expanding and improving their fleets. Following the Treaty of Dresden in August 1758, formally acknowledging the Prussian surrender, the French began moving their forces west and massing them near Calais, threatening the invasion of Britain. Seeing the entire might of the French army across the Channel the Royal Navy was called back to defend the home islands. With the Royal Navy concentrated at home the French and Spanish managed to slip more and more men and equipment through the British blockade and land them in the New World. In January of 1759 the French dispatched a large expedition to Canada, containing around 15,000 men. The Pitt government became aware of this and called for the expedition to be intercepted. However, the King and other members of parliament refused, saying this could be a ruse and that the main strength should be kept at home.
With nearly all of mainland Europe closed to it, Britain’s trading ability was severely curtailed and thus the government began to run out of money. The French, now solely focused on Britain and receiving money from a defeated Prussia, were able to out finance their opponents. In order to improve the financial strain on the country Pitt dispatched ships south to raid and capture French West African bases and then proceed on to Africa. With the French expedition now clearly heading to the New World, Pitt was able to gather enough support to dispatch ships from the Home Fleet for his African mission.
In March of 1759 the colonial forces with a British attachment under General Forbes moved west into the Ohio Valley as part of the envisioned British double offensive. The British force that had been organised to attack Louisbourg was delayed however by the invasion scare, and finally arrived in early April. However the imminent arrival of the French expedition, dissuaded the British from attacking Louisbourg, fearing that they would be trapped between the fort and the arriving French. Instead the British moved south to their base at Halifax. The French fleet arrived later that month, the British fleet moved to intercept them. A titanic naval battle ensued off Cape Breton. The French tried to force their way through the British to land their men. At the end of the day the French casualties were 6 ships of the line destroyed, 1 captured, around a dozen smaller vessels lost and around 5,000 dead. The British had lost only 4 ships of the line and less than 10 other ships. However, the French were still able to land around 9,000 men of the expedition before being forced to break off.
In June the French Expedition moved south to strike at Halifax. On July 2nd the British moved out to meet them and the Battle of Halifax was fought. The French army, veterans of the European war, were joined by a further 1,000 men, mostly French Canadians and a few French-allied Indians. The result was a decisive French victory, the British forces was destroyed and Halifax fell. Meanwhile the British Ohio Campaign and succeeded in taking Fort Duquesne and Fort Niagara. However, the Spanish drive into the Carolinas and the French victory at Halifax more than neutralised these gains. In early August, with the Royal Navy concentrated heavily at home, a surprise Franco-Spanish force managed to capture Barbados. In India meanwhile the fighting had gone back and forth, yet neither side had managed to make a significant breakthrough, the arrival of British ships dispatched by Pitt allowed them the British to compete with the French in the subcontinent. The British victory at Plassey however cemented their control over Bengal.
In December the last major battle of the war would be fought. With the nation war weary and with the defeats at Halifax and Cape Breton the Pitt government decided that a resounding victory was needed to raise the country’s morale. The British decide to attack the combined Franco-Spanish fleet massing near Brest. The Royal Navy is however spread across the globe and the force sent to attack the allied fleet is not as powerful as it could have been, especially following the losses at Cape Breton and the ships sent to India and Africa. On December 5th the Royal Navy attacks the allied fleet near Quiberon Bay. The result is a pyrrhic victory for the British. The allies loose nine ships of the line, the British eight and the allied fleet is put to flight. However, the inconclusive victory is not enough to rally the nation. The King, who has the interests of Hannover rather than Britain at heart, intervenes. Pitt is dismissed and the Duke of Newcastle is placed in charge. In early February, following a series of skirmishes and with the French army in Canada marching south, the British ask for an armistice according to status quo ante bellum. The French counter, offering to cede Chandernagore and some West African bases in return for Barbados and Belize (to Spain) and peace. India was to be divided with Britain in Bengal and France in the southeast. After much debate the war weary British government accepts, and the Treaty of Rotterdam is signed on March 27th 1760.
Treaty of Dresden (1760):
In India there was no major exchanges. Instead, the continent was in effect divided into areas of influence. Britain's ownership of Bengal was cemented and recognised, as well as of Bombay. French control on the southeast of the subcontinent was accepted by Britain.
In North America French claims in the Ohio Valley were accepted, though the British Thirteen Colonies were able to solidfy their immediate claims. Nova Scotia was ceded to France along with British Guyana in exchange for France not getting the Austrian Netherlands. British Belize was ceded to Spain and Barbados to France.
The Treaty of Rotterdam was widely unpopular in Britain. The Duke of Newcastle was forced to resign following a backlash explosion in Parliament, and Pitt was back in charge. The new king, George III, was resented for signing the treaty in order to save Hannover. His influence was greatly diminished and Pitt's Parliament began to distance itself from Hannoverian politics, arguing for 'Britain first'.
The major lasting impact of the treaty would be in North America however. The British colonial subjects and the redcoat garrisons eyed the French surrounding them with fear and suspicion. Pro-British Indian tribes, now in French territory, continued to wage a guerrilla campaign against the French supplied and aided by Britain and the colonies.
Treaty of Rotterdam 1760:
The Third War of Polish Succession
(1768-1772)
Part I
The conflict in eastern Europe between 1768 and 1772 is known and was known by many names, the Polish Civil War, the Confederate Uprising, the Crimean War, but the title of the Third War of Polish Succession, though not strictly accurate, is the one that is most widely used and is representative of the war as a whole rather than painting it as a local or regional conflict. The origins of the Third War of Polish Succession (the first two being 1587-1588 and 1733-1738) stem from the ‘election’ of Stanislaw II August Poniatowski as king of Poland in 1764, a nomination that was encouraged by Russian troops. This rigged election upset many leading Polish aristocrats and religious leaders who wished to rid Poland of Russian influence. Following the Four Year’s War (1756-1760) the Prussians began taking an active interest in developments in Poland. The alliance with Britain, though helpful, was strained and the Prussians needed to look for a continental ally, thus they began secret negotiations with the anti-Russian forces in Poland, also pro-Prussian lobbying is stepped up in Istanbul.
King Stanislaw:
“...the sudden and accidental death of Frederick II was the pivotal moment of the war. The Prussian army, demoralised, confused and without their great leader, was subsequently routed by the larger Austrian army at the Battle of Leuthen on December 5th 1757. The Prussian cause, already desperate, was now hopeless.” – An excerpt from Ferdinand Strauss’s ‘A History of Prussia’.
The Four Years War
(1756-1760)
Part I
The Four Year’s War, in Europe, began on 29th August 1756 when Prussian king Frederick II, having recently signed an alliance with Great Britain, invaded the German nation of Saxony in a move designed to pre-empt an Austro-French invasion of Silesia. The Prussian army won a series of battles against the Austro-Saxon forces, eventually cumulating in the surrender of Saxony. The invasion of Saxony however was viewed negatively in the rest of Europe and soon Austria was joined by France and Russia in the war against Prussia. Great Britain joined their Prussian allies, and began sending aid to the Prussians as well as deploying an army under the Duke of Cumberland to Hannover.
Elsewhere in the world the colonial superpowers, Britain and France, battled against each other. In North America the conflict had begun two years ago, and had been going poorly for the British. The French continued to enjoy success, repelling various British assaults into Canada and into Louisiana. The French and their Indian allies maintained the upper hand against the British and the colonials and were even able to seize the British base at Fort Oswego. In India the conflict was known as the Third Carnatic War.
Meanwhile in Europe, Frederick II invaded Austrian Bohemia in attempt to knock Austria out of the war, as the Russians invaded East Prussia. The Prussian advance into Bohemia however was dealt a blow with defeat at the Battle of Kolin on June 18th 1757 and Fredrick was forced to withdraw back into Prussia. Meanwhile the French had moved west and attacked Hannover defeating the Duke of Cumberland’s forces at the Battle of Hastenbeck, which resulted in the Convention of Klosterzeven and the surrender of Hannover and Cumberland’s forces. The Prussian victory at the Battle of Rossbach however gave the Prussians hope that they could survive. Tragedy however followed shortly after with the surprise death of Frederick II following a fall from his horse and the subsequently decisive Austrian victory at the Battle of Leuthen. Frederick’s heir apparent was his nephew the thirteen year old Frederick William. The sudden death of the king threw the Prussian government into a state of chaos.
The Prussian army that had been crushed at Leuthen withdrew north in disarray where it was again defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Crossen in February 1758. This defeat resulted in the complete destruction of the Prussian Army. This, in addition to the Russian advances in the East and the French successes in the west caused the Prussian government, still in disarray, to ask for an armistice, which was accepted in early May 1758.
(1756-1760)
Part I
The Four Year’s War, in Europe, began on 29th August 1756 when Prussian king Frederick II, having recently signed an alliance with Great Britain, invaded the German nation of Saxony in a move designed to pre-empt an Austro-French invasion of Silesia. The Prussian army won a series of battles against the Austro-Saxon forces, eventually cumulating in the surrender of Saxony. The invasion of Saxony however was viewed negatively in the rest of Europe and soon Austria was joined by France and Russia in the war against Prussia. Great Britain joined their Prussian allies, and began sending aid to the Prussians as well as deploying an army under the Duke of Cumberland to Hannover.
Elsewhere in the world the colonial superpowers, Britain and France, battled against each other. In North America the conflict had begun two years ago, and had been going poorly for the British. The French continued to enjoy success, repelling various British assaults into Canada and into Louisiana. The French and their Indian allies maintained the upper hand against the British and the colonials and were even able to seize the British base at Fort Oswego. In India the conflict was known as the Third Carnatic War.
