Rule Britannia- Part 1

[Anaxagoras]

1915:
On March 18, a combined British and French naval attack on the Turkish defenses of the Dardanelles results in three ships being lost to mines. Some within the fleet believe the entire action should be broken off, while others believe a second attempt may have more success. Poor weather the next day delays a second attack, and in a meeting on board the fleet flagship, the decision is made to continue the offensive.

On March 23, the fleet resumes its attack. Immediately, it is noticed that fire from the Turkish forts is much slacker than it had been earlier. The Allied fleet had been unaware that the Turks were almost out of ammunition. Soon, the fire virtually comes to an end. Unhindered, the fleet minesweepers are able to clear paths through the minefields, and the battleships blow the Turkish forts to pieces at point blank range.

The next day, the fleet steams easily into the Sea of Marmara. The German battlecrusier Goeben is destroyed by the battleship Queen Elizabeth, which had been brought along for the purpose. On the evening of March 24, the fleet anchors off Constantinople. With the city in a panic, the cowed Turkish government has no choice but to surrender.

Nationalist Turkish officers refuse to acknowledge the surrender and continue the fight in the Middle East and Anatolia. But being unable to cross the Dardanelles, there is little they can do against the Allies for the time being.

Throughout April, the Balkan nations enter the war on the Allied side, encouraged by the Allied success at Gallipoli. Greece joins the fighting on April 11, Bulgaria two days after that and Romania a week later. Joined by a large British contingent, these nations create a new front against the Central Powers. At the same time, Italy joins the Allies and attacks Austria, creating yet another front.

Throughout 1915, the Germans and Austrians find themselves under heavy pressure from all sides, completely without allies and with a tight naval blockade by the Royal Navy gradually strangling its economy. Furthermore, with regular convoys of supplies and ammunition reaching the Russians through the now-open Dardanelles, the Russian war effort gradually becomes more effective.

1916:
The success of the Gallipoli operation and the capture of Constantinople has given added credibility to the faction in the British Cabinet who oppose the dispatch of large British forces to the Western front. As a result, the Western Front is left mostly to the French, while the British concentrate on the naval war. The British army sends contingents to fight in France, Italy and the Balkans, but does not commit a single large army to any particular place. It prefers to fight the war in its traditional manner, limited ground operations combined with a naval blockade and economic aid to its allies. As a result, it largely avoids the massive casualties being suffered by the other major powers.

With its forces stretched along four fronts and its economy being strangled by a persistent blockade, Germany gambles on a single decisive offensive on the Western Front, designed to break the Allied lines and capture Paris. In late February, German forces hurl themselves against the French lines at Verdun. Both sides take heavy losses in a gruesome battle. But the French lines hold.

Revolution breaks out throughout the Austro-Hungarian Empire as various nationalistic groups take to the streets, demanding that the war be ended and that their national rights be recognized. The Austro-Hungarian armies at the front dissolve, allowing Russian armies from the east, Allied armies from the south and Italian forces from the west to advance against minimum resistance.

On August 27, Austria-Hungary sues for peace. At once, Allied armies race into the territory to occupy strategic positions, while badly-needed German divisions are dispatched from the Western and Eastern fronts to block any offensive into Germany itself. The net is tightening.

In desperation, the Germans decide to commit their High Seas Fleet to a do-or-die battle against the Royal Navy. On September 23, a massive battle takes place off the Yorkshire coast. When the smoke clears from the Battle of the North Sea, the greatest naval battle of all time, the Royal Navy has suffered heavy losses. But the High Seas Fleet has been utterly destroyed.

In the wake of the series of disastrous defeats, demonstrators take to the streets of German cities, demanding an immediate end to the fighting. With no options left, the German Empire sues for peace on October 16. A cease-fire immediately goes into effect. German forces withdraw to their own territory and French and Belgian armies occupy the left bank of the Rhine.

Although the war lasted only slightly more than two years, it was the bloodiest conflict in European history, up to that point. France, Germany and Russia had each lost over a million men. The British, having avoided most of the trench warfare which characterized the fighting on the Western and Eastern fronts, had suffered the least among the major combatants.

In the meantime, chaos is sweeping the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the fall of Constantinople and the collapse of the central government. Armenian nationalists have set up an independent state in eastern Anatolia, with Russian military protection. In the Arab lands, various tribes and local rulers are attempting to gain control, with remnants of the Turkish army caught up in the disorder.

1917:
A peace conference is called in Paris to dictate the terms of peace. Much haggling is done over the terms, while several conscientious diplomats on all sides wish to ensure that no such conflict can ever occur again.

Eventually, the Treaty of Paris is signed on May 2. It major terms were:

Neither side admits war guilt and no financial reparations are demanded.
German Cameroon and Togo are ceded to France. The people of Alsace-Lorraine are given the opportunity to vote on whether to be part of Germany or France. French citizens who had previously lived in Alsace-Lorraine are allowed to participate in the election.
The German Navy is permanently limited to one-quarter the size of the Royal Navy. German South-West Africa and German East Africa are ceded to Great Britain.
Tsingtao and German Pacific islands north of the equator are ceded to Japan, while German Pacific islands south of the equator are ceded to Australia and New Zealand.
Regarding Austria-Hungary, the Hapsburg dynasty remains in power in Vienna, but nearly all larger nationalities in the Austro-Hungarian Empire are given independence. Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Bosnia, Croatia and Slovenia are recognized as independent states. The Russian Empire gains formerly Polish territories from Austria-Hungary, but no German territory.
Because central government in the Ottoman Empire has collapsed, it is agreed that an arrangement with the Turks will reached when it becomes possible.
German, Russia and France agree to reduce the size of their armies to avoiding future provocations, with specifics to be reached at a later date..
The Germans sign the treaty very reluctantly, but having little choice from a military point of view. It is pointed out in the newspapers that, colonial issues aside, the treaty is less harsh on Germany than the treaty which ended the Franco-Prussian War was on the French, half a century earlier.

At the insistence of the army, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicates the throne in favor of his son, who is installed as Kaiser Wilhelm III. Many within the German political establishment, however, are demanding a new constitution which would curtail the powers of the monarchy.

On September 8, elections are held in Alsace-Lorraine and the population favors a return to France. This takes effect on December 1.

1918:
The British Empire emerges from the war as the strongest nation in the world. France, Russia and Germany have each suffered very heavy losses in the Great War and their economies were heavily damaged by direct attack, occupation of territory and blockade. Britain, too, suffered grievous losses, but nothing on the scale of its Continental neighbors. And while Britain spent huge amounts of money to finance the war, its industrial strength has never been higher.

Furthermore, the Royal Navy is again the unquestioned supreme power on the world’s oceans. Its reputation has soared during the war and the Treaty of Paris required Germany is dismantle what remained of the High Seas Fleet. Because of this, the British Empire emerged from the war as the world’s only superpower.

Despite her strengths, the postwar world presents serious challenges. The issue of Irish Home Rule, effectively put on hold during the war, emerges again as a serious issue once the war and its immediate aftermath are past. The same is true for India, where the Indian National Congress is agitating for greater autonomy, particularly in light of the Indian contribution to victory during the war.

The immediate problem facing the British, however, is the situation in the Middle East. With the abdication of Mehmet IV, all semblance of central government in the Ottoman Empire has fallen. In Palestine and Mesopotamia, Arab tribes are battling with the remnants of the Turkish Army, as various Turkish generals set themselves up as warlords. In the midst of all this, Jewish settlements in Palestine defend themselves as best they can.

With substantial military forces already in the area and under pressure from domestic and world opinion, Britain orders its troops to advance into the Arab territories and restore order. By the end of 1918, virtually all the former Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire are de facto under British control (the French also send in some forces). Palestine is placed under British military administration, while Syria and Mesopotamia are governed by local Arab sheiks in cooperation with British military forces.

1919:
The situation in the Middle East remains chaotic, but order gradually emerges in certain places. The Turkish Republic is declared in central Anatolia by a group of nationalist officers. An independent Armenian state is already functioning in eastern Anatolia. Arab regions in Palestine, Jordan, Syria and Mesopotamia, however, remain in varying degrees of disorder.

The situation in Arabia is also tense. There is substantial inter-service rivalry among the British. Officials in London favor an alliance with the Hashemite dynasty, which presently controls Mecca and Medina. The Indian Political Service, however, favors the al-Saud family. Eventually, due to the fact that the Hashemite family seems to be in a stronger position and because the al-Saud family seem more inclined to religious fanaticism, the views of the Foreign Office in London prevail. The British ally themselves with the Hashemite dynasty and assist them in stabilizing the Hejaz.

The status of Constantinople causes a great deal of controversy. Russia demands that it be handed over to them, while the Turkish republic insists that it be restored to Turkey. The Greeks, who have taken control of the eastern Aegean coast, also want it, citing its long history as a Greek city and its large Greek population.

Nathaniel Curzon, the British foreign secretary, is under heavy pressure on the Constantinople issue. Churchill, having been elevated from the First Lord of the Admiralty to War Secretary, reinforces the garrison of Constantinople and makes plans to oppose any Turkish attempt to seize the city by force, working with the Greeks as he does so. The dispute drags on throughout the year.

In Germany, the pressures of public opinion and continued unrest in the cities results in a new constitution. While retaining the monarchy and the Hohenzollern dynasty, most political power is taken away from the Kaiser and placed in the hands of the Reichstag itself. The Kaiser is only permitted certain reserve powers, similar to the position of the British monarch.

Demands for reform in Russia are met with a harsh government crackdown, supported by reactionary members of the armed forces.

1920:
Attempts by the Turkish Republic to recapture the Aegean coast are defeated by the Greeks, who are supported by the British. In a counteroffensive, the Greeks are able to seize the Asian coastline of the Dardanelles and Bosporus as well. Because of the Turkish offensive, which the British considered very ungentlemanly as negotiations over Constantinople were still ongoing, the British decide to take any return of Turkish territory in Europe off the table.

Lord Curzon works out a settlement of the Constantinople question. The city itself, with a substantial amount of surrounding territory, is ceded to Greece, who celebrate joyfully. To assuage the Bulgarians, the remainder of Thrace is ceded to them. And to satisfy Russian sensibilities, Curzon persuaded the Greeks to sign a treaty with the Russians by which the Greeks undertook never to limit of hinder the amount of Russian shipping, commercial or military, which passes through the Dardanelles.