Meanwhile in Europe, Frederick II invaded Austrian Bohemia in attempt to knock Austria out of the war, as the Russians invaded East Prussia. The Prussian advance into Bohemia however was dealt a blow with defeat at the Battle of Kolin on June 18th 1757 and Fredrick was forced to withdraw back into Prussia. Meanwhile the French had moved west and attacked Hannover defeating the Duke of Cumberland’s forces at the Battle of Hastenbeck, which resulted in the Convention of Klosterzeven and the surrender of Hannover and Cumberland’s forces. The Prussian victory at the Battle of Rossbach however gave the Prussians hope that they could survive. Tragedy however followed shortly after with the surprise death of Frederick II following a fall from his horse and the subsequently decisive Austrian victory at the Battle of Leuthen. Frederick’s heir apparent was his nephew the thirteen year old Frederick William. The sudden death of the king threw the Prussian government into a state of chaos.
The Prussian army that had been crushed at Leuthen withdrew north in disarray where it was again defeated by the Austrians at the Battle of Crossen in February 1758. This defeat resulted in the complete destruction of the Prussian Army. This, in addition to the Russian advances in the East and the French successes in the west caused the Prussian government, still in disarray, to ask for an armistice, which was accepted in early May 1758.
Prussian Troops advance against Austrian forces Battle of Leuthen 1758:
The Four Years War
(1756-1760)
Part II
(1756-1760)
Part II
The collapse of their continental ally left the British in a serious state. The new British government led by William Pitt had set the goal of conquering Canada this year by attacking the French at Louisbourg and Quebec. However, the Prussian collapse had thrown doubt onto all these plans. The French and their allies were now able to shift their focus entirely against Britain. Seeing the Prussian collapse and sensing Britain’s upcoming defeat, Spain, under French pressure, declared war on Great Britain in early June 1758. The Pitt government decided that hey had to act fast to reach a position from which an agreeable peace could be reached. The British plan was therefore to quickly assemble a force in Britain which would be sent to seize Louisbourg while meanwhile creating a force of colonial troops and drive the French out of the Ohio River Valley area. Pitt sent out a passionate call to the colonials asking them for more men to drive out the French, and they responded quite strongly and the volunteers began assembling.
The French and their allies had different plans however. The Spanish began assembling troops in Florida in order to strike at the southern British colonies. Meanwhile the French and Spanish began expanding and improving their fleets. Following the Treaty of Dresden in August 1758, formally acknowledging the Prussian surrender, the French began moving their forces west and massing them near Calais, threatening the invasion of Britain. Seeing the entire might of the French army across the Channel the Royal Navy was called back to defend the home islands. With the Royal Navy concentrated at home the French and Spanish managed to slip more and more men and equipment through the British blockade and land them in the New World. In January of 1759 the French dispatched a large expedition to Canada, containing around 15,000 men. The Pitt government became aware of this and called for the expedition to be intercepted. However, the King and other members of parliament refused, saying this could be a ruse and that the main strength should be kept at home.
With nearly all of mainland Europe closed to it, Britain’s trading ability was severely curtailed and thus the government began to run out of money. The French, now solely focused on Britain and receiving money from a defeated Prussia, were able to out finance their opponents. In order to improve the financial strain on the country Pitt dispatched ships south to raid and capture French West African bases and then proceed on to Africa. With the French expedition now clearly heading to the New World, Pitt was able to gather enough support to dispatch ships from the Home Fleet for his African mission.
In March of 1759 the colonial forces with a British attachment under General Forbes moved west into the Ohio Valley as part of the envisioned British double offensive. The British force that had been organised to attack Louisbourg was delayed however by the invasion scare, and finally arrived in early April. However the imminent arrival of the French expedition, dissuaded the British from attacking Louisbourg, fearing that they would be trapped between the fort and the arriving French. Instead the British moved south to their base at Halifax. The French fleet arrived later that month, the British fleet moved to intercept them. A titanic naval battle ensued off Cape Breton. The French tried to force their way through the British to land their men. At the end of the day the French casualties were 6 ships of the line destroyed, 1 captured, around a dozen smaller vessels lost and around 5,000 dead. The British had lost only 4 ships of the line and less than 10 other ships. However, the French were still able to land around 9,000 men of the expedition before being forced to break off.
In June the French Expedition moved south to strike at Halifax. On July 2nd the British moved out to meet them and the Battle of Halifax was fought. The French army, veterans of the European war, were joined by a further 1,000 men, mostly French Canadians and a few French-allied Indians. The result was a decisive French victory, the British forces was destroyed and Halifax fell. Meanwhile the British Ohio Campaign and succeeded in taking Fort Duquesne and Fort Niagara. However, the Spanish drive into the Carolinas and the French victory at Halifax more than neutralised these gains. In early August, with the Royal Navy concentrated heavily at home, a surprise Franco-Spanish force managed to capture Barbados. In India meanwhile the fighting had gone back and forth, yet neither side had managed to make a significant breakthrough, the arrival of British ships dispatched by Pitt allowed them the British to compete with the French in the subcontinent. The British victory at Plassey however cemented their control over Bengal.
In December the last major battle of the war would be fought. With the nation war weary and with the defeats at Halifax and Cape Breton the Pitt government decided that a resounding victory was needed to raise the country’s morale. The British decide to attack the combined Franco-Spanish fleet massing near Brest. The Royal Navy is however spread across the globe and the force sent to attack the allied fleet is not as powerful as it could have been, especially following the losses at Cape Breton and the ships sent to India and Africa. On December 5th the Royal Navy attacks the allied fleet near Quiberon Bay. The result is a pyrrhic victory for the British. The allies loose nine ships of the line, the British eight and the allied fleet is put to flight. However, the inconclusive victory is not enough to rally the nation. The King, who has the interests of Hannover rather than Britain at heart, intervenes. Pitt is dismissed and the Duke of Newcastle is placed in charge. In early February, following a series of skirmishes and with the French army in Canada marching south, the British ask for an armistice according to status quo ante bellum. The French counter, offering to cede Chandernagore and some West African bases in return for Barbados and Belize (to Spain) and peace. India was to be divided with Britain in Bengal and France in the southeast. After much debate the war weary British government accepts, and the Treaty of Rotterdam is signed on March 27th 1760.
Treaty of Dresden (1760):
The Treaty of Rotterdam
1760
The Treaty of Rotterdam (1760) officially ended the Four Years War. This treaty dealt with territorial exchanges outside of Europe. The French gains were originally supposed to be marginal, but were enhanced as a reult of compromises discussed in the earlier Treaty of Dresden. 1760
In India there was no major exchanges. Instead, the continent was in effect divided into areas of influence. Britain's ownership of Bengal was cemented and recognised, as well as of Bombay. French control on the southeast of the subcontinent was accepted by Britain.
In North America French claims in the Ohio Valley were accepted, though the British Thirteen Colonies were able to solidfy their immediate claims. Nova Scotia was ceded to France along with British Guyana in exchange for France not getting the Austrian Netherlands. British Belize was ceded to Spain and Barbados to France.
The Treaty of Rotterdam was widely unpopular in Britain. The Duke of Newcastle was forced to resign following a backlash explosion in Parliament, and Pitt was back in charge. The new king, George III, was resented for signing the treaty in order to save Hannover. His influence was greatly diminished and Pitt's Parliament began to distance itself from Hannoverian politics, arguing for 'Britain first'.
The major lasting impact of the treaty would be in North America however. The British colonial subjects and the redcoat garrisons eyed the French surrounding them with fear and suspicion. Pro-British Indian tribes, now in French territory, continued to wage a guerrilla campaign against the French supplied and aided by Britain and the colonies.
Treaty of Rotterdam 1760:
The Third War of Polish Succession
(1768-1772)
Part I
King Stanislaw:
In 1768 a meeting of these Polish-Lithuanian nobles meet at the fortress of Bar. They declared their intentions to be the removal of Russian influence from the Commonwealth and the deposing of King Stanislaw August Poniatowski, who was seen as a Russian puppet. The Confederate forces soon began taking control of the west of the country, while a simultaneous revolt breaks out in Polish controlled Ukraine. They begin raising an army in the west and use weapons imported from Prussia. The Bar Confederation immediately send a message to Berlin, offering the return of East Prussia in exchange for Prussian aid. The young Prussian King, Frederick William II, is encouraged by his hawk-like ministers, who were angry with the Treaty of Dresden, to recognise the Confederate cause, as indeed many of its members have been Prussian allies since the end of the Four Year’s War. Prussian forces begin mobilisation and veteran Prussian officers are sent to advise the Confederate forces. This is met by a declaration of war on Prussia by the Russians and King Stanislaw August. The current Elector of Saxony, Frederick Christian [1], was the son of the previous king of Poland, and begins negotiations with Prussia and the Bar Confederation, offering himself as an alternative to King Stanislaw.
Frederick Christian:
In September a force of Russian Cossacks sent to aid King Stanislaw pursue a Confederate force into Ottoman territory [2]. The Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III, a reform minded king who was determined to reverse the Ottoman decline, with backing and encouragement from his Prussian allies, declared war on Russia and Stanislaw in response. A Prussian army under the command of General Wichard von Mollendorf invades western Poland late in the year and heads straight for East Prussia in an attempt to take Konigsberg from the pro-Stanislaw garrison. The Prussians are opposed to the plans of Frederick of Saxony and influence the Confederates to refuse the Saxon’s offer. Upon hearing of the rejection King Stanislaw sends an alternative offer to Saxony. He offers to wed his daughter Izabela to Frederick Christian’s son Frederick Augustus and will name Augustus as his heir to the Polish throne if Saxony intervenes against Prussia, thus recreating the dynastic union of Poland and Saxony.
Leaders of the Bar Confederation at prayer before a battle:
Throughout early and mid 1769 the Confederates achieved many successes against the Loyalist and Russian forces. They managed to gain control over much of the west and south of the country. The Russians were being increasingly distracted by the Ottoman front and their support for Stanislaw was not as forthcoming as was needed. In June 1769 the Saxons invaded Prussia. A second Saxon army meanwhile was being assembled in the west, in Saxony’s new German territories. By early August the Prussian eastern army had re-occupied all of Eastern Prussia, the populace there overwhelmingly supporting the Prussian return. When news arrived of the Saxon invasion however, General Mollendorf decided drastic action was required. He sent several messages to Confederate forces in the south and then, leaving a small force to continue the siege of still holding Konigsberg, turned south recruiting some local militia as he went.