The Russians were irritated, but eventually decided that it was better for the Dardanelles to be in Greek hands than Turkish ones. Although, during the Great War, the British had discussed the possibility of Russia gaining control of the straits when the war was over, they were not keen on seeing the Russians have an easy outlet to the Mediterranean. Indeed, the British had worked for two centuries to prevent just such an occurrence. The Russians, having suffered heavily during the war and facing mounting internal problems, were not keen to become the open enemy of the British.

In what becomes known as the Second Decembrist Revolt, two Russian army regiments mutiny in St. Petersburg when rumors circulate that their pay and rations are to be cut. Revolutionary-inclined officers take control of the mutiny and use it to call for a constitutional monarchy. In response, Czarist troops surround the barracks and blow them to pieces with artillery (destroying much of the surrounding area in the process).

The Grand Duke Alexei, heir to the Russian throne, dies of complications from his hemophilia. His mother, the Czarina Alexandra, is so distraught that she commits suicide. Nicholas II, overcoming his own intense grief, orders the self-proclaimed holy man Rasputin to be executed, as he blames him for his wife’s death. This is done immediately (with great difficulty; the firing squad had to fire three volleys before he died). The Czar’s younger brother, Grand Duke Michael, becomes the heir to the throne.

In the November elections in the United States, Republican Frank Lowden is elected, sweeping nearly every state outside of the South. Previously, he had been the governor of Illinois and had made a name for himself for his efficiently-run administration. The main issues of the campaign were economic and foreign affairs were scarcely mentioned at all. The American people are delighted to have avoided the Great War and remain committed to isolationism.

1921:
Parliamentary elections in Britain result in a hung Parliament, with the Irish Parliamentary Party holding the balance of power between the Liberals and Tories. David Lloyd George, the leader of the Liberals, agrees to a coalition with the IPP. Together, they have a strong parliamentary majority.

The IPP insists on an implementation of the Home Rule Act of 1914 as its price for participation. The act, which would set up a separate Irish Parliament that would have control over domestic Irish affairs, had received Royal Assent in 1914, but its implementation had been interrupted by the war and its aftermath.

When news of this political development reaches Ulster, there are Unionist riots in the streets. The Ulster Volunteer Force threatens to resist the new law by force. They also point to their devotion to Britain during the Great War, claiming that the Irish Catholics were sympathetic to Germany (which, except for a very few fanatics, is false). Lloyd George attempts to work out a compromise by which the Ulster counties would be excluded from the jurisdiction of the new parliament.

The strong measures the British police and military take against the Ulster Volunteer Force impress many Irish Catholics. The radical group Sinn Fein loses much of its popular appeal as a result.

Palestine officially comes under British military protection and appoints of military governor, who rules with the help of a joint executive made up of Jewish and Arab members. Syria, and Mesopotamia remain under British military occupation.

Low level clashes take place between Turkey and Armenia, as each side seeks to gain strategic territory along their border. The Turks are unwilling to press the matter too far, however, because of their weakened state and the possibility of Russian intervention.

In India, the Indian National Congress engages in a number of non-violent protests, calling for greater Indian participation in the government of the Raj and a commitment on the part of Parliament that India will eventually be granted Dominion status.

The success of nationalist uprisings in the former Austrian Empire inspires Polish radical groups, who launch a series of non-violent demonstrations in Warsaw, Krakow and other cities. The Russian government responds harshly and exiles many ringleaders to Siberia.

1922:
Elections to the Irish Parliament are held, with Ulster being exempt from the process (temporarily as far as the IPP is concerned, permanently are far as the Unionists are concerned). Unsurprisingly, the IPP wins an overwhelming majority of seats, with only a handful going to the radical Sinn Fein group. As Sinn Fein refuses to take an oath of loyalty to the King and therefore cannot take their seats, the IPP has an effective monopoly on power in the Irish Parliament.

Lord Curzon, the British Foreign Secretary, invites members of the Indian National Congress to come to London for a conference. Many Indians distrust Curzon because of some of his actions during his tenure as Viceroy of India, but others respect him highly. The conference is only to discuss ideas and not intended to initiate any radical new policies. Churchill, now Home Secretary, is disgusted with the very idea of meeting with the Congress Party and considers resigning from Cabinet in protest until Lloyd George talks him out of it.

Despite its unrivaled military position, the British are under heavy pressure economically. American and German industry is outperforming that of Britain and even the French are catching up (although the French are heavily in debt to the British). In the fall, a panel of British and Dominion economists and ministers is convened in London to discuss the possibility of greater economic cooperation in the face of foreign competition, with the possibility of resurrecting the old idea of “Imperial Preference” in tariff policies.

Despite its disappointing industrial performance, Britain retains its lead in the financial sphere. “The City” in London remains the unquestioned center of world finance, with Wall Street in New York a distant second.

The Anglo-Persian Oil Company continues to develop the oil infrastructure in Persia, although there is substantial opposition to this among the Persian ruling class. Russian oil output in Baku continues to be the main source of supply in the world, although production from parts of the United States is catching up.

In Egypt, the British arrange for a group of liberal political and business figures to write a constitution for the new state (its nominal allegiance to the Ottoman Empire having obviously ceased with the abdication of the Sultan). Overtly-nationalist men are excluded from the discussions and the British are intent on retaining effective control over the foreign and defense policies of Egypt. Indeed, there are some among the British who hope to find some constitutional means of tying Egypt directly to the British Empire.

In South Africa, many Afrikaners are immigrating into the newly-acquired territory of Southwest Africa, with the idea of eventually setting up a government independent of the Union of South Africa.

With rebellious Arab tribes making difficulties in Morocco, Spain and France organize a joint expedition against them. Although losses are higher than expected, the rebellion is soon crushed.

1923:
The Irish Parliament convenes in Dublin. According to the Home Rule Act, it will have complete control over various devolved issues in Ireland, including education, law enforcement, local government, health and human services, economic development (excluding fisheries), sports and the arts and other such issues. Irish MPs continue to be elected to the Parliament in Westminster, but the IPP ensures that they vote only on those issues which effect Ireland (i.e. they would not vote on an issue regarding the English education system).

As expected, Sinn Fein MIPs refuse to take their seats, an action which most Irishmen consider foolish and counterproductive. The Ulster counties do not participate and their affairs continue to be the domain of the Westminster Parliament. Whether this state of affairs is temporary or permanent is allowed to remain ambiguous.

The India Conference convened by Lord Curzon ends in March and the Indian National Congress members return home. Various ideas were debated and discussed, including the eventual creation of an Indian assembly, half its members being appointed by London and the other half elected in India, with Muslim guaranteed proportional representation. The Indians state strongly that their demands for self-government must be moved forward but also denied that they wished to separate India from the British Empire.

At an Imperial Conference in London, Lloyd George met with the Prime Ministers of Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The notion of Imperial Preference, by which the Dominions of the Empire would have free trade with one another but coordinate tariffs against other nations, was the main item on the agenda. Not only was this expected to be economically beneficial to all, but it would serve to tie the Empire more tightly together. The opinion was also expressed that the constitutional framework of the Empire should be put in better order.

The Conservatives rally against Imperial Preference, maintaining their devotion to Free Trade. Their repeated speeches on the subject, which warn of economic disaster and increased tensions with other nations, help raise their party’s popularity. In two by-elections that year, Tories oust Liberal MPs.

A long-standing conspiracy in Poland comes to the fore. On October 18, Polish patriots blow up a Russian ammunition dump in Warsaw, signaling the start of what they hope will be a general insurrection. Many of their co-conspirators have backed out at the last minute, however, and most of the remaining attacks are uncoordinated and ineffective. Several Russian soldiers and many Polish civilians are killed, however, and small bands begin wandering the Polish countryside, claiming to be fighting for an independent Poland.

Germany, seeing an opportunity to weaken or at least embarrass their Russian neighbor, offers to mediate a truce, which enrages Czar Nicholas II. Russian forces crack down hard on Polish dissidents and German and Russian diplomats exchange angry words with one another.

France, increasingly disturbed by the reactionary actions of Russia and fearing the Germans less since the end of the Great War, begin to back away from their alliance with Russia. Outwardly cordial meetings are held in Strasbourg between the French President and the Kaiser.

1924:
Exhausted and in ill health, Lord Curzon resigns from the Cabinet. His place as Foreign Secretary is taken by Austen Chamberlain, son of the great Joseph Chamberlain, who had come over to the Liberals from the Liberal Unionists. His main objective is to push through a policy of Imperial Preference to help bind the Empire more tightly together. Prime Minister Lloyd George, previously lukewarm on the concept, is gradually coming around to favoring it.

With solid economic conditions and a generally stable geopolitical situation, the popularity of Lloyd George remains high. However, many members of the Liberal Party (among them Winston Churchill) are chaffing at the bit, seeing his long tenure as a threat to their own ambitions to one day reside in 10 Downing Street.

In Africa, the construction of the monumental Cape-to-Cairo Railway begins.

The Polish question persists, as Polish rebels (“freedom fighters” according to the Western press, “terrorists” according to the Russians) carry out scattered attacks throughout Poland. Russian military forces maintain a policy of very harsh repression, under orders from Czar Nicholas II. Within Russia itself, many liberal members of the intelligentsia are disturbed by the actions of the army in Poland, but are not given much opportunity to express their views.

Germany sees the possibility of an independent Poland (preferably a German satellite state) as a potential buffer state between them and the Russians. As such, it begins secretly training, arming and financing the Polish rebel movement, as well as allowing sanctuary to Polish leaders.

In China, the central government is Peking is unable to exercise much authority over the country, as local strongmen and warlords become increasingly bold. The Japanese watch and wait.

In the United States, Republican President Frank Lowden wins re-election with 55% of the vote. In general, the mood of the Americans is to focus on maintaining a strong economy while remaining aloof from European issues.

1925:
After another conference of Dominion Prime Ministers, the decision is made to enact Imperial Preference. In March, a Bill Regulating Tariffs Among the British Dominions is pushed through the Westminster Parliament. Despite some opposition in Canada (which worries over its trade relations with the United States) the Dominions all pass enabling legislation by the end of the year. The Council for Imperial Trade is created to oversee Imperial trade policies and is based in London.

The legislation creates a massive free trade zone among the United Kingdom, Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. At the same time, tariffs are imposed for the entry of goods into the Empire from other countries. The effect is to tie the trade of Britain and the Dominions to one another. It becomes cheaper for the Dominions to import manufactured goods from Great Britain than from Germany, France or America. It also becomes much easier for the Dominions to export their goods to Britain. The effects are almost immediately obvious.