The Saxon invasion force made good ground as the Prussian hurried to counter the threat. The goal of the Saxon army was clear: Berlin. The Prussians manage to pull themselves together in time and headed out to stop the Saxon offensive before it got to the capital. On August 15th 1769 the two armies met at the Battle of Potsdam, southeast of Berlin. The Saxon force, approx. 65,000 tried to break through the Prussians, 55,000, and head for Berlin. After three failed Saxon infantry attacks up the centre, the Prussians were wavering. The Saxons were preparing for a fourth and final attack, when a Prussian cavalry attack smashed into their right flank. Led by the Hussar officer, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, the surprise offensive panicked the disorganised Saxons and their army soon turned to rout, cut down as they fled. The battle was a major success, Blücher was promoted to Major for his part in the battle, and it was a major turning point in the war.
Prussian soldiers at Potsdam:
In Poland however Mollendorf’s plan was bearing fruit. In early 1770 Mollendorf’s 60,000 Prussians marched quickly south from East Prussia and a Confederate attack from Krakow encircled the capital Warsaw and placed the King under siege. King Stanislaw was captured by the sudden allied offensive and the surviving Loyalist forces were either forced to surrender or flee to the east. The Russians meanwhile were finding themselves hard pressed on two fronts. A series of naval battles saw the Ottoman Fleet (which was advised by British naval experts, as London was determined to prevent Russian gains) defeat the Russian Baltic Fleet which had moved to the Mediterranean and force them to withdraw back to Russia. In early 1771 a Russian offensive south from Courland was halted by a Prussian/Confederate force and repulsed. Things turned for bad to worse for the Russians and Saxons. The new King Gustav III of Sweden, decided the moment was right to retake old Swedish lands, and invaded Russian Karelia in August. The Prussian army, victorious at Potsdam headed southwest into Saxony, now under the command of Major Blucher, Duke Charles having been injured in the previous battle. In November the Saxon western army, hurried eastward, met the Prussians west of Dresden, at Dobeln. The superior Prussians eventually broke the Saxon attack and won the battle. However, the Prussian casualties were too heavy to risk a drive on Dresden and Blücher ordered a withdrawal back to Prussia. In early 1772 King Stanislaw, still a captive, formally abdicated. The abdication took the wind out of the pro-war faction in Vienna, and the Austrians offered to mediate and end the war, the fear being now that continued war would benefit the Prussians, who were reforming for an invasion of Saxony. With Stanislaw’s abdication and the Austrian offer, the Russians, beset on three sides decided to throw in the towel, the Saxons following suit.
The following Treaty of Vienna (1773) was the result of much haggling and debate. The Prussians pushed for Saxon territory, but the Austrians were determined to maintain a balance between the two north German states, and in the end the Prussians were forced to accept financial indeminites instead of territory rather than risk war with the Hapsburgs. The Russians were forced to officialy recognsie the Crimea as Ottoman and renounce any claim to it, it being officialy absorbed into the Ottoman Empire. East Prussia was returned to Prussia as promised by the Confederates. Sweden also managed to regain some land in Karelia. The main question that dominated proceedings would be who would be the new king of Poland? The Austrians pushed for a Hapsburg candidate, the Prussians for a Hohenzollern, each blocking the other. Some Poles attempted to claim the throne themselves, but they were in turn blocked by others wanting the prize. The Austrians decided to compromise, they wanted an end to the war so they could focus on the troubles taking place in Italy[1]. In the end the only candidate agreeable was from a neutral party: in this case France. The second son of the current Dauphin of France[2] was chosen. A Bourbon king was acceptable to the Poles, he was a Catholic and wasn’t Russian, and was acceptable to the Prussians and Austrians because he wasn’t from the other. In addition he was the son of Maria Josepha of Saxony, wife of the Dauphin, who was the daughter of the old Polish king Augustus III who preceded Stanislaw. After officially renouncing any claims to the French or Saxon thrones, an Austrian insistence, the eighteen year old was crowned King Louis I[3] of Poland-Lithuania. The Prussians had regained their pride, the Poles regained their kingdom, the Saxons regained their fear, the Ottomans regained Crimea, the Swedes regained Karelia but most importanly of all the Russians regained their distrust of the Austrians, their allies who abandoned them.
Louis I of Poland-Lithuania:
The rise in French settlements in the New World upsets the local native tribes that are being forced of their lands. In 1771 and 1772 a series of native attacks occur in French Louisiana and Canada. In the northeast Iroquois tribes, with weapons smuggled in from the British colonies, attack French settlements and forts. In the far west of Louisiana the Plains tribes, also under pressure from the new French expansion, step up their hostility. In response French forces are dispatched from Europe to quell the unrest. The French pre-occupation in the colonies and with Austria distracted by the war in Poland, the new Sardinian king, Victor Amadeus III decided, in late 1772, the time was right to expand the Sardinian kingdom and he invaded neighbouring Genoa. The Sardinian Army achieved great successes against the Genoese and by the end of the year the city itself had fallen, as had Corsica. The king then made the risky decision to invade the Duchy of Parma as well, before the great powers could intervene. The Duke of Parma, a Bourbon, fled to France and asked for help. The Parmans put up a spirited resistance but they too were overcome.
Victor Amadeus III:
In February of 1773 Venice, Tuscany, the Papal States and others, formed a coalition in order to halt Sardinian aggression. Leopold II of Tuscany, son of Maria Theresa, wrote his mother asking for aid. His brother, Joseph, wrote back saying he thought Leopold could handle it and that the crisis in Poland required his attention. The southern states hastily assemble a unified force and head north to face the Sardinians. In the mean time Venice begins marshalling its own forces which head west to join the southern armies. King Victor decides to attack the southern forces before the Venetians can arrive. He marches south and manages to rout the coalition army, which was suffering from a lack of unity and cohesion, at the Battle of Modena. The Venetians, upon hearing of the defeat, loose faith and their advance slows as the generals are concerned about encountering the Sardinian army. This concern is well founded, when the Sardinians catch the Venetians by surprise at the Battle of Verona resulting in a Venetian defeat. Most of northern Italy was now under Sardinian control.
In late 1773 however, Empress Maria Theresia intervened at the behest of the Italian coalition. Austrian armies moved into Italy, the stated goal being the end of Sardinia’s war of aggression, but the empress’ true purpose was to increase Austrian power in Italy. The French however were not about to allow Austrian domination of Italy. King Louis XVI, the new King of France, had been recalling troops from America and India following the Duke of Parma's arrival, and in January 1774 he threatened Austria with war unless they withdrew. The Austrians, after much debate, backed down and in April 1774 the Treaty of Nice was signed. In it, the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to Sardinia as well as some mainland territory. The Bourbon duke of Parma was reinstated. A new North Italian Confederation was created to counter future Sardinian aggression. Austria ceded its Italian territories to the Confederation in exchange for all of Venice’s Illyrian Territories and the Bishopric of Trent.
Prince Charles of Sardinia:
After the treaty however France moved to increase its influence in Italy. King Victor Amadeus III’s eldest son, Charles, was married to the new French king’s daughter Marie Clotidle, in an attempt, as France stated, to contain future Sardinian expansionism. This goal was lost on Austria, and the other major states, and all they saw was yet another Bourbon dynasty. There were just too many Bourbon states now. An issue made even more prevelent when word reached Vienna of the marriage between Ferdinand, son of the duke of Parma, and the French princess Louise, daughter of King Louis XVI. The Austrian ambassador to Paris was actually temporarily recalled in protest at these marriages, that had not been part of the Treaty of Nice and had taken part without Austrian knowledge. The feeling among many states, especially Austria, was that this family was getting a little too powerful for their own good.
Treaty of Nice 1774:
Defeat in the Third War of Polish Succession (TWPS) was hard on the Russians. They had suffered territorial loses in Finland and lost influence in the Crimea, not to mention the replacement of a friendly regime in Poland with a staunchly anti-Russian state. One of the most lasting impacts however was the breakdown in relations with Austria. The failure of the Austrians to intervene in the TWPS infuriated Catherine and she even temporarily recalled her ambassador to Vienna. It was domestically though that the impact of the defeat would be felt first.
Catherine II:
The Russian defeat encouraged anti-establishment groups within the Russian Empire, peasant and noble, that the state was weak and the time was ready for change. The first sign of trouble was in the Volga. Defeat by the Ottomans had greatly encouraged the local Cossack tribes to rebel. They gained widespread support throughout the region amongst Cossacks and peasants dissatisfied with the absolutist regime in St. Petersburg. The Cossacks were led by Emelyan Pugachev, a dissatisfied deserter, and they quickly seized control of large areas in the south. New recruits, Cossacks, Tatars, peasants, deserters etc., flocked to the rebel’s cause and soon a full scale insurrection was at hand. By early 1774 large areas of land between the Urals and the Volga, including the capture of the city of Ufa, which became the rebel headquarters.
The rebellion had originally not been viewed too seriously by Catherine and the government in St. Petersburg, but with the fall of Ufa it was becoming increasingly obvious that the situation was far more troublesome than originally perceived. Consequently the Tsarina ordered Aleksandr Bibikov to take an army east and crush the rebellion. The result was a disaster. The Russian army at this point was demoralised and divided, many of the officer corps were unreliable and the conscripted masses were sympathetic to the rebellion. At the Battle of Sarapul, on November 13th 1774, the Imperial Army was crushed by the rebels and Bibikov was captured and executed.
Pugachev:
The Battle of Sarapul was the critical moment of the war. The victory emboldened the rebel cause. Many of the survivors of Imperial Army from Sarapul defected to the rebels. This in addition to the scores of new recruits from the area brought the total rebel force to around 60,000 men, a formidable force. Pugachev now ordered his forces to move on the fortress at Kazan. The defeat at Sarapul however proved to be a death nail for Catherine, however. From the moment she had taken power from her husband, Peter III, there had been many in the aristocracy who opposed her. The victory in the Four Year’s War temporarily muted these voices; however the defeat in the Third War of Polish Succession granted new life to this growing mutiny, the defeat at Sarapul was the spark. A group of nobles, led by the disaffected Nikita Ivanovich Panin, conspired to overthrow the Tsarina. A direct coup was considered too risky; instead, the conspirators began assembling their own forces in the west, and on February 14th 1775 they kidnapped the Tsarina’s son Paul and spirited him away. The conspirators soon declared him to be Paul I, Tsar of Russia, and declared Catherine a usurper. Recent evidence indicates that Paul was a knowing member of the plot, his strained relationship with his mother was well known, and it is likely the ‘kidnapping’ was a ruse.
Nikita Panin:
The Russian state was now apparently on the verge of collapse. In early March Pugachev’s rebels took Kazan, another great blow to the government. The rebels now had control of much of the eastern bank of the Volga. Pugachev, upon hearing of the Panin rebellion, decided to move on Saratov, a major city on the Volga further south, the fall of which would open up the possibility of an offensive in the south. Kazan’s fall encouraged the conspirators. From their base at Minsk they were reinforced by a flood of new nobles who were abandoning Catherine. In May they moved east towards Smolensk. The Tsarina was not defeated though, she still had support and she ordered General Michelsohn west to confront Paul and Panin while she gave orders for a new army to assemble in the east to deal with the rebels.
Pugachev's Rebellion:
Russia: Rebellion and Rebirth
(1772-1780)
Part II
Tsar Paul’s forces continued to mass in the west, centred at Minsk, and their numbers rose significantly throughout the middle of 1775. In June they received word of General Michelsohn’s advance towards them and they decided the time was right to confront him. A diplomatic envoy was also dispatched to Pugachev and his rebels in the east. There was much controversy and argument within Tsar Paul’s supporters over this decision, but in the end it was decided that negotiation with the rebels might lead to better results than fighting them. So a mission was sent, heading south from Minsk they were to proceed through the Ukraine to the Volga and attempt to make contact with the rebels, all the while promoting the Tsar’s cause.
Tsar Paul:
Meanwhile in the east Pugachev’s campaign continued. In mid July, Saratov fell. This was a bloody battle and the rebel army suffered greatly for the city’s fall, but it was indeed worth it. With Saratov captured the Tsarina was effectively cut off from the Russian Empire east of the Urals, and any support she might have received from there was muted. Also, it opened up the south for a new offensive. However Pugachev needed time to rebuild his forces and thus he made camp at Saratov and sent out recruiting parties. The victory at Saratov did much to raise the credibility of the rebel’s cause and dissatisfied peasants, Cossacks, Tatars, Ukrainians and others flocked to their banner.
The turmoil in Russia however did not escape the notice of the outside world however. The neighbouring powers all soon attempted to use the chaos to their advantage. The Ottomans were the first to intervene. They began sending large convoys of aid to the rebels through the Caucasus and up the Volga in an attempt to gain favour with and aid the rebellion. They also took this moment to secure their own borders and began moving troops into Georgia and Armenia, both of which were in anarchy. The Poles too decided this was an opportunity to good to miss. In November King Louis authorised an invasion of Courland. The Russian protectorate was soon overwhelmed and under Polish control. The Prussians however did not take too kindly to the Polish move however, taken without Berlin’s knowledge, and relations between the two states soured. The Swedish king, Gustav III, too decided time was right for a rematch, and launched two incursions into Russia; the first in December into Karelia and the second in February 1776 in Estonia.
Russian Rebel Cossacks, Near Saratov 1775:
The foreign invasions convinced both Catherine and Paul that the civil crisis must be ended as soon as possible. Thus the two armies were spurred into action, both sides eager for a victory to improve their negotiating position. Unfortunately neither side got their wish. The following Battle of Polotsk was an inconclusive draw and both sides withdrew suffering casualties. In the meantime however Paul’s diplomatic envoy had reached the rebels in Saratov. A few days of negotiation ensued but eventually the two sides agreed on terms, Pugachev’s rebels would declare support and fealty to Tsar Paul, and the tsar would agree to a list of demands by the rebels. The mission took their leave and headed back west. Pugachev, inspired by the meeting, decided to make a risky move, and march northwest: towards Moscow.
In March the Swedes took Riga, thus confirming occupation of much of Estonia and the Baltic coast. Catherine decided to order Michelsohn to retake Riga and drive the Swedes out of Estonia, a move that she hoped would endear the people and nobility to her, putting Russia’s interests first, and win support for her cause. Whether this would have worked however will not be known for Michelsohn’s army was routed by the Swedes in May at the Battle of Volmar. In the meantime Paul and Panin had reorganised their forces and taken Smolensk before moving northwest to cut Michelsohn off from Moscow and the east. In June Pugachev faced Catherine’s army at Vladimir, just east of Moscow. The battle lasted two days but in the end the unmotivated and disaffected Imperial forces were routed, and the rebels took Moscow a few weeks later.
Pugachev's Rebellion:
The twin disasters at Volmar and Moscow were the end of the Tsarina’s reign. When word got out of the state of the campaign a palace coup was launched and Catherine was deposed. The conspirators invited Paul to enter St. Petersburg and take the crown, which he did in August. He moved quickly to win the favour of the people. He moved his army west and defeated the Swedes in a series of battles, cumulating in the Battle of Reval and expelling them. His army now was too exhausted and depleted to deal with the Poles in Courland and the Swedes in Karelia and he was forced to compromise sending delegations to Warsaw and Stockholm to discuss peace terms.
Pugachev meanwhile had not vacated Moscow. His army, too, still maintained control over large areas of the east. In January of 1777 Tsar Paul went to meet Pugachev in person. The two held a prolonged and tense discussion. In the end Pugachev and his followers announced their loyalty to Paul, disbanded and returned all territory to the Tsar. In return Paul conceded to a list of rebel demands, including the guarantee to respect the culture of the Cossacks and outlaw future persecution against them (a status that was later conferred to other minorities such as the Tatars and Ukrainians) and importantly the abolition of serfdom. He was also forced to concede to the demands of his supporting nobility, led by Panin. The principal one was the restoration of the Duma, and limited provincial democratic reform, a move that the aristocracy hoped would placate the masses and enhance their own power by a move to a more constitutional style monarchy. Over the next several years Tsar Paul began a period of reconstruction, liberalisation and westernization Russia, which, although limiting Russia’s role in external and foreign affairs, would lead in later years to the emergence of a strong, united, liberal Russia.
Despite some successes in the Four Year’s War the British Thirteen Colonies still found themselves encircled by the French. The Colonials and the British had struggled against the French in North America in the war and had come away with little to show for it. To make matters worse the population of French North America had been growing at an increasing rate, and as each day went by the French threat grew greater and greater. The British therefore were forced to maintain a large garrison in the colonies at all times to dissuade the French of any aggressive actions. This however was expensive to maintain; a matter made worse by the war debts incurred between 1756 and 1760[1]. As such the Westminster Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765, in an effort to increase profits and combat the debt. The Stamp Act was greeted unfavourably by many in the colonies. However Parliament’s argument that the tax was there to pay for the colonies’ defence was taken to heart by many colonials. The redcoat garrisons were viewed favourably by the locals as every glance to the west and north was fearful of the surrounding French and their native allies. However not all colonials were appeased…
Notice of the Stamp Act:
Some colonials felt cheated by the tax, arguing that Parliament had no right to tax them as they had no representation themselves in parliament. The cry “no taxation without representation!” became their rallying call. They were however a minority group. Their numbers did increase slightly however in 1767 with the Quartering Act, which pertained to the housing the standing British army in the colonies. The Quartering Act as a whole, though unpopular, was tolerated by the colonists more so than the Stamp Act, due to the clear necessity of having a large garrison in the colonies with the French so ever present. However the dissenters soon formed into a group known as the “Sons of Liberty” and began organising in towns and cities, principally Boston.
In 1770 Parliament passed a new tax on tea. This tax was deplored by the “Sons of Liberty” and they began planning a demonstration against it. It was also unpopular throughout much of the colonies, and unlike the previous acts this one could not be seen as anti-French in anyway and many local assemblies complained about it. At Charleston in late 1771 delegates from a variety of the southern colonies drafted a letter to Parliament protesting the tax as unlawful and unnecessary. Following this Parliament voted to repeal that act in mid 1772. News of the repeal however did not arrive in Boston before the end of the year.
In June of 1772, unaware of the repeal, the Sons of Liberty decided to raid a collection of commercial ships in the harbour, which were rumoured to be carrying large quantities of tea. Dressed as native Indians they attempted to storm the ships. Unfortunately for them they encountered a local British garrison on patrol. Some of the leaders, including John Adams and Paul Revere attempted to abort the raid and call the Sons back. However some of the more impetuous members attacked the garrison. The British troops were taken by surprise. Unsure how to respond to the attack they had their choice made for them when one young Sons member struck a soldier with a tomahawk, killing him. In response the British opened fire killing several of the Sons members, including one Samuel Adams. In response to the commotion many locals emerged on the scene and seeing the fight many joined with the Sons and drove the garrison away violently. At the end of the day the garrison suffered two dead and four injured, while the Bostonians lost nine dead and a dozen wounded.