Among British Tories, reaction is mixed. Many hold true to Free Trade and are furious at the success of the Lloyd George administration. However, another faction of the Tories begins to shift away from this position, believing that any policy which strengthens the Empire is a good one.

Germany and France sign a non-aggression pact, which will be up for review in ten years. The treaty also seeks favorable trade relations between the two, partially in response to the tariffs imposed on their exports by the British.

In September, the so-called “Windhoek Incident” takes place in the former German colony of South-West Africa. German settlers who had remained in the colony after it was turned over to the British form an alliance with newly-arrived Boers, and the two groups launch a rather amateurish rebellion against the authority of the British Empire. Declaring an independent republic and appealing for foreign recognition, they quickly are dealt with. A small garrison of Royal Marines keeps control of the colony’s single port of Walvis Bay, while South African forces lead by Jan Smuts enter the colony and quickly restore order.

The ringleaders are incarcerated briefly, then released after promising not to attempt such nonsense again. The incident prompts the South African government to ask London whether it might be a good idea to incorporate the former German colony directly into the Union of South Africa. The Secretary of State for the Colonies puts the matter to the Cabinet, which prevaricates.

Tellingly, the government of Germany makes no comment on the Windhoek Incident. They do not wish to antagonize the British in case relations with Russia take a turn for the worse. The lack of any official support for the Germans in South-West Africa, however, is much opposed by right-wing elements within Germany and becomes something of a scandal.

1926:
Having achieved his main goal of Imperial Preference, Foreign Secretary Chamberlain now hopes to work out a proper settlement, or at least the beginnings of one, in India. He plans on moving forward with the idea of an Indian assembly, as outlined by Curzon’s meeting with members of the Indian National Congress.

The issue of the Indian Assembly quickly becomes extremely divisive within the Cabinet. Lloyd George attempts to remain above the fray, while Churchill (now Chancellor of the Exchequer) is bitterly opposed to the idea. Chamberlain and Churchill find themselves as the leader of two factions of the Cabinet, which argue repeatedly and threaten to split the Liberal Party.

In the midst of all this, the Westminster Parliament and the South African Parliament pass enabling legislation to allow South-West Africa to be incorporated directly into the Union of South Africa.

Afghan tribes raid along the Northwest Frontier, leading to a large punitive expedition by the British Indian Army, reinforced by a few British regiments. Lasting several weeks, much fighting takes place until the tribes are brought to heal. It is the largest British military campaign since the Great War and results in several newspaper headlines.

Comforted by its non-aggression pact with France and with violence continuing in Poland, Germany sends an official note of protest to St. Petersburg over the treatment of civilians in Poland. It calls again for a negotiated settlement of the Polish question. Russia angrily rejects the idea and, in response to the Franco-German non-aggression pact, officially terminates its alliance with France. The British hold discussions with both the German and Russian ambassadors in London, anxious to avoid any open breach of the peace.

In Central America, U.S. Marines are regularly in action in support of pro-American regimes and protecting U.S. business interests.

In the Middle East, oil production in Persia continues to accelerate. As the Persian oil industry is under de facto British control, it is seen by British strategists as a critical check to previous American and Russian domination of the oil industry. As the last of the coal-fired vessels of the Royal Navy are being phased out and replaced by petroleum-fueled ships, the British come to see the Middle East as one of the crucial strategic areas of the world.

In response to this, Britain signs treaties of friendship and cooperation with the small sheikdoms in the Gulf States, including Kuwait. These provide for military protection (secret clauses include pledges of protection from internal unrest) and economic assistance, in return for basing rights for the Royal Navy and the right to search for and develop oil fields.

In Arabia, fighting continues between the al-Saud clan, which controls Riyadh and much of the east, and the Hashemite dynasty, which control the Hejaz, including Mecca and Medina. The British have supported the Hashemites in the past, hoping and expecting that they will defeat the Saudis. The British offer to greatly increase their support to the Hashemites in exchange for signing a treaty similar to the ones the British have already concluded with the other Gulf States. The Hashemites agree, believe that signing such a treaty will cost them nothing, as they have no reason to think there is any oil in Arabia. Soon afterwards, a steady flow of British arms and ammunition is flowing to the Hashemites, giving them the upper hand in their struggle against the al-Saud.

Farther north, Mesopotamia (now known as “Iraq”), Syria and Kurdistan have come under the control of local strongmen and tribal leaders who took power in the wake of the Turkish collapse. There is still a great deal of disorder, however. The British attempt to negotiate similar treaties with these states, but are frustrated by unreasonable demands. Furthermore, Russian agents are attempting to undermine the British position in the area.

1927:
The British Cabinet puts the Indian Assembly Bill on the Parliamentary agenda. In response, Churchill resigns from the Cabinet and crosses the aisle to join the Conservative faction. Several other members of the Cabinet resign, and although none but Churchill cross the aisle, it is sufficient to bring down the government. A vote of no-confidence passes, forcing new elections.

Churchill, who quickly assumes leadership of the Unionist faction of the Tories (having come to support Imperial Preference over Free Trade), proves to be the main focus of the campaign. When voters go to the polls on March 23, the Tories win a convincing majority.

A struggle now takes place within the Conservative Party. The public clearly expects Churchill- popularly known as “The Man Who Won the War”- to become Prime Minister. Stanley Baldwin, the head of the Conservative Party, clearly feels that the job should be his, as Churchill had only joined the Tories in the weeks prior to the election. A compromise is eventually worked out: Baldwin becomes Prime Minister, while Churchill returns to his position as Chancellor with the understanding that he will become Prime Minister upon Baldwin’s resignation.

The election results deeply disappoint the Indian National Congress, which now debates the best course forward. Some wish to engage in a campaign of civil disobedience, but this is dismissed by most Congress leaders, who feel that it will likely be counterproductive. Since the Liberal Party, which could return to power in the next election, seems to be on their side, Congress determined that the best way forward would be solidify ties with the Liberal Party and attempt to get the best deal they can from the Conservatives.

Baldwin recognizes that some gesture must be made to Congress to avoid the possibility of serious unrest in the Raj. As a result, with Churchill remaining peevishly silent, the Government of India Act of 1927 is pushed through Parliament. It expands the role of the elected regional assemblies from being purely advisory to having genuine authority over local affairs. Proportional representation guarantees that Muslims will not be dominated by Hindus. The Act also specifies Dominion status for India as an eventual goal.

Churchill is disgusted but, short of resigning from public life entirely, there is nothing he can do about it. Going back to the Liberals would make him a laughingstock, so he focuses on his role as Chancellor and, in the opinion of many, acts like a child whose toy had been stolen.

The Indian National Congress is surprised by how far the Act went, although they would have liked a fully-elected Indian Assembly as had been intended by the Liberal Plan. Still, Congress decides to work with the British rather than against them, and soon dominates most of the elected regional assemblies. The Muslim League is the other major political force.

The issue of Indian self-government dominated British attention throughout the year, but other critical events were also taking place. In Arabia, the Hashemites capture Riyadh from the Saudis, greatly aided by British equipment and ammunition. It seems that the ultimate victory of the Hashemites is only a matter of time.

The Polish Question continues to fester, straining relations between the Germans and the Russians. Only the memory of the Great War, with its horrible casualties and tremendous destruction, keeps the two from going to war. The Russians are aware that the Germans are supplying Polish rebels, but are unwilling to go public with the information for fear that it will force them into a war they don’t want.

Right-wingers in Germany, having made the “abandonment” of the colonists in South-West Africa a major issue the previous year, are now loudly calling for the government to openly support the Polish rebels. The Poles are lionized in the German right-wing press as freedom fighters and “knights defending Europe from Russian barbarism.” With France no longer an ally of Russia and Britain unlikely to get involved, many in Germany feel that the time is right to attack Russia and thus make up some of the losses they had suffered from the Great War.

1928:
In March, the Polish Question explodes in two dramatic events. On the 12th, the leader of the Polish rebels, Jozef Pilsudski, makes an impassioned plea for help from the “great nations of the West” which is broadcast throughout Western Europe. He announces the creation of a Polish government-in-exile, with himself as President and calls on the world to recognize it as the genuine government of the Polish people.

On March 20th, far more seriously, Czar Nicholas II is assassinated by an ethnic Pole who had formerly been a Russian Army sniper. Grand Duke Michael is immediately named as the next Czar, and in a rage he orders the hometown of the assassin, Lublin, to be razed to the ground.

As Russian army units approach Lublin to carry out the order, a popular uprising takes place throughout Poland, with civilians taking the streets and setting up barricades. Ordered to take harsh measures, many Russian army units begin to refuse to obey orders and return to their barracks on their own initiative.

While all this is happening in Poland, anti-Polish riots break out in Russian cities, with large crowds attacking the businesses and houses owned by Poles. The Russian police do not stand in their way and in many cases even join the rioters. But very soon the anti-Polish riots turn into simple mob violence, with people breaking into warehouses and shops in order to steal food and other items. Liquor is also stolen and further fuels the disorder.

The rest of the world looks on, stunned, as Russia seems on the verge of falling into complete anarchy. Czar Michael orders solid units of the Russian army to use whatever force is necessary to put down the internal disruptions within Russia. Over the next week, thousands of people are killed as Russian soldiers brutally restore order in St. Petersburg, Moscow and other cities hit by the rioting.

In Poland, Pilsudski himself arrives in Warsaw, which has fallen to Polish rebel units. He strives to organize a proper defense force and working government, knowing that a Russian retaliation is soon to come. By the end of July, Polish forces control Warsaw, Danzig, and much of western Poland, while military units still loyal to Russia control Krawkow, Lublin and other cities.

Germany immediately recognizes the independence of Poland, which prompts a Russian declaration on war on September 15. The Polish War of Independence has well and truly begun. German army units move into Poland and take up positions to defend Poland against a Russian attack.

Russian reinforcements pour into Poland to counter the German move. Throughout October, a fierce battle rages for control of Krakow in the south, with both sides suffering heavy losses. Aided by Polish resistance units carrying out sabotage within the city, the German and Polish troops eventually push the Russians out, forcing them to retreat to the northeast.

Other nations declare their neutrality. While not exactly pleased with the outbreak of hostilities, the British and the French believe that the Russians have only themselves to blame, as they had repeatedly refused to enter into reasonable negotiations with the Polish rebels. Britain and France jointly declare that their main objective is to ensure that the conflict does not spread.