Rebel Samuel Adams:
The British response was swift and decisive. They moved a large force into Boston and placed the town under marshal law. An inquiry was launched into the incident but the authorities could not find those responsible and the Sons of Liberty escaped further prosecution. In Boston and much of Massachusetts, the attack was branded the “Boston Massacre” by the local printer Benjamin Edes, a Sons of Liberty member. His Boston Gazette told and retold the story of the “massacre”, and Boston soon seethed with quiet rebellion. This was however, in strong contrast to the mood of much of the rest of the colonies. Sure there were various local pockets of dissent that lauded the Sons, but the vast majority of people saw an attack on His Majesty’s soldiers as downright appalling and treasonous. This mood was seized upon by South Carolina governor Lord Charles Montagu who launched a rumour that the Sons of Liberty were working with the French and that the Boston incident was meant to distract the British troops from the border for a French invasion. This rumour spread like wildfire throughout much of the colonies, north and south. The credibility of it was helped enormously when in mid 1773 several French Indian tribes, led by the Shawnee, attacked British towns and forts near the Great Lakes, an act widely circulated by the Royalist papers as being backed by the French, while mentioning the Sons of Liberty as much as possible.
Lord Charles Montagu:
The result was that by the end of 1773 the vast majority of colonial subjects outside Boston and the surrounding area, were nearly convinced that the Sons of Liberty were a treasonous pro-French plot. In Boston however, they were heroes. Heroes, waiting for their next opportunity to strike. In early 1774 they got it. To combat the Shawnee raids the majority of the British garrison was pulled out of Boston and sent northwest. For the Sons of Liberty this was a chance to good to miss up. In May they attacked and seized garrison barracks and armouries all over Boston, as well as capturing and destroying HMS Gaspée which was in harbour at the time. The Sons were soon joined by much of the town’s populace and were forced to withdraw to nearby Breed’s Hill. Bu July the entire city of Boston was in the hands of the rebels. The news of the Boston Rising spread throughout much of the colonies. Local groups, sympathetic to the Sons’ cause, tried to repeat the act. They made little success however and were in most cases defeated, or forced to resort to a low level insurrection and guerrilla movement. In Philadelphia however they had some success. Philadelphia’s Royal Garrison, like Boston’s, had been pulled out to battle the Shawnee. In Philadelphia rebels managed to seize weapons and take over the town. They however, did not have the backing of much of the populace. The pro-Royalist faction rose up, but were unable to overcome the better armed rebels and were forced out of town.
The rebel’s success was short lived however. When word reached Parliament of the Boston Rising there was shock and outrage, feelings further incensed when word arrived of the numerous other aborted risings and the fall of Philadelphia. Many in Parliament advocated an immediate hard-line military response to crush the uprising and attacks on suspected pro-rebel individuals, a course strongly supported by King George III. The larger more moderate faction led by Prime Minister Duke Augustus FitzRoy had other views. The primary fear of the moderates was that the course advocated by the hard-liners would lead to open rebellion, something that had to be avoided with the French ever ready to move in, in addition to the fact that defeat in the Four Year's War had left Britain more war weary, less confident and more open to compromise than it might have been otherwise. So instead they opted for compromise. Representatives from the various colonies, Massachusetts excluded, were invited to Parliament to discuss the situation, while British forces began assembling to retake Boston and Philadelphia. In January of 1775 Parliament passed the Dominion Act, something strongly resented by the king, but with the monarchy still in disgrace with much of Parliament following George II’s pro-Hanoverian attitudes that led to the Treaty of Rotterdam and surrender in the Four Year’s War, the act went ahead. King George III, feeling resentful and snubbed, became a political recluse for the rest of his reign.
Prime Minister FitzRoy:
The Dominion Act divided the Thirteen Colonies into two large “Dominions” of New England and Carolina. Each dominion would have a ‘Parliament’ which was subject to Westminster and comprised of elected officials from the various colonies, each of which would maintain its colonial assembly. The Dominion parliaments, at New York and Charleston, would be able to deal with local issues, as well as each being able to send an observer to Westminster so the Dominion’s voices would be heard in Parliament. The Dominion Acts, though resented by parts of the government, was applauded by the colonial representatives and by those they represented.
The Dominion Act took the wind out of the rebel’s sails. When word reached the colonies of the act, rebels everywhere lost support. Many simply dissolved, most members seeing their cause as fulfilled and were placated by Parliament’s decision. This was indeed the case in Philadelphia, where the rebels became split and many laid down their arms and went home. The remaining rebels, including leaders Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, were overthrown and captured by the pro-Royalist citizens supported by an arriving British detachment. The captured rebels were hung for treason. The rebels in Boston however did not back down. In August of 1775 the British forces, including a certain George Washington, began the siege of the city. A Royal Navy force arrived to blockade the city. In December the British assaulted the city and the rebels were overwhelmed and the city fell. The surviving leaders of the rebellion, including John Adams, Paul Revere and John Hancock were hung after being drawn and quartered, a gruesome yet effective response.
Executed Rebel Paul Revere:
After Boston’s fall the rebel cause eventually dried up. Various local militia’s continued to mount a hit and run campaign on the borders and in the wilderness up until about 1779. Some pro-rebel sympathisers emigrated, chiefly to Louisiana. Other Royalist members decided to leave and head for Canada or the Caribbean, not wishing to live in territories granted even so little autonomy. In the 1776 the first meetings of the Dominion parliaments went ahead faultlessly, and by 1780 martial law was finally lifted in Boston and the wounds of the rising had begun to heal.
Dominion Act:
Frederick Christian:
In September a force of Russian Cossacks sent to aid King Stanislaw pursue a Confederate force into Ottoman territory [2]. The Ottoman Sultan Mustafa III, a reform minded king who was determined to reverse the Ottoman decline, with backing and encouragement from his Prussian allies, declared war on Russia and Stanislaw in response. A Prussian army under the command of General Wichard von Mollendorf invades western Poland late in the year and heads straight for East Prussia in an attempt to take Konigsberg from the pro-Stanislaw garrison. The Prussians are opposed to the plans of Frederick of Saxony and influence the Confederates to refuse the Saxon’s offer. Upon hearing of the rejection King Stanislaw sends an alternative offer to Saxony. He offers to wed his daughter Izabela to Frederick Christian’s son Frederick Augustus and will name Augustus as his heir to the Polish throne if Saxony intervenes against Prussia, thus recreating the dynastic union of Poland and Saxony.
Leaders of the Bar Confederation at prayer before a battle:
The Third War of Polish Succession
(1768-1772)
Part II
There was fierce debate within Saxony over whether or not to accept Stanislaw’s offer. Those against thought it might antagonize the Austrians and suck Saxony into a war they didn’t want. Those in favour saw it as a way to ensure Saxony’s independence and possibly expand their power in Germany. In the end the possibility of a Saxon-Polish union, and not to mention Frederick Christian’s own personal ambition, meant that the Saxon government decided to accept the offer. Saxony declared war on Prussia and the Ottoman Empire soon after and mobilized. The Prussians reacted quickly, and began assembling an army in Brandenburg under the command of Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick-Wolfenbuttel. In Vienna there was much division on what course of action to take. Some argued for intervention against Prussia and the Confederates and honour the old alliance with Russia, others, including Empress Maria Theresa, believed that neutrality was the best option, a powerful Saxony and a Russian dominated Poland-Lithuania were seen as a much greater threat, especially now with Prussia weakened. In the end, the Hapsburgs opted for neutrality, at least for now. (1768-1772)
Part II
Throughout early and mid 1769 the Confederates achieved many successes against the Loyalist and Russian forces. They managed to gain control over much of the west and south of the country. The Russians were being increasingly distracted by the Ottoman front and their support for Stanislaw was not as forthcoming as was needed. In June 1769 the Saxons invaded Prussia. A second Saxon army meanwhile was being assembled in the west, in Saxony’s new German territories. By early August the Prussian eastern army had re-occupied all of Eastern Prussia, the populace there overwhelmingly supporting the Prussian return. When news arrived of the Saxon invasion however, General Mollendorf decided drastic action was required. He sent several messages to Confederate forces in the south and then, leaving a small force to continue the siege of still holding Konigsberg, turned south recruiting some local militia as he went.
The Saxon invasion force made good ground as the Prussian hurried to counter the threat. The goal of the Saxon army was clear: Berlin. The Prussians manage to pull themselves together in time and headed out to stop the Saxon offensive before it got to the capital. On August 15th 1769 the two armies met at the Battle of Potsdam, southeast of Berlin. The Saxon force, approx. 65,000 tried to break through the Prussians, 55,000, and head for Berlin. After three failed Saxon infantry attacks up the centre, the Prussians were wavering. The Saxons were preparing for a fourth and final attack, when a Prussian cavalry attack smashed into their right flank. Led by the Hussar officer, Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher, the surprise offensive panicked the disorganised Saxons and their army soon turned to rout, cut down as they fled. The battle was a major success, Blücher was promoted to Major for his part in the battle, and it was a major turning point in the war.
Prussian soldiers at Potsdam:
In Poland however Mollendorf’s plan was bearing fruit. In early 1770 Mollendorf’s 60,000 Prussians marched quickly south from East Prussia and a Confederate attack from Krakow encircled the capital Warsaw and placed the King under siege. King Stanislaw was captured by the sudden allied offensive and the surviving Loyalist forces were either forced to surrender or flee to the east. The Russians meanwhile were finding themselves hard pressed on two fronts. A series of naval battles saw the Ottoman Fleet (which was advised by British naval experts, as London was determined to prevent Russian gains) defeat the Russian Baltic Fleet which had moved to the Mediterranean and force them to withdraw back to Russia. In early 1771 a Russian offensive south from Courland was halted by a Prussian/Confederate force and repulsed. Things turned for bad to worse for the Russians and Saxons. The new King Gustav III of Sweden, decided the moment was right to retake old Swedish lands, and invaded Russian Karelia in August. The Prussian army, victorious at Potsdam headed southwest into Saxony, now under the command of Major Blucher, Duke Charles having been injured in the previous battle. In November the Saxon western army, hurried eastward, met the Prussians west of Dresden, at Dobeln. The superior Prussians eventually broke the Saxon attack and won the battle. However, the Prussian casualties were too heavy to risk a drive on Dresden and Blücher ordered a withdrawal back to Prussia. In early 1772 King Stanislaw, still a captive, formally abdicated. The abdication took the wind out of the pro-war faction in Vienna, and the Austrians offered to mediate and end the war, the fear being now that continued war would benefit the Prussians, who were reforming for an invasion of Saxony. With Stanislaw’s abdication and the Austrian offer, the Russians, beset on three sides decided to throw in the towel, the Saxons following suit.
The following Treaty of Vienna (1773) was the result of much haggling and debate. The Prussians pushed for Saxon territory, but the Austrians were determined to maintain a balance between the two north German states, and in the end the Prussians were forced to accept financial indeminites instead of territory rather than risk war with the Hapsburgs. The Russians were forced to officialy recognsie the Crimea as Ottoman and renounce any claim to it, it being officialy absorbed into the Ottoman Empire. East Prussia was returned to Prussia as promised by the Confederates. Sweden also managed to regain some land in Karelia. The main question that dominated proceedings would be who would be the new king of Poland? The Austrians pushed for a Hapsburg candidate, the Prussians for a Hohenzollern, each blocking the other. Some Poles attempted to claim the throne themselves, but they were in turn blocked by others wanting the prize. The Austrians decided to compromise, they wanted an end to the war so they could focus on the troubles taking place in Italy[1]. In the end the only candidate agreeable was from a neutral party: in this case France. The second son of the current Dauphin of France[2] was chosen. A Bourbon king was acceptable to the Poles, he was a Catholic and wasn’t Russian, and was acceptable to the Prussians and Austrians because he wasn’t from the other. In addition he was the son of Maria Josepha of Saxony, wife of the Dauphin, who was the daughter of the old Polish king Augustus III who preceded Stanislaw. After officially renouncing any claims to the French or Saxon thrones, an Austrian insistence, the eighteen year old was crowned King Louis I[3] of Poland-Lithuania. The Prussians had regained their pride, the Poles regained their kingdom, the Saxons regained their fear, the Ottomans regained Crimea, the Swedes regained Karelia but most importanly of all the Russians regained their distrust of the Austrians, their allies who abandoned them.
Louis I of Poland-Lithuania:
The Sardinian War
(1772-1774)
Victory in the Four Year’s War had a great impact on France. The French King, Louis XV and his ministers now became attached to the idea of a grand French colonial empire. France’s gains in America and Africa were to be the beginning of a globe spanning French state. To achieve this the French began encouraging increased emigration to their colonies, especially to Louisiana. The large and under populated French territory of Louisiana saw a massive increase in the amount of settlers. The French saw the populous and successful British colonies as a threat, despite their victory, and realised that the key to maintaining their power in America was population. French peasants began arriving in New France in large numbers as the government in Paris began using various incentives (money, promises of land, force) to encourage settlement there. Those that left willingly tended to flock to Canada, settling in and around Quebec and Montreal. Louisiana however tended to be settled by a combination of forced émigrés, entrepreneurial merchants as well as dissatisfied members of the bourgeoisie who attempted to escape the absolutism of France. (1772-1774)
The rise in French settlements in the New World upsets the local native tribes that are being forced of their lands. In 1771 and 1772 a series of native attacks occur in French Louisiana and Canada. In the northeast Iroquois tribes, with weapons smuggled in from the British colonies, attack French settlements and forts. In the far west of Louisiana the Plains tribes, also under pressure from the new French expansion, step up their hostility. In response French forces are dispatched from Europe to quell the unrest. The French pre-occupation in the colonies and with Austria distracted by the war in Poland, the new Sardinian king, Victor Amadeus III decided, in late 1772, the time was right to expand the Sardinian kingdom and he invaded neighbouring Genoa. The Sardinian Army achieved great successes against the Genoese and by the end of the year the city itself had fallen, as had Corsica. The king then made the risky decision to invade the Duchy of Parma as well, before the great powers could intervene. The Duke of Parma, a Bourbon, fled to France and asked for help. The Parmans put up a spirited resistance but they too were overcome.
Victor Amadeus III:
In February of 1773 Venice, Tuscany, the Papal States and others, formed a coalition in order to halt Sardinian aggression. Leopold II of Tuscany, son of Maria Theresa, wrote his mother asking for aid. His brother, Joseph, wrote back saying he thought Leopold could handle it and that the crisis in Poland required his attention. The southern states hastily assemble a unified force and head north to face the Sardinians. In the mean time Venice begins marshalling its own forces which head west to join the southern armies. King Victor decides to attack the southern forces before the Venetians can arrive. He marches south and manages to rout the coalition army, which was suffering from a lack of unity and cohesion, at the Battle of Modena. The Venetians, upon hearing of the defeat, loose faith and their advance slows as the generals are concerned about encountering the Sardinian army. This concern is well founded, when the Sardinians catch the Venetians by surprise at the Battle of Verona resulting in a Venetian defeat. Most of northern Italy was now under Sardinian control.
In late 1773 however, Empress Maria Theresia intervened at the behest of the Italian coalition. Austrian armies moved into Italy, the stated goal being the end of Sardinia’s war of aggression, but the empress’ true purpose was to increase Austrian power in Italy. The French however were not about to allow Austrian domination of Italy. King Louis XVI, the new King of France, had been recalling troops from America and India following the Duke of Parma's arrival, and in January 1774 he threatened Austria with war unless they withdrew. The Austrians, after much debate, backed down and in April 1774 the Treaty of Nice was signed. In it, the Republic of Genoa ceded Corsica to Sardinia as well as some mainland territory. The Bourbon duke of Parma was reinstated. A new North Italian Confederation was created to counter future Sardinian aggression. Austria ceded its Italian territories to the Confederation in exchange for all of Venice’s Illyrian Territories and the Bishopric of Trent.
Prince Charles of Sardinia:
After the treaty however France moved to increase its influence in Italy. King Victor Amadeus III’s eldest son, Charles, was married to the new French king’s daughter Marie Clotidle, in an attempt, as France stated, to contain future Sardinian expansionism. This goal was lost on Austria, and the other major states, and all they saw was yet another Bourbon dynasty. There were just too many Bourbon states now. An issue made even more prevelent when word reached Vienna of the marriage between Ferdinand, son of the duke of Parma, and the French princess Louise, daughter of King Louis XVI. The Austrian ambassador to Paris was actually temporarily recalled in protest at these marriages, that had not been part of the Treaty of Nice and had taken part without Austrian knowledge. The feeling among many states, especially Austria, was that this family was getting a little too powerful for their own good.
Treaty of Nice 1774:
India and the Franco-Mysore War
(1760-1775)
(1760-1775)
The Treaty of Rotterdam (1760), which ended the Four Years War, effectively divided India into two competing areas of influence. British control of Bengal was cemented with the cessation of Chandernagore to Britain from France. From Calcutta, the effective capital of British India, a new policy from London began to take effect. The government in Westminster, weary of the French threat, began increasing its control over the East India Company, including reinforcing its own garrison there in addition to Company troops. On the other side of the subcontinent Bombay became an increasingly important centre of British trade as well as serving as an excellent staging ground for British commercial and political ventures into the Maratha Empire.
In the southeast of India, however, it was the French that served as the primary European power. The French counted themselves lucky that they had achieved success in India, and knew it was only due to victories in Europe and America that they still had any influence in the subcontinent. As such King Louis XVI and his ministers decided to enhance their forces and position in the south. The French Governor General in India, Thomas Arthur [1], was granted new resources and backing from Paris and was instructed to extend the French powerbase, which he did in the early 1760s. In addition the French began aggressively attempting to gain influence and control in the area between their bases in the northern Circars and the southern area of Coromandel. The current Nizam of Hyderabad, Ali Khan Asaf Jah II, who nominally owned the disputed region, was courted by the French. Large amounts of French gold and weaponry went into bribing the Nizam, backed as always by the threat of force, who eventually allowed the French into the territory.
Nizam Ali Khan Asaf:
This move however was condemned by the nearby Kingdom of Mysore, whose ruler Hyder Ali, saw a possible French alliance with the Nizam as a threat to his state’s existence. So, with tacit British backing, attacked the French base at Arcot, taking the city and massacring the French inside. The French responded with a declaration of war in early 1767 and the Franco-Mysore War had begun. The French were supported by the Nizam who was to fight Mysore while the French mustered. Hyder Ali continued his campaign and headed southeast towards Pondicherry, though he did not feel confident enough to assault the city. The Nizam invaded Mysore in summer, although he made little headway he did cause Ali to lead the majority of his troops north to confront the Nizam.
Hyder Ali:
Early in 1768 the French force arrived and began advancing westward. A smaller force was landed in the west of Mysore and launched a successful surprise attack on the city of Calicut. In June the Nizam and Ali met at the Battle of Gutty, which saw the Nizam defeated. A series of small inconsequential skirmishes dominated the rest of the year. Ali was reluctant to advance against the French for fear of the Marathas; but when it became clear that British lobbying had convinced them to stay neutral, Ali marched east to confront the French. They met at the Battle of Gurramakonda in June of 1769. The result was a French victory and saw the Mysore army heavily damaged and they were scattered. The French were reluctant to pursue too far though as disease and attrition were already taking their toll and they withdrew to Madras. After another year of inconclusive fighting the Treaty of Goa was signed in August of 1770 ending the war. No territorial exchanges took place but Mysore was forced to recognise French influence over Hyderabad and its territories, which became an effective French vassal.
The treaty however was not a permanent peace effort, more a cease fire, and war would resume in India in a few years. In the north the British looked in alarm at the French victory and began stepping up their efforts in the Maratha Empire as well as sending advisors to Mysore. India was becoming a continent-wide tinderbox.