Naturally, the Polish War fills the headlines during the year. In British domestic issues, Churchill surprises many with a strong commitment to worker’s rights, although this causes many Conservatives to view their returned comrade with suspicion. He also ensures that sufficient funding is provided for the Royal Navy, this policy being given added emphasis by the outbreak of the Polish War.

Baldwin proves to be a rather lackluster Prime Minister and at times it almost seems that Churchill is running the government. Chamberlain continues an effective tenure as Foreign Secretary, coordinating certain policies with the French vis-à-vis the Germans and Russians.

In American Presidential elections, Republican Herbert Hoover defeats Democrat Al Smith. Republicans also made gains in the House and Senate. With few major issues disturbing the scene in the United States and the economy humming along rather nicely, there seems to be little likelihood of Republican dominance ending anytime soon.

1929:
In Poland, Russia launches a large-scale offensive in an effort to drive the Germans out and restore Russian rule. Warsaw is cut off by a Russian pincer movement, but the Polish garrison inside holds out. Losses are high on both sides. Although the Russians have a substantial numerical superiority, the Germans are vastly better equipped and have far superior air power.

Within Russia itself, right-wing elements are rapidly gaining influence throughout the country. Feeling betrayed by the Western Allies, there is a wave of nationalism and xenophobia. Czar Michael is pressured to move against leftists and to appoint only hard-core reactionaries to official positions. There is also increasing anti-Semitism throughout the country.

World opinion is almost wholly on the side of the Polish-German alliance. Indeed, many volunteer units of other nationalities are formed and sent to fight in Poland. This is particularly true for ethnic groups from the former Austro-Hungarian Empire, who see the Polish struggle for independence as similar to their own, earlier struggle.

The British hold their fleet in readiness and maintain, with the French, the determination that the conflict cannot be allowed to spread. The German government presses the two nations to recognize Polish independence, but they prevaricate, not wishing a complete breach with Russia.

In Arabia, the Hashemite forces inflict a final defeat on the al-Saud clan, solidifying their control over the entire region. Hussein bin Ali, the Hashemite Sharif of Mecca, declares himself King of Arabia, a claim immediately recognized by the British Foreign Office.

Many Jewish refugees, fleeing the fighting Poland or persecution in Russia, arrive in British-controlled Palestine, where there is already a flourishing Jewish community and a strong Zionist movement.

1930:
German and Polish troops began a long counter offensive, aiming to push Russian forces out of Poland altogether. The Siege of Warsaw is lifted and the Russians are unable to stem the tide of the German-Polish advance.

Bowing to reality, and concerned lest the Germans have decisive influence over the post-war Poland, both Britain and France recognize the Pilsudski government in Poland. Russia considers breaking off diplomatic relations, but Czar Michael contents himself with a stern diplomatic protest.

British preparations for possible military action rely a great deal on the Dominions. Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa are called upon by London to have military forces prepared for dispatch to Europe if Britain becomes involved in the Polish War. This entails a good deal of cost and is the source of some grumbling in the Dominion governments.

There is a substantial economic downturn in Western economies, leading to high unemployment. This, in turn, increases labor unrest. In mid-term elections in the United States, Democrats make substantial gains, although the two chambers are still solidly in Republican hands. In Britain, by-elections result in Labor wins in a seat previously held by the Liberals and another previously held by the Tories, to the astonishment of many.

The Anglo-Persian Oil Company (the British government owning 51% of its stock) begins exploring for oil in Arabia, granted extensive rights to do so by King Hussein, who is grateful for British support against the Saudis.

1931:
Continuing high unemployment leads to many Conservatives pushing for a repeal of Imperial Preference and a return to Free Trade. Baldwin and the Unionists, allied on this issue with the Liberals, maintain that the abandonment of Imperial Preference would make things worse, not better, and would lead to disunity in the Empire.

Free Trade Tories, however, demand a vote on the issue. Baldwin and Churchill try to rally as much support as they can, but in the end they are only able to win the vote and keep Imperial Preference by relying on Liberal support. Humiliated and with increasing numbers of Tory MPs calling for Churchill, Baldwin elects to resign. Later that day, King George V formally asks Churchill to take over the leadership of the government.

In Poland, Russian forces are gradually evicted from all Polish territory. Russian forces assemble in Minsk, preparing to launch a counter offensive, although most military observers feel that such an offensive would be doomed to failure.

The Germans now find themselves in a bind. The Poles are all for continuing the offensive into Russian territory, hoping to reestablish the old Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with its 17th Century borders. They cannot do this without German support. The Germans, however, feel that they have achieved their objective of creating a Polish puppet state allied to Germany. Further advances would likely require several more years of war, with heavy losses and great risk. Besides which, Germany does not want Poland to be too strong.

The German government, communicating through the British, asks the Russians for an armistice. Against the advice of his advisors, Czar Michael accepts. On August 8, the Treaty of Stockholm is signed, bringing the war to an end. A independent Poland is recognized and its security is to be guaranteed by Germany. The borders of Poland are fixed and all claims by the Poles to further Russian territory are rendered void.

The Poles are upset, but reluctantly sign the treaty due to the possibility of losing German support. The most furious of the parties involved,, however, are the reactionary officers of the Russian army, who believe that the “cowardly” peace treaty is the only thing that prevented them from launching a counter offensive and reclaiming the whole of Poland. Czar Michael’s popularity within the army and the Russian nobility drops sharply.

With world attention fixated on the end of the Polish War, Japan begins moving troops into Manchuria, claiming that they are doing so to protect Japanese property and to restore order in a region which the central government of China had little control over.

Under British auspices, a Palestine Legislative Council begins to function in Jerusalem. Made up both of Jews and Muslims (with a few seats also allocated to Christians), it has jurisdiction over internal affairs, while defense and foreign policy remain in the hands of the British. Under international law, the area is still under British military occupation, but no one is in any rush to rectify this situation.

1932:
The Prime Ministers of Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand arrive for an Imperial Conference with Churchill. Despite the initial misgivings of some, including Churchill himself, it has become apparent that Imperial Preference is working well. The economies of Britain and the Dominions are comparatively strong, the Empire seems more unified than ever and the income from tariffs on imported goods from outside the Empire have gone to fund various social programs which have reduced labor unrest.

Churchill tells the assembled Prime Ministers that following the economic unification of the Empire, the main object should be putting the Empire in a more workable constitutional framework.

Germany and Poland sign a treaty of friendship and mutual defense. At the same time, without consulting Germany, Poland signs commercial treaties with France, Britain and the United States. Observers point out that these commercial treaties were as much about demonstrating Polish independence from German influence as the commercial provisions.

Reactionary officers in the Russian army have become completely disillusioned with the rule of Czar Michael and hold fast to the opinion that they should have continued the fight against the Germans and Poles.

In India, the expanded regional assemblies, most under the leadership of Congress but others under the control of the Muslim League, are proving to be quite successful in their administration of their areas.

In American Presidential elections, Texas Democrat John Nance Garner, running on a platform of economic reform, defeats the Republican Herbert Hoover. The main issues of the campaign were creating jobs and ending Republican corruption. Democrats also gain control of the House of Representatives, although the Republicans maintain control of the Senate. This signals the end of a long period of Republican political dominance and also signals the beginnings of Texan domination of the national Democratic Party.

1933:
Japan becomes ever bolder in China, now occupying most of Manchuria and threatening to attack the rest of the country. Increasing Japanese aggressiveness in China worries British and American officials. Churchill decides to reinforce the British Pacific Fleet at Singapore and opens consultations with President Warner (whom he finds rather crude but still likeable) on how best to deal with the situation. Russia, with its own interests in China, is also worried and begins to reinforce its military forces in the Far East.

Churchill pushes for constitutional reforms to establish the political connections between the Dominions and Britain on a stronger basis. The main concept is creation of a governing “Imperial Council” in which Britain and all the Dominions would be represented and which would govern the overall foreign and defense policies of the Empire. Under the plan, Britain and each Dominion would govern their own internal affairs through their independent parliaments.

Many Tories are skeptical, not wanting to give the Dominions a possible check on British foreign policy and not wishing to give up British control. The “Imperial Tories” argue that the Dominions already have a say in British economic policy due to the Trade Council established by Imperial Preference. Churchill finds himself in the risky position of possibly splitting the party.

The Indian National Congress sees the “Imperial Debate” as an opportunity to link the political reforms of the Empire with the issue of Indian self-government. The Liberals and Labour take up this argument as well, saying that Imperial Unity would be meaningless unless the Raj be regarded as a player in the Empire on the same scale with the “White Dominions.” The debate rages throughout the year.

The Kingdom of Arabia complains to the government of Iraq (a shaky republic run mostly by political strongmen) about incursions into its territory. It requests a commitment by the British Empire for support in any conflict with Iraq, which it receives with the reservation that Arabia not engage in any aggressive acts.

1934:
Churchill begins to move the Statute of Westminster through the parliamentary process. It would give jurisdiction of Imperial defense and foreign policy to an Imperial Council- made up of representatives from Britain and each of the Dominions. At the same time, it would strengthen the powers of the Imperial Trade Council to regulate international trade.

The Liberals promise to support the Statute only if it was accompanied by a new Government of India Bill that created an India-wide elected assembly with more than an advisory capacity. At the same time, the Tories seem on the verge of splitting apart into Imperial Tories and National Tories. Even more worrying is the likelihood that the House of Lords will block the Statute, as it is dominated by National Tories.

Churchill struggles and uses all his political and parliamentary skills to get the Statute through Westminster. If it is successful, it would become law as it is ratified by each of the Dominion parliaments, and it is far from a certainty that this would be successfully done.

Meanwhile, Japan responds to the reinforcement of the British Pacific Fleet by embarking upon a new warship construction program to increase the size of its own fleet. This puts the British in a quandary. To maintain a naval force in the Pacific the size of the Japanese fleet, while still fulfilling their naval commitments around the rest of the world, would be a ruinously expensive proposition. Debate rages as to what to do.

The Cape-to-Cairo Railway is completed. King George V conducts a ceremonial trip, arriving in Cairo, taking the train to Cape Town and then sailing back to London. It is regarded as one of the great achievements in world engineering and is trumpeted around the world as a symbol of British power.

1935:
For Churchill, the passage of the Statute of Westminster has become the great crusade of his life. As skeptical as he is about Indian self-rule, he is willing to allow another Government of India Bill if that is the cost for Liberal and Labour support. In an unprecedented move, he agrees to meet with Jarwaharlal Nehru when the Indian National Congress leader comes to London for a conference with the Liberals. The newspaper photos of the meeting show a delighted Nehru and a most irritated Churchill. But in Parliament, momentum is shifting in favor of the Statute.

Meanwhile, the Conservatives seem to be on the verge of splitting. Between one-third and two-fifths oppose the Statute and rally under the banner of “National Conservatives.” The remainder, the “Imperial Conservatives,” remain steadfastly loyal to Churchill and enthusiastically support the Statute. Their position is solidified by the fact that the grassroots of the Tory Party clearly supports the Statute by a wide margin.

On March 26, the House of Commons finally divides on the issue, with no one certain of the outcome. In the end, the Statute passed with a margin of less than 2%. However, the National Tory faction makes it quite clear that they will contest the next election as an independent party.

Now the House of Lords receives the Statute, and all expect them to easily block it. But Churchill had worked out a political masterstroke ahead of time, with few people knowing anything about it. Churchill and his new Liberal allies want to create a number of new peerages and appoint Statute supporters to them, so as to tip the balance of power in the House of Lords. Constitutionally, the only person who can this is the King himself. George V is a strong supporter of the Statute and, despite the unusual nature of the request, agrees to the move. As a result, the vote shifts strongly to the pro-Statute side, not only because of new Lords but also because many previously anti-Statute Lords shift their support out of fear of losing control of the chamber.

On May 18, the Statute moves through the House of Lords and receives the King’s Consent, thus becoming law. Within a few weeks, Australia and New Zealand have both ratified it, but Canada remains skeptical and the Union of South Africa (where the Afrikaner vote remains the decisive political influence) is actively hostile.

Meanwhile, Churchill has reached an agreement with President Garner on an approach to possible Japanese aggression in the Pacific. It is decided that the British will maintain a fleet in the area roughly two-thirds the size of the Japanese fleet, while the Americans maintain a fleet one-third the size of the Japanese fleet. With a combined fleet of equal power, it may be possible to prevent to deter the Japanese from launching any unprovoked aggression. However, Garner refuses to consider an official alliance, maintaining America’s struck neutrality policy.

In Russia, it is announced that Czar Michael I has died of a heart attack. His 15-year-old son, Nicolas, is immediately proclaimed Czar Nicholas III. A Regency Council made up of reactionary aristocrats is formed to govern the country. Rumors sweep the world that Michael did not die of natural causes, but these remain unsubstantiated.

1936:
Churchill requests King George V to make a state visit to Canada, which has the effect of raising public awareness of the Statute debate. This, combined with the fervent activities of pro-Statute Canadian politicians, results in a narrow vote in favor of the Statute on May 2.

In South Africa, the leading proponent of the Statute becomes Jan Smuts. Though a patriotic Afrikaner who fought against the British in the Boer War, he had come to see the future of South Africa lay with participation in the British Empire while retaining full control over their own internal affairs. Despite passionate opposition from unreconstructed Boers, Smuts is able to swing enough of the Afrikaner vote his way that, combined with the strength of British Cape Town colonists, the Parliament eventually votes in favor of the Statute during the summer.

With all four Dominions having voted in favor, the Statute of Westminster now comes into force. Elections for representatives to the Imperial Council are scheduled for the following year in Britain and all the Dominions.

The Liberal Party now holds Churchill to his promise to move another Government of India Bill through Parliament. He tries to drag his feet on the subject, but is too honorable to go back on his word entirely. Along with Liberal leader Ramsay MacDonald (who had taken the leadership of the party after the merger of the Labour and Liberal parties), Churchill begins work on the drafting of a new bill, hoping to retain as much British power as possible.

The Indian National Congress is in no mood to compromise. With the Liberal Labour Party (the official name, although the party is usually just referred to as the Liberals), running a united front in the coming election, while the Tories are split between Nationalists and Imperialists, Nehru and his colleagues consider the possibility of holding out until after the next Parliamentary election, when the Liberals will likely return to power.

For that matter, many people are asking whether the Westminster Parliament should have any say in the matter of Indian Self-Rule any longer, since the matter should more appropriately be one discussed by the Imperial Council, which will convene in 1937. In addition to having jurisdiction over the foreign and defense policies of the Empire (and, through the Trade Commission, with foreign trade), it is also empowered to “govern the relations among the constituent parts of the British Empire,” which is taken to mean that the Council may decide the form of government in all areas under British control.

Churchill, disgruntled at the very thought of Indian self-rule, seizes upon this and pushes a resolution through Parliament that the issue will now be decided by the Imperial Council rather than the Westminster Parliament. He is under no illusions as to the eventual result, but does not want to compromise his personal ideals. The Liberals see this as rather a cop-out, but are confident that they will control Britain’s Council delegation and thus be able to control the flow of legislation there.

In Turkey, the government is becoming increasingly right-wing. Xenophobia directed towards the Greeks, Armenians and Kurds is intense, and hostility to those three states is reaching critical levels. There are regular border skirmishes and exchanges of artillery fire between the Turks and Armenians and occasional Turkish incursions into Kurdish territory.

To counter the Turks, and seeing an opportunity to increase their own influence in a critical region, Russia begins to increase its military support of Armenia, supplying them with weapons and helping to train its military. It also initiates a similar program, though of smaller proportions, with Kurdistan. The Greeks are being assisted by the British and thus turn down a Russian offer for assistance.

In the United States, President Garners wins a second term in office, though continued Republican control of the Senate blocks legislation he considers important.

1937:
Elections are held across Britain and the Dominions for the representatives of the Imperial Council. In Britain, the Imperial Council elections are held in concert with regular Parliamentary elections. The result is a Liberal landslide, as the Liberal Party takes nearly 60% of the vote. The Conservatives take slightly more than a fifth, with the remainder going to the disaffected Nationalist Conservatives (soon to be referred to simply as the Nationalists).

The reasons for this extraordinary result are much debated. Obviously, the main reason was the split of the Conservative Party, but since Churchill had achieved one of the great feats of British politics, many wondered why the people had treated him so shabbily. The truth was that the Statute seemed rather remote and technical to the British body politic, while the Liberal campaign of social reform and economic progress struck a powerful chord.

In the Dominions, the main parties also split their votes to the Council, leading to a confusing muddle of different parties holding seats. According to the Statute, seats would be allocated to the Dominions proportionately by population, so Britain had slightly more seats than all the Dominions put together, but the Liberals still had far from a Parliamentary majority (it was quickly recognized that it would be impossible for such an event to ever happen). They quickly formed a coalition with left-leaning parties from other Dominions to govern the Council.

John Allsebrook is elected as the first Imperial Prime Minister. He announces that the main agenda for the Council will be the complete settlement of the “Indian Question” as well as economic development programs for the non-self-governing portions of the Empire (particularly in Africa).

The Indian National Congress demands that India be granted Dominion status and have free elections (at the earliest possible moment). Allsebrook agrees that this should be the goal, and the first in a long series of conferences takes place, some in London, others in Delhi.

The Irish People’s Party had managed to elect a few representatives to the Imperial Council, but due to its unusual constitutional framework, Ireland obviously had little influence- certainly much less than any of the Dominions. As a result, a new movement arises within the IPP to again change the constitutional framework of Ireland raise it to the status of an independent Dominion, rather than a self-governing part of the United Kingdom.

In Parliament, MacDonald is now Prime Minister (a position which will gradually become known as “Westminster Prime Minister”). Churchill, disgruntled and feeling rejected by the people, goes into opposition as the head of the Tories, bitter towards the Nationalists, bitter towards the Liberals and bitter towards the Indian National Congress.

Overseas, other nations look on the developments within the British Empire more or less with ambivalence. They had always tended to see the Empire as a unified entity in any event, and consider the Statute of Westminster to be little more than rectifying a few constitutional issues.

After a number of border provocations by the Japanese, full-scale war erupts between China and Japan. Having already gained complete control over Manchuria, Japanese columns now thrust into northern China, while amphibious expeditions land at points along the Chinese coast. Bombing attacks on civilian centers cause heavy damage and loss of life.

The world condemns the Japanese aggression, and Churchill makes fiery speeches in Parliament demanded government action. Despite disgust at seeming to bend to Churchill’s wishes, MacDonald agrees to reinforce the British fleet at Singapore.

The French also dispatch a naval force to Indochina, though it is considerably smaller than the British Pacific Fleet. The British and the French, upholding the Entente Cordiale, agree that a Japanese attack on the Asian territory of either of them will be considered an attack on both.

The Americans, however, respond differently. Rather than reinforcing their fleet in the Philippines, they withdraw it to their main Pacific naval base at Pearl Harbor. Garner makes this decision due to domestic politics, hoping to appease isolation Republicans sufficiently to allow passage on certain social welfare legislation through the Senate. The British are a bit mystified at this, and alarmed as it leaves their Pacific Fleet in Singapore outnumbered by the Japanese.

1938:
Japan continues to make substantial progress in China, whose central government remains weak and unable to coordinate effective resistance. By the middle of the year, most of northeastern China is under Japanese control, as is the entire Chinese coast.

The Imperial Parliament, in what is seen as its first major decision, orders that reinforcements be sent to the British garrison in Hong Kong with a brigade of Gurkhas and an Australian battalion. It is hoped that such a garrison could withstand a Japanese attack until the arrival of a relief force from Singapore.

Russia, while ignoring British suggestions that they coordinate their respective responses to the Sino-Japanese War, views the situation with concern. They strongly oppose further expansion of Japanese power in East Asia. As a result, they reinforce their army in Siberia and begin sending weapons and supplies to the Chinese.

Imperial Prime Minister Allsebrook and President Garner hold a conference in the Azores, the main subject being the continued Japanese aggression against China. Allsebrook is disappointed at the withdrawal of the American fleet from the Philippines, but Garner says the decision cannot be undone. Concern is expressed that Japanese annexation of large parts of China would allow them complete domination of East Asia, and measure are discussed to deal with the situation.

Allsebrook also must address the issue of Dominion status for India. The Indian National Congress and the Muslim League have become politically quite adept through the elected regional councils and all observers aside from some Nationalists in Britain are of the opinion that the political infrastructure is in place for complete self-rule.

However, the critical issue immediately becomes India’s representation in the Imperial Council. As seats are allocated proportionally by population, it immediately is obvious that India would completely dominate the political framework of the Empire, since her population alone is far larger than that of Britain and the Dominions put together. Also at issue is the status of the Princely States, which are not technically part of the British Raj but are independent states more or less bound to it by treaty.