In the southeast of India, however, it was the French that served as the primary European power. The French counted themselves lucky that they had achieved success in India, and knew it was only due to victories in Europe and America that they still had any influence in the subcontinent. As such King Louis XVI and his ministers decided to enhance their forces and position in the south. The French Governor General in India, Thomas Arthur [1], was granted new resources and backing from Paris and was instructed to extend the French powerbase, which he did in the early 1760s. In addition the French began aggressively attempting to gain influence and control in the area between their bases in the northern Circars and the southern area of Coromandel. The current Nizam of Hyderabad, Ali Khan Asaf Jah II, who nominally owned the disputed region, was courted by the French. Large amounts of French gold and weaponry went into bribing the Nizam, backed as always by the threat of force, who eventually allowed the French into the territory.
Nizam Ali Khan Asaf:
This move however was condemned by the nearby Kingdom of Mysore, whose ruler Hyder Ali, saw a possible French alliance with the Nizam as a threat to his state’s existence. So, with tacit British backing, attacked the French base at Arcot, taking the city and massacring the French inside. The French responded with a declaration of war in early 1767 and the Franco-Mysore War had begun. The French were supported by the Nizam who was to fight Mysore while the French mustered. Hyder Ali continued his campaign and headed southeast towards Pondicherry, though he did not feel confident enough to assault the city. The Nizam invaded Mysore in summer, although he made little headway he did cause Ali to lead the majority of his troops north to confront the Nizam.
Hyder Ali:
Early in 1768 the French force arrived and began advancing westward. A smaller force was landed in the west of Mysore and launched a successful surprise attack on the city of Calicut. In June the Nizam and Ali met at the Battle of Gutty, which saw the Nizam defeated. A series of small inconsequential skirmishes dominated the rest of the year. Ali was reluctant to advance against the French for fear of the Marathas; but when it became clear that British lobbying had convinced them to stay neutral, Ali marched east to confront the French. They met at the Battle of Gurramakonda in June of 1769. The result was a French victory and saw the Mysore army heavily damaged and they were scattered. The French were reluctant to pursue too far though as disease and attrition were already taking their toll and they withdrew to Madras. After another year of inconclusive fighting the Treaty of Goa was signed in August of 1770 ending the war. No territorial exchanges took place but Mysore was forced to recognise French influence over Hyderabad and its territories, which became an effective French vassal.
The treaty however was not a permanent peace effort, more a cease fire, and war would resume in India in a few years. In the north the British looked in alarm at the French victory and began stepping up their efforts in the Maratha Empire as well as sending advisors to Mysore. India was becoming a continent-wide tinderbox.
Russia: Rebellion and Rebirth
(1772-1780)
Part I
(1772-1780)
Part I
Defeat in the Third War of Polish Succession (TWPS) was hard on the Russians. They had suffered territorial loses in Finland and lost influence in the Crimea, not to mention the replacement of a friendly regime in Poland with a staunchly anti-Russian state. One of the most lasting impacts however was the breakdown in relations with Austria. The failure of the Austrians to intervene in the TWPS infuriated Catherine and she even temporarily recalled her ambassador to Vienna. It was domestically though that the impact of the defeat would be felt first.
Catherine II:
The Russian defeat encouraged anti-establishment groups within the Russian Empire, peasant and noble, that the state was weak and the time was ready for change. The first sign of trouble was in the Volga. Defeat by the Ottomans had greatly encouraged the local Cossack tribes to rebel. They gained widespread support throughout the region amongst Cossacks and peasants dissatisfied with the absolutist regime in St. Petersburg. The Cossacks were led by Emelyan Pugachev, a dissatisfied deserter, and they quickly seized control of large areas in the south. New recruits, Cossacks, Tatars, peasants, deserters etc., flocked to the rebel’s cause and soon a full scale insurrection was at hand. By early 1774 large areas of land between the Urals and the Volga, including the capture of the city of Ufa, which became the rebel headquarters.
The rebellion had originally not been viewed too seriously by Catherine and the government in St. Petersburg, but with the fall of Ufa it was becoming increasingly obvious that the situation was far more troublesome than originally perceived. Consequently the Tsarina ordered Aleksandr Bibikov to take an army east and crush the rebellion. The result was a disaster. The Russian army at this point was demoralised and divided, many of the officer corps were unreliable and the conscripted masses were sympathetic to the rebellion. At the Battle of Sarapul, on November 13th 1774, the Imperial Army was crushed by the rebels and Bibikov was captured and executed.
Pugachev:
The Battle of Sarapul was the critical moment of the war. The victory emboldened the rebel cause. Many of the survivors of Imperial Army from Sarapul defected to the rebels. This in addition to the scores of new recruits from the area brought the total rebel force to around 60,000 men, a formidable force. Pugachev now ordered his forces to move on the fortress at Kazan. The defeat at Sarapul however proved to be a death nail for Catherine, however. From the moment she had taken power from her husband, Peter III, there had been many in the aristocracy who opposed her. The victory in the Four Year’s War temporarily muted these voices; however the defeat in the Third War of Polish Succession granted new life to this growing mutiny, the defeat at Sarapul was the spark. A group of nobles, led by the disaffected Nikita Ivanovich Panin, conspired to overthrow the Tsarina. A direct coup was considered too risky; instead, the conspirators began assembling their own forces in the west, and on February 14th 1775 they kidnapped the Tsarina’s son Paul and spirited him away. The conspirators soon declared him to be Paul I, Tsar of Russia, and declared Catherine a usurper. Recent evidence indicates that Paul was a knowing member of the plot, his strained relationship with his mother was well known, and it is likely the ‘kidnapping’ was a ruse.
Nikita Panin:
The Russian state was now apparently on the verge of collapse. In early March Pugachev’s rebels took Kazan, another great blow to the government. The rebels now had control of much of the eastern bank of the Volga. Pugachev, upon hearing of the Panin rebellion, decided to move on Saratov, a major city on the Volga further south, the fall of which would open up the possibility of an offensive in the south. Kazan’s fall encouraged the conspirators. From their base at Minsk they were reinforced by a flood of new nobles who were abandoning Catherine. In May they moved east towards Smolensk. The Tsarina was not defeated though, she still had support and she ordered General Michelsohn west to confront Paul and Panin while she gave orders for a new army to assemble in the east to deal with the rebels.
Pugachev's Rebellion:
Russia: Rebellion and Rebirth
(1772-1780)
Part II
Tsar Paul:
Meanwhile in the east Pugachev’s campaign continued. In mid July, Saratov fell. This was a bloody battle and the rebel army suffered greatly for the city’s fall, but it was indeed worth it. With Saratov captured the Tsarina was effectively cut off from the Russian Empire east of the Urals, and any support she might have received from there was muted. Also, it opened up the south for a new offensive. However Pugachev needed time to rebuild his forces and thus he made camp at Saratov and sent out recruiting parties. The victory at Saratov did much to raise the credibility of the rebel’s cause and dissatisfied peasants, Cossacks, Tatars, Ukrainians and others flocked to their banner.
The turmoil in Russia however did not escape the notice of the outside world however. The neighbouring powers all soon attempted to use the chaos to their advantage. The Ottomans were the first to intervene. They began sending large convoys of aid to the rebels through the Caucasus and up the Volga in an attempt to gain favour with and aid the rebellion. They also took this moment to secure their own borders and began moving troops into Georgia and Armenia, both of which were in anarchy. The Poles too decided this was an opportunity to good to miss. In November King Louis authorised an invasion of Courland. The Russian protectorate was soon overwhelmed and under Polish control. The Prussians however did not take too kindly to the Polish move however, taken without Berlin’s knowledge, and relations between the two states soured. The Swedish king, Gustav III, too decided time was right for a rematch, and launched two incursions into Russia; the first in December into Karelia and the second in February 1776 in Estonia.
Russian Rebel Cossacks, Near Saratov 1775:
The foreign invasions convinced both Catherine and Paul that the civil crisis must be ended as soon as possible. Thus the two armies were spurred into action, both sides eager for a victory to improve their negotiating position. Unfortunately neither side got their wish. The following Battle of Polotsk was an inconclusive draw and both sides withdrew suffering casualties. In the meantime however Paul’s diplomatic envoy had reached the rebels in Saratov. A few days of negotiation ensued but eventually the two sides agreed on terms, Pugachev’s rebels would declare support and fealty to Tsar Paul, and the tsar would agree to a list of demands by the rebels. The mission took their leave and headed back west. Pugachev, inspired by the meeting, decided to make a risky move, and march northwest: towards Moscow.
In March the Swedes took Riga, thus confirming occupation of much of Estonia and the Baltic coast. Catherine decided to order Michelsohn to retake Riga and drive the Swedes out of Estonia, a move that she hoped would endear the people and nobility to her, putting Russia’s interests first, and win support for her cause. Whether this would have worked however will not be known for Michelsohn’s army was routed by the Swedes in May at the Battle of Volmar. In the meantime Paul and Panin had reorganised their forces and taken Smolensk before moving northwest to cut Michelsohn off from Moscow and the east. In June Pugachev faced Catherine’s army at Vladimir, just east of Moscow. The battle lasted two days but in the end the unmotivated and disaffected Imperial forces were routed, and the rebels took Moscow a few weeks later.
Pugachev's Rebellion:
The twin disasters at Volmar and Moscow were the end of the Tsarina’s reign. When word got out of the state of the campaign a palace coup was launched and Catherine was deposed. The conspirators invited Paul to enter St. Petersburg and take the crown, which he did in August. He moved quickly to win the favour of the people. He moved his army west and defeated the Swedes in a series of battles, cumulating in the Battle of Reval and expelling them. His army now was too exhausted and depleted to deal with the Poles in Courland and the Swedes in Karelia and he was forced to compromise sending delegations to Warsaw and Stockholm to discuss peace terms.