Nehru convenes a all-party summit in Delhi, with representatives of the Imperial Council in attendance as well. Both the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League wanted a constitution that would limit the Indian franchise to the educated classes, as they feared the emergence of populist factions. Some wanted this simply out of a desire to hold power in a self-governing India, whereas others feared that India would tear itself apart without such a restriction. Others, however, demanded universal voting rights, while some attendees did not want India to have anything to do with the Imperial Council or the British Empire. The conference broke up in some disarray, without anything substantive having been decided.

Allsebrook responds by creating a special committee, with one representative each from Britain, each Dominion, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League. To chair the committee, he chooses Lawrence Dundas, 2nd Marquess of Zetland. Some Liberals oppose this, as Dundas is a Conservative, but others view it as a wise decision considering his long experience with Indian affairs and the respect in which he is held by most Indian leaders. This becomes known as the Zetland Commission.

1939:
After Japan ignores a combined British-French-American communiqué calling for a withdrawal from China, the Three Parties (as they declare themselves in reference to Japan) announce two strong measures. They boycott the shipment of fuel oil to Japan and they begin sending weapons and supplies to the Chinese through Burma.

With Russian oil already cut off, Japan is faced with a severe crisis. America and the British-dominated Middle East had been their major oil suppliers. Without access to the oil under their control, the Japanese will be unable to prosecute their war against China. And with Russian and Allied supplies now reaching the Chinese, the resistance in China is increasing in effectiveness.

Some of the more vehement militarists in Japan think the answer lies in a naval offensive the south, so as to capture the oil-rich Dutch East Indies. This would also involve the destruction of the British-French fleet in the area and possibly a later battle with the Americans. Many in Japan relish this possibility, but the more sensible members of the government think it is madness. The idea that Japan could win a war against the combined might of the British Empire, France and the United States, with Russia possibly joining in as well, is considered absurd.

The Zetland Commission continues the long, laborious process of deciding how to raise India to the level of a self-governing Dominion. Suggestions that India accept a higher ratio for its population in determining proportional representation (the suggested formula being 75 Indians for one Briton) are dismissed by Indian representatives as implying that Indians are lesser creatures than Britons. Instead, strict proportional representation will have to be dumped altogether, and each Dominion allocated a certain number of representatives based upon their “overall influence in Imperial institutions,” a phrase which can obviously mean whatever the Imperial Council wants it to mean. Discussions continue.

1940:
Military planners in Japan conclude that they cannot hope to win a war in the present situation. The combined Pacific Fleets of the British, French and Americans are roughly equal to the Japanese fleet, and reinforcements would be dispatched from Europe and America at the outbreak of hostilities. Furthermore, Japan is diplomatically isolated, with Russia threatening it from the north and no allies willing to support Japan.

Japan knows it cannot prosecute the war in China without access to proper oil supplies, which have progressively been cut off. It seeks to end its diplomatic isolation by approaching Russia with a proposal for dividing China between them: Japan would get Manchuria and eastern China, while Russia would get western China. The Japanese point out that this would allow them to threaten British India in the event of a conflict between the two powers. After some consideration, Russia rejects this offer, as their interests in China are mostly focused on Manchuria.

In the summer, Japanese forces reluctantly go on the defensive in China, unable to maintain major offensive operations without sufficient fuel supplies.

The Zetland Commission issues its final report, calling for India to be raised to the level of a separate Dominion within the Empire and be governed by a Westminster-style parliamentary system. The Imperial Council itself shall be reformed, with each Dominion having a certain proportion of members. For every 10 members Britain itself has, India shall have five. Canada shall have four, South Africa and Australia shall have three, and New Zealand two (the total being 210 members). On the important committees, the Imperial Defense Committee and the Imperial Trade Committee, each Dominion shall have a single seat.

The debate over the Zetland Report grips the Imperial Council for many weeks and becomes a major topic of conversation throughout the Empire. In the end, though, it is accepted by a wide margin. Elections to the Indian Parliament (which is to be called the “Lok Sabha” of “House of the People”) are scheduled for the following year, and King Edward VIII is preparing to make an extensive tour of India to celebrate the achievement of Dominion status and open the first session of the Lok Sabha.

Skirmishes along the Turkish-Armenian border continue.

In U.S. Presidential elections, Republican Charles McNary, formerly the Majority Leader of the Senate, defeats President Garner, who had attracted substantial opposition for breaking the tradition against seeking a third term. Republicans now control the White House and the Senate, but Democrats control the House. In both parties, generally moderate views prevail.

1941:
Fierce political infighting break out within the Japanese government when it is revealed that the Japanese leadership plans to approach the British and asking them to mediate the Chinese conflict. The general idea being that they shall agree to withdraw from all China except Manchuria, which shall be a puppet state under Japanese control until such time as it can be incorporated into Japan itself, just as Korea had been in 1910.

The militant faction bitterly opposes this, wishing for a war against the Westerners even though it could prove disastrous to Japan. The moderates believe that such a war can only have one outcome and believe such a course would lead to Japan’s downfall. While all branches of the armed forces contain members of both factions, the navy is largely militant.

In China, the consolidation of the power of the Chinese government, combined with the training and supplies received from Russia and the Western powers, results in several tactical setbacks for the Japanese. China is able to reoccupy much territory, but Japan remains in control of much of northeastern China.

King Edward VIII commences his tour of the Indian Raj as elections are held for the Lok Sabha. Contrary to the predictions of many, he is received enthusiastically by the people and the tour is regarded as a great success. Many Indian politicians are upset by this, but others see the popular support for the British monarch as a means to win support during the election drive and scramble to make public appearances with him.

Elections are held in June. As expected, most seats are won by the Congress Party, with the Muslim League as the second largest bloc. A number of smaller and regional parties also win a considerable number of seats. Although it has enough seats to govern on its own, Congress elects to form a coalition with the Muslim League to govern, hoping to avoid sectarian tension. Nehru becomes Prime Minister, with Muhammed Al Jinnah as Deputy Prime Minister.

A series of bomb attacks in Johannesburg is blamed on a radical Afrikaner terrorist group, which declares its intention of removing South Africa from the British Empire and imposing strict Afrikaner rule under the guidelines of white superiority. These attacks, which kill about a dozen people, are immediately denounced by all major Afrikaner politicians.

1942:
Members of the Japanese militant faction stage a coup attempt in Tokyo, attempting to overthrow the government before it approaches Britain with a mediation request. After several confused hours, in which several people are killed, the coup attempt is put down. The Emperor addresses the Japanese people by radio, telling them what had happened. He ends the address by saying that the government will approach the British for help in negotiating an end to the Chinese conflict.

Japan, having not been defeated on the battlefield by the Chinese and retaining very strong naval power, is able to negotiate from a period of considerable strength. It gets most of what it wants. Manchuria is set up as a Japanese puppet state, and Japan continues to hold Tsingtao. Elsewhere, the Republic of China under Wang Jingwei will take control, and the Japanese also gain important trade concessions.

Under the threat of Britain intervening directly on the side of the Chinese, Japan sees these terms as quite good and accepts them. As part of the treaty ending the Sino-Japanese War, Britain quietly gains permanent control over the New Territories, the portion of Hong Kong on the Chinese mainland.

In Britain, some left-leaning elements criticize the deal as giving too much to the Japanese, but in general British public opinion is very pleased with itself for having done such a service to the world. Other nations rather resent the demonstration of the British ability to dictate peace terms to nations on the other side of the world, but most are happy that a larger war against Japan has been avoided.

MacDonald and Allsebrook go into the election season confident of victory, riding the wave of satisfaction. Liberals again win a solid majority, winning 55%. The major shift in both the Westminster Parliament and the Imperial Parliament is that the Tories win back numerous seats from the Nationalists.

Churchill makes the decision not to run for his old Westminster and is instead elected to the Imperial Parliament, becoming the leader of the Conservative opposition there. He forms an opposition coalition from Conservative party members from the Dominions, although no Indian party will join Churchill’s group.

1943:
At a conference of physicists in London, Hungarian scientist Leo Szilard mentions the possibility of eventually deriving power, either as energy or as a weapon, from the reactions of atoms. The conference delegates agree that, while interesting, no nation would ever be willing to expend the vast amounts in terms of resources and manpower to achieve such a goal, particularly as there was no way of knowing whether it would be successful. No government takes any interest in the conference proceedings.

Russia issues a proclamation saying that it does not recognize the existence of Manchuria, but it does not otherwise state what it believes the status of Manchuria to be. Japan watches this with alarm and begins diverting resources from naval production to increase the power of its land army. In response, Russia begins building up its forces along the Manchurian border.

In South Africa, the Afrikaner-dominated National Party wins control of the South African Parliament, although the more moderate Liberal Party retains the largest number of delegates to the Imperial Parliament. Much to the dismay of the rest of the Empire, South Africa begins imposing strict racial segregation on the majority black population, a system known as apartheid. Although racial prejudice is present throughout the Empire, Britain and the other Dominions prefer to keep up at leas the façade of equality.

The Imperial Defense Committee holds a series of hearings on the defense of India. With India now self-governing, it is decided that the Indian Army must be lead by Indian officers at the earliest possible date. The Military Academy of the Raj is established at Simla in order to train Indian officers, while British officers will remain in command in the meantime. The goal is for Indian forces to be lead by Indians at all levels within the next fifteen years. At the same time, it is decided that several British regiments will remain posted on the Northwest Frontier, along with rotating units from other Dominions.

In France, the center-left coalition which had been governing the country is replaced by a center-right coalition. One of its first actions is to suggest to Britain and Germany the possibility of a “European alliance” to confront the possibilities of future Russian aggression and economic competition with the United States. Britain shows little interest, but Germany responds favorably.

1944:
Greece announces that it is moving its capital from Athens to Constantinople. The Turkish government angrily protests this move, claiming that the Treaty which forced it to give up Constantinople in the first place was unfair and made under duress. It also claims that the land seized by Greece along the Aegean coast should be returned.

In French Indochina, a native rebellion causes serious difficulties for the French, but does not threaten their control over the territory.

In the Imperial Parliament, members of the Indian Congress Party put forward a plan which would increase investment in the educational and economic infrastructure of the African territories of the Empire, with the intention of raising the standard of living there. Eventually, according to this plan, new Dominions will be created out of the African colonies. This generates much discussion and certain elements of the plan are voted into operation.

The Irish Parliament, still controlled by the Irish People’s Party (although the party itself is gradually morphing into a center-left faction and a center-right faction), issues a formal petition to the Westminster Parliament, asking that Ireland be established as an independent Dominion in its own right, so as to have full participation within the Imperial Parliament.

Right-wing elements in Russia, which completely dominate the Czarist court, have begun spreading vicious xenophobic and anti-Semitic propaganda throughout the country. He result has been an increase in anti-Semitic pogroms, leading to the expulsion of tens of thousands of Jews. While most settle into established Jewish communities in Poland and Germany (where they are generally made welcome) many also settle in British-controlled Palestine, where the Jewish population has now climbed to roughly 40%.

At the same time, Russia as begun building up its military once again, with a large portion of its army now facing the Japanese in Manchuria.

In U.S. Presidential elections, Republican President Thomas Dewey (who had previously been Vice-President but succeeded to the Presidency upon the 1942 death of President McNary), is reelected. Democrats maintain their control over the House of Representatives, however, thus forcing both parties to persist in relatively moderate policies.

[Anaxagoras]

1945:
In response to Russian provocations, Japan reinforces its strength in Manchuria and forces the puppet state government to sign a new treaty, giving Japan the power to control its foreign and defense policy. In truth, it already had this power, but making it official rather than de facto is seen as an insult by the Russians, who greatly covet the territory.

In Anatolia, there are numerous border provocations by the Turks against the Greeks, leading to the deaths of several Greek soldiers. In response, the Greeks mount an air raid on a single Turkish airfield. Incidents continue to heat up until April 19, when Turkey mounts a full-scale offensive with several divisions, the goal being the reconquest of the Aegean coast and the recapture on Constantinople. The Greco-Turkish War has begun.

As both sides lack much modern equipment, trench warfare quite similar to that on the Western Front in the Great War becomes the main feature of the conflict. The Turkish offensive against Greece is hindered by the fact that a few divisions remain posted in the eastern part of the country, to keep a wary eye on the Armenians. The Turkish, with a substantial numerical advantage, ground slowly forward. The Greeks fight back fiercely, inflicting heavy losses. Not wishing for the Turks to gain control of the Aegean coast, the British begin sending shipments of supplies and ammunition to the Greeks.

The Imperial Parliament, prompted by Indian delegates and over the opposition of South African delegates, issues a proclamation criticizing the institution of apartheid in South Africa. However, it lacks the constitutional authority to do anything about it.

In 1945, for the first time in many years, the British Empire surpasses the United States in industrial productivity. The economic system of Imperial Preference has worked wonders for the Empire’s economy, with raw materials from the Dominions flowing into the factories of Britain, although simple lack of space is causing widespread industrialization in the Dominions as well. In the meantime, Australia and New Zealand have gained a reputation as the “Breadbasket of the Empire.” In slightly less important economic news, South African wine is becoming increasingly popular throughout the Empire, being cheaper than French wine, if not nearly as good.

1946:
After numerous border skirmishes, full-scale war erupts between Russia and Japan over the issue of Manchuria. The Second Russo-Japanese War has begun.

The course of the campaign takes the world by surprise. Lead by General Georgy Zhukov, well-armed and well-equipped Russian armies smash through Japanese lines and sweep into their rear areas. Japanese troops fight with suicidal bravery but are unable to stop the onslaught. Within a matter of weeks, most of northern Manchuria is in Russian hands.

The Japanese respond with their most powerful weapon: the navy. The Russian Pacific Fleet, based in Vladivostok, is gravely outnumbered by the Japanese. When a powerful Japanese task force arrives off the main Russian base, it is no contest. The Japanese pound the Russian fleet into oblivion at little cost to themselves and proceed to shell the Russian port and naval base to pieces.

However, this is not 1904 and Japanese superiority at sea is not going to play as decisive a role. Increased industrialization and particularly the completion of the Trans-Siberia Railroad allow large Russian reinforcements to arrive in Manchuria, giving the Russians a strong numerical superiority. Combined with better equipment and the brilliant and aggressive leadership of General Zhukov, the Russians continue to score successes in Manchuria.

The other major powers declare neutrality and watch events closely. No one is particularly thrilled with the idea of Russia controlling Manchuria, but neither are they desirous of Japan having it. Many European powers are content to see Russia focus on Asia, hoping that Russian activities there will keep them from focusing too much on European issues.

Meanwhile, the Greco-Turkish War continues to rage. In June, the Turks capture the city of Smyrna, giving them a foothold on the Aegean coast once again. Turkish troops go on a rampage when they capture the city, slaughtering Greek and Armenian civilians in huge numbers. The news shocks Europeans and for weeks the papers can talk of little else. In the press, the Turks are depicted as barbaric murderers of women and children, and public opinion, which had been pro-Greek anyway, slides decisively in favor of Greece. Against this backdrop, Greece appeals for British help against Turkish aggression.

The Imperial Defense Committee discusses the feasibility of sending a British fleet to the Eastern Mediterranean to assist the Greeks. In late August, a powerful Royal Navy task force assembles at Malta and Alexandria and steams to the Turkish coast. This is accompanied by an Imperial demand that Turkey halt its offensive and order its armies to retire to the positions they occupied before the fighting began. Then, so the announcement stated, the issues could be settled by negotiations.

Turkey angrily rejects the ultimatum. The response of the British is bombard Turkish positions along both the Black Sea and Mediterranean coasts. At the same time, carrier aircraft launch attacks on Turkish targets in the interior of the country. Heavy damage is caused, and Turkish troops are diverted to protect against possible amphibious attacks. Two British regiments, the Black Watch and the South Staffordshire Regiment, land to assist the Greeks and took part in the recapture of Smyrna, incurring substantial casualties in doing so.

Although some French and German observers question the British intervention, public opinion is wholly on the side of the British and the Greeks and Britain gains tremendous goodwill for its operations. A few weeks after the recapture of Smyrna, the Turks are brought to the negotiating table and the conflict is settled as status quo ante bellum.

In the face of this demonstration of British power and with Russia increasingly hostile and xenophobic, French and German leaders hold a series of talks to explore the possibility of a Franco-German mutual defense treaty. While there are no major conflicts of interest between the European powers and the British Empire, there is the worry that British power is becoming so overwhelming that the influence of all other nations will simply be overridden in all cases.

At its annual party convention in Dublin, the IPP announces that the establishment of Ireland as an independent Dominion, with full participation in the Imperial Parliament, is the highest priority of the party. It presses the Westminster Parliament for a new Act establishing this position.

Conservatives, allied with the Irish Unionist Party (which dominates Ulster), opposed this position, while the Liberal Party is willing to at least entertain it. The Liberals do declare, however, that it would be unwise to rush things and call for a series of cross-party discussions on the issue.

In the Imperial Parliament, IPP representatives make repeated speeches on the issue, declaring that since the Imperial Parliament is empowered to govern the relations between the constituent parts of the Empire (the so-called “Governing Clause”), it can pass legislation establishing Ireland as an independent Dominion without reference to the British Parliament. Churchill denounces such an interpretation and says that, as the Statute of Westminster was his creation, he should know best what it means.

The legal and constitutional ambiguity of the Governing Clause is the subject of much discussion in the later part of the year. It is pointed out that the Governing Clause in the Statute of Westminster has been used to gradually shift responsibilities of the Colonial Office from direct British control to Imperial control. As a result, only about two-thirds of the staff of the Colonial Office is now made up of Britons; men from all the Dominions are becoming increasingly important in the direct governing of the Empire.

1947:
Despite Japanese naval superiority, the course of the Russo-Japanese War continues to favor Russia. Its land armies not only outnumber the Japanese, but are much better equipped in terms of armor and equipment. Throughout the year, despite determined Japanese resistance and high casualties, the Russians push forward. The only major Japanese victory is the occupation of the northern half of Sakhalin Island.

In London, the new Imperial Parliament building is completed, located on the Thames south of Westminster Palace and within sight of Westminster Abbey. King Edward VIII makes a speech at the opening ceremony, flanked by head of the delegations from each Dominion, expressing his hope that the building will serve as a symbol of the unity of the Empire many centuries to come.

Simultaneously in both the Imperial Parliament and the Westminster Parliament, the IPP Leaders introduce legislation calling for Ireland to be established as an independent Dominion. Eamon de Valera, the IPP Leader in the Imperial Parliament (where they hold seven seats) declares that the Irish people have contributed to the Empire in their own unique fashion and, as a distinct cultural and ethnic group, should be entitled to the same representation as the Dominions.

The IPP bill is supported by the Indian Congress Party (which has 36 seats in the Imperial Parliament). Most other factions are ambivalent, fearing a dilution of their own power, and Churchill’s Tory faction actively opposes the bill, not wishing to break up the United Kingdom.

Many parties in the Imperial Parliament also make repeated speeches decrying the practice of apartheid in South Africa. The National Party of South Africa simply points out that the Imperial Parliament has no right to interfere in the internal affairs of a Dominion.

There are loud grumblings in the United States about the trade policies of the British Empire. The Canadian market for automobiles is dominated by British vehicles even though American cars are both cheaper and more efficient. It is only through the tariffs created by Imperial Preference that the American auto industry is unable to compete with the British.

1948:
Japanese forces have dug in along a defensive line protecting the Korean Peninsula. Unable to outflank it, Russian divisions attempt to punch directly through but are repulsed. Japanese troops have gradually learned to deal with armored attacks and have largely reequipped themselves with heavy weapons purchased from Germany.

In late summer, the Second Russo-Japanese War comes to an end after peace talks brokered by the United States. Russia is now in complete control of Manchuria. International pressure prevents Russia from annexing the territory outright, so it ostensibly gives Manchuria back to China. However, it has clearly become a Russian zone of influence, garrisoned by Russian forces and with Russia in control of transportation and the most important industries. The Japanese conquest of Sakhalin Island is recognized by Russia, which regards it as a small price to pay for their gains in Manchuria.

Prince Andrew, son of King Edward VIII and Heir to the Throne, marries Lady Beatrice Mountbatten, who had been born and raised in Australia. Prince Andrew had met her in Sydney while he was serving as lieutenant commander on board the HMS Canterbury. The Empire is filled with delight at the thought of a British and Australian royal couple, and Australians in particular are hopeful that their future king will be as much Australian as British.

The Irish Dominion Debate continues to stir trouble. In Belfast, Ulster Unionist demonstration against Dominion status for Ireland lead to violent anti-Catholic rioting, causing much property damage. A few days later, three IPP activists in Belfast are shot dead after an altercation at a football match.