Pugachev meanwhile had not vacated Moscow. His army, too, still maintained control over large areas of the east. In January of 1777 Tsar Paul went to meet Pugachev in person. The two held a prolonged and tense discussion. In the end Pugachev and his followers announced their loyalty to Paul, disbanded and returned all territory to the Tsar. In return Paul conceded to a list of rebel demands, including the guarantee to respect the culture of the Cossacks and outlaw future persecution against them (a status that was later conferred to other minorities such as the Tatars and Ukrainians) and importantly the abolition of serfdom. He was also forced to concede to the demands of his supporting nobility, led by Panin. The principal one was the restoration of the Duma, and limited provincial democratic reform, a move that the aristocracy hoped would placate the masses and enhance their own power by a move to a more constitutional style monarchy. Over the next several years Tsar Paul began a period of reconstruction, liberalisation and westernization Russia, which, although limiting Russia’s role in external and foreign affairs, would lead in later years to the emergence of a strong, united, liberal Russia.
The American Tax Rebellion
(1760-1780)
British North America in 1760, following the Four Year’s War, consisted of three separate regions. The Caribbean was still Britain’s priority, the taxes and trade from these colonies, and the resources, were vital to Britain’s interests. The Thirteen American Colonies were populous and had a growing economy. And in the north British territories in the Hudson Bay region were sparsely populated but did a decent trade in furs and other goods. One of the principal attributes the three regions had in common, especially the northern pair, was threat of a powerful enemy: France. (1760-1780)
Despite some successes in the Four Year’s War the British Thirteen Colonies still found themselves encircled by the French. The Colonials and the British had struggled against the French in North America in the war and had come away with little to show for it. To make matters worse the population of French North America had been growing at an increasing rate, and as each day went by the French threat grew greater and greater. The British therefore were forced to maintain a large garrison in the colonies at all times to dissuade the French of any aggressive actions. This however was expensive to maintain; a matter made worse by the war debts incurred between 1756 and 1760[1]. As such the Westminster Parliament passed the Stamp Act in 1765, in an effort to increase profits and combat the debt. The Stamp Act was greeted unfavourably by many in the colonies. However Parliament’s argument that the tax was there to pay for the colonies’ defence was taken to heart by many colonials. The redcoat garrisons were viewed favourably by the locals as every glance to the west and north was fearful of the surrounding French and their native allies. However not all colonials were appeased…
Notice of the Stamp Act:
Some colonials felt cheated by the tax, arguing that Parliament had no right to tax them as they had no representation themselves in parliament. The cry “no taxation without representation!” became their rallying call. They were however a minority group. Their numbers did increase slightly however in 1767 with the Quartering Act, which pertained to the housing the standing British army in the colonies. The Quartering Act as a whole, though unpopular, was tolerated by the colonists more so than the Stamp Act, due to the clear necessity of having a large garrison in the colonies with the French so ever present. However the dissenters soon formed into a group known as the “Sons of Liberty” and began organising in towns and cities, principally Boston.
In 1770 Parliament passed a new tax on tea. This tax was deplored by the “Sons of Liberty” and they began planning a demonstration against it. It was also unpopular throughout much of the colonies, and unlike the previous acts this one could not be seen as anti-French in anyway and many local assemblies complained about it. At Charleston in late 1771 delegates from a variety of the southern colonies drafted a letter to Parliament protesting the tax as unlawful and unnecessary. Following this Parliament voted to repeal that act in mid 1772. News of the repeal however did not arrive in Boston before the end of the year.
In June of 1772, unaware of the repeal, the Sons of Liberty decided to raid a collection of commercial ships in the harbour, which were rumoured to be carrying large quantities of tea. Dressed as native Indians they attempted to storm the ships. Unfortunately for them they encountered a local British garrison on patrol. Some of the leaders, including John Adams and Paul Revere attempted to abort the raid and call the Sons back. However some of the more impetuous members attacked the garrison. The British troops were taken by surprise. Unsure how to respond to the attack they had their choice made for them when one young Sons member struck a soldier with a tomahawk, killing him. In response the British opened fire killing several of the Sons members, including one Samuel Adams. In response to the commotion many locals emerged on the scene and seeing the fight many joined with the Sons and drove the garrison away violently. At the end of the day the garrison suffered two dead and four injured, while the Bostonians lost nine dead and a dozen wounded.
Rebel Samuel Adams:
The British response was swift and decisive. They moved a large force into Boston and placed the town under marshal law. An inquiry was launched into the incident but the authorities could not find those responsible and the Sons of Liberty escaped further prosecution. In Boston and much of Massachusetts, the attack was branded the “Boston Massacre” by the local printer Benjamin Edes, a Sons of Liberty member. His Boston Gazette told and retold the story of the “massacre”, and Boston soon seethed with quiet rebellion. This was however, in strong contrast to the mood of much of the rest of the colonies. Sure there were various local pockets of dissent that lauded the Sons, but the vast majority of people saw an attack on His Majesty’s soldiers as downright appalling and treasonous. This mood was seized upon by South Carolina governor Lord Charles Montagu who launched a rumour that the Sons of Liberty were working with the French and that the Boston incident was meant to distract the British troops from the border for a French invasion. This rumour spread like wildfire throughout much of the colonies, north and south. The credibility of it was helped enormously when in mid 1773 several French Indian tribes, led by the Shawnee, attacked British towns and forts near the Great Lakes, an act widely circulated by the Royalist papers as being backed by the French, while mentioning the Sons of Liberty as much as possible.
Lord Charles Montagu:
The result was that by the end of 1773 the vast majority of colonial subjects outside Boston and the surrounding area, were nearly convinced that the Sons of Liberty were a treasonous pro-French plot. In Boston however, they were heroes. Heroes, waiting for their next opportunity to strike. In early 1774 they got it. To combat the Shawnee raids the majority of the British garrison was pulled out of Boston and sent northwest. For the Sons of Liberty this was a chance to good to miss up. In May they attacked and seized garrison barracks and armouries all over Boston, as well as capturing and destroying HMS Gaspée which was in harbour at the time. The Sons were soon joined by much of the town’s populace and were forced to withdraw to nearby Breed’s Hill. Bu July the entire city of Boston was in the hands of the rebels. The news of the Boston Rising spread throughout much of the colonies. Local groups, sympathetic to the Sons’ cause, tried to repeat the act. They made little success however and were in most cases defeated, or forced to resort to a low level insurrection and guerrilla movement. In Philadelphia however they had some success. Philadelphia’s Royal Garrison, like Boston’s, had been pulled out to battle the Shawnee. In Philadelphia rebels managed to seize weapons and take over the town. They however, did not have the backing of much of the populace. The pro-Royalist faction rose up, but were unable to overcome the better armed rebels and were forced out of town.
The rebel’s success was short lived however. When word reached Parliament of the Boston Rising there was shock and outrage, feelings further incensed when word arrived of the numerous other aborted risings and the fall of Philadelphia. Many in Parliament advocated an immediate hard-line military response to crush the uprising and attacks on suspected pro-rebel individuals, a course strongly supported by King George III. The larger more moderate faction led by Prime Minister Duke Augustus FitzRoy had other views. The primary fear of the moderates was that the course advocated by the hard-liners would lead to open rebellion, something that had to be avoided with the French ever ready to move in, in addition to the fact that defeat in the Four Year's War had left Britain more war weary, less confident and more open to compromise than it might have been otherwise. So instead they opted for compromise. Representatives from the various colonies, Massachusetts excluded, were invited to Parliament to discuss the situation, while British forces began assembling to retake Boston and Philadelphia. In January of 1775 Parliament passed the Dominion Act, something strongly resented by the king, but with the monarchy still in disgrace with much of Parliament following George II’s pro-Hanoverian attitudes that led to the Treaty of Rotterdam and surrender in the Four Year’s War, the act went ahead. King George III, feeling resentful and snubbed, became a political recluse for the rest of his reign.
Prime Minister FitzRoy:
The Dominion Act divided the Thirteen Colonies into two large “Dominions” of New England and Carolina. Each dominion would have a ‘Parliament’ which was subject to Westminster and comprised of elected officials from the various colonies, each of which would maintain its colonial assembly. The Dominion parliaments, at New York and Charleston, would be able to deal with local issues, as well as each being able to send an observer to Westminster so the Dominion’s voices would be heard in Parliament. The Dominion Acts, though resented by parts of the government, was applauded by the colonial representatives and by those they represented.
The Dominion Act took the wind out of the rebel’s sails. When word reached the colonies of the act, rebels everywhere lost support. Many simply dissolved, most members seeing their cause as fulfilled and were placated by Parliament’s decision. This was indeed the case in Philadelphia, where the rebels became split and many laid down their arms and went home. The remaining rebels, including leaders Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, were overthrown and captured by the pro-Royalist citizens supported by an arriving British detachment. The captured rebels were hung for treason. The rebels in Boston however did not back down. In August of 1775 the British forces, including a certain George Washington, began the siege of the city. A Royal Navy force arrived to blockade the city. In December the British assaulted the city and the rebels were overwhelmed and the city fell. The surviving leaders of the rebellion, including John Adams, Paul Revere and John Hancock were hung after being drawn and quartered, a gruesome yet effective response.
Executed Rebel Paul Revere:
After Boston’s fall the rebel cause eventually dried up. Various local militia’s continued to mount a hit and run campaign on the borders and in the wilderness up until about 1779. Some pro-rebel sympathisers emigrated, chiefly to Louisiana. Other Royalist members decided to leave and head for Canada or the Caribbean, not wishing to live in territories granted even so little autonomy. In the 1776 the first meetings of the Dominion parliaments went ahead faultlessly, and by 1780 martial law was finally lifted in Boston and the wounds of the rising had begun to heal.
Dominion Act:
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