In Palestine and Egypt, the British military occupation has become so prolonged as to have become virtually institutionalized. In Egypt, there are nationalistic factions as well as pro-British groups, some of the latter having discussed the possibility of appealing to become a British Dominion themselves. This has largely floundered on the refusal of nationalist Muslims to recognize the British sovereign as their king.

In Palestine, by contrast, the issue is complicated by rivalry between Muslim and Jewish groups, although there are also secular factions with both Jewish and Muslim members, and these political parties are gradually becoming recognized as the most effective in dealing with everyday problems such as sanitation and economic development.

1949:
Increasingly worried about Russian intentions, particularly following its success against Japan, France and Germany sign a mutual defense treaty, vowing to come to one another’s aid if either is attacked by a foreign enemy. Messages are sent to Britain to emphasis that this treaty is not directed against them and that, indeed, Britain is welcome to join the treaty if it wishes. A debate is held in the Imperial Parliament, but few parties are supportive of the proposal and it is voted down.

In the Imperial Parliament, the debate over Dominion status for Ireland continues. The IPP and the Indian National Congress attempt to gain support from left-leaning parties in the other Dominions (since the Liberal Party in Britain fears it will lose support to the Tories if it comes out in support). Since much of the base support for Dominion liberal constituents is from Irish immigrants, the Dominion liberal parties support the bill, not expecting it to have any chance of actually passing. As time passes, a gradually increasing base of support for Irish Dominion status is established. The key stumbling block, as always, is the status of Northern Ireland.

To celebrate their marriage, the Prince and Princess of Wales embark of a six-month tour of the Empire. The event is made into a glorious extravaganza and becomes by far the most reported news story of the year. After a series of events in London and Edinburgh, they cross to Dublin and embark upon the royal yacht Britannia. They sail across the Atlantic, travel across Canada by train, then fly to New Zealand, where they are picked up by the Royal Navy frigate Durban. They sail to Australia, cross by train, and sail again to Singapore, where they review the British Pacific Fleet. They then fly to India and spend several weeks crisscrossing the country before sailing (again on the Durban) for Cape Town, where they embark upon the Cape-to-Cairo railroad and arrive in Egypt a few weeks later. After visits around Cairo and in Palestine, the Britannia picks them up and, reviewing the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta en route, they sail back to England.

All consider the trip a great success. Popular enthusiasm for the royal family is high throughout the Empire. Even in India, where many had worried there might be a hostile or at least sulky reception, the crowds had appeared in massive numbers and cheered wildly. All observers see the Grand Tour as a sign that the Empire is more unified than it has ever been.

1950:
The Irish Parliament, completely dominated by the IPP, threatens to issue a unilateral declaration of independence unless the issue of Irish Dominion status is moved forward in the Imperial Parliament. According to the Home Rule Act, the Irish Parliament has no authority to do such a thing, but there are fears that the move could have strong popular support within Ireland and destabilize the situation further.

Some members of other Dominions protest that the establishment of Ireland as a separate Dominion would concentrate too much power in the British Isles. The fact that the British and Irish rarely agree on anything renders this argument mute, however.

On April 13, the Imperial Parliament is thrown into turmoil by a series of political maneuvers. The IPP and the Indian National Congress, in alliance with various left-of-center Dominion parties, win over 14 backbenchers from the British Liberal Party to push through the Irish Dominion Bill with 142 votes. The Bill establishes Ireland (explicitly including Northern Ireland) as a “Dominion of the British Empire separate from the United Kingdom.”

A constitutional crisis grips the Empire. The Westminster Parliament immediately declares the act to be unconstitutional, since it does not have their consent and Ireland foreign affairs are still controlled by Westminster. In the meantime, the Ulster Unionist Party organizes mass demonstrations on the streets of Belfast and other Ulster cities, with “Ulster will fight! Ulster will be right!” becoming the key rallying cry. Remarkably, no one is killed in the following days, despite several altercations between Protestants and Catholics.

The IPP is as surprised as anyone else that their bill passed through the Imperial Parliament. De Valera is actually upset, since he had not intended to set off a political firestorm and made no plans for such an eventuality. And the inclusion of Ulster in the legislation had been a purely symbolic act on his part.

King Edward VIII summons various political leaders to Buckingham Palace, where a secret all-night conference is held on April 20-21. When dawn breaks, the British people are stunned to discover that their monarch has refused Royal Assent to a parliamentary act, thus rendering the legislation null and void. The last time Royal Assent had been denied had been in 1708, during the reign of Queen Anne.

It is soon revealed that this extraordinary move was only the most dramatic element in a crisis deal worked out during the meeting. The Liberal Party openly declares it support Irish Dominion status and announces work on a new bill, which, at Tory insistence, will not include Ulster. In fact, the language of the bill specifies that Ulster will remain “forever” a part of the United Kingdom and that the Dominion of Ireland will have no claim upon it. Ireland will have twenty seats in the Imperial Parliament, although Britain will continue to have 100 seats (this latter fact is largely overlooked at the time and will later be the cause of some concern).

The revised act passes through both the Imperial Parliament and the Westminster Parliament on June 1. The Irish Parliament’s powers are expanded to include all the powers held by an independent Dominion of the Empire. There is much rejoicing in Ireland when the news arrives, and the rest of the Empire heaves a sigh of relief that the crisis was resolved.

King Edward VIII, far from being condemned for such blatant interference in political matters, is widely praised for his actions in refusing Royal Consent to the initial bill. It is widely believed that he had averted a civil war in Ireland. The popularity of the Monarchy, already high, is elevated even further.

1951:
Having demonstrated its military land power in the war against the Japanese, Russia seems intent on flexing its muscles. Already in de facto control over Manchuria, it begins pressuring the Chinese government for concessions in the rest of its territory. At the same time, Russian agents appear in Persia, Kurdistan and Afghanistan with increasing frequency.

Poland joins the Franco-German Alliance, which has become known as the European Defense Organization.

American establishes trade barriers on British purchases of American wheat, so as to retaliate for Imperial Preference tariffs on its goods. It offers to negotiate, eliminating the tariffs on wheat if the British will agree to a free trade agreement between American and Canada. Although Canadian members of the Imperial Parliament strongly support this measure, they are overwhelmingly outvoted by other members and the matter drops.

In South Africa, the National Party engages in a series of gerrymandering activities so as to solidify their control over the South African Parliament. Although they lose the popular vote in this year’s elections, winning only 43% of the vote, they are safely returned to power with about 55% of the seats. Apartheid continues and accelerates, with blacks being moved off prime land to make way for white settlement.

A debate begins in the Palestinian Legislative Council as to whether they should petition the Imperial Parliament to admit Palestine as a Dominion of the British Empire. The Muslim nationalists strongly oppose such a move, as they would refuse to recognize the British monarch as their king. The Jewish faction, however, is open to the idea, remembering British assistance to the Zionist movement. The Jewish-Muslim liberal secular parties, who opened the debate in the first place, strongly support the motion, so as to permanently stabilize Palestine and finally regularize the affairs of the country.

As part of a program sponsored by the Indian National Congress, the Nairobi Technical School, with a specialized curriculum to teach Africans the rudiments of administration, engineering and other skills necessary to run their own affairs, opens its doors. Before the end of the year, similar schools have opened in Nigeria, Botswana and Ghana. The National Party of South Africa denounces the money spent on these projects as an “utter waste.”

1952:
In a minor but symbolic change, the Prime Ministers of the various Dominions are now being referred to as Viceroys.

The Palestinian Legislative Council officially petitions the Imperial Parliament to admit Palestine as a Dominion. Muslim radicals respond by walking out of the Council and refusing to participate in government. This ends up being self-defeating, as the main Jewish political party (Yishuv, after the Jewish word for “settlement”) and the secular Palestinian Progressive Party now monopolize power. A major issue with many Muslims is how Jews, who make up less than half of the population, seem to have a majority of political power.

The Imperial Parliament accepts the petition and debates begin. It is decided that the matter can only come up for a final vote after Palestine has met certain conditions, including putting together a proper framework of citizenship and ensuring that everyone has equal rights.

Nationalist parties in many Arab lands, particularly British-occupied Egypt, object to the possible granting of Dominion status to Palestine. In areas under British influence, such as Arabia, the debate is rather muted, but many Arabians and Gulf sheiks express their concern to the British.

A coalition of socialist parties in the Imperial Parliament put forward legislation to give the Empire the power to “ensure democratic government and equal rights for call Imperial citizens.” The National Party of South Africa angrily denounces this, again claiming that the Empire cannot interfere in the internal affairs of the Dominions. The Indian National Congress, with many members uncomfortably tied to the Hindu caste system, remain quiet, while many other parties show varying degrees of support.

King Edward VIII opens the first session of the Irish Parliament after as it takes over all functions previously reserved for the Westminster Parliament.

The Great Game has turned up several notches. A cloak-and-dagger espionage game is in full swing in Persia and Afghanistan, as British and Russian agents vie with one another to prop up their country’s influence in those regions while hindering the activities of their enemies.

Passenger trans-Atlantic air travel begins, as British Airways launches regular flights from London to New York and Montreal.

In a surprising by-election victory, the Scottish National Party elects a member to the Westminster Parliament. Events in Ireland have increased awareness of Scottish nationalist groups, but they remain a small minority.

1953:
Sweden, Hungary and Romania join the European Defense Organization.

The Palestinian Legislative Council publishes its plan for a new parliament. Proportional representation throughout the territory will be the method of election, while important decisions will require a two-thirds majority rather than a simple majority. By these means, it is hoped that the interests of the Jewish and Muslim communities may be balanced. Representation is also guaranteed for the Christian minority.

The city of Jerusalem will be the capital of the Dominion, with the holy sites under the protection of a specially-recruited regiment, with a battalion of Sikhs and a battalion of Gurkhas (who do not belong to any of the three faiths in question).

An anti-apartheid protect, consisting of people of many different races, is brutally broken up by baton-wielding South African police in Cape Town. The Imperial Parliament easily passes a resolution denouncing the violence (the only members which vote against it being the National Party of South Africa, the Australian Nationalist Party and about half the members of the Nationalist Party of the United Kingdom).

As a result of this, the Protection of Rights Act is pushed in the Imperial Parliament. The UK Liberal Party moves to its support, though worrying over the possibility of a split with the Indian National Congress, their coalition partners. The Muslim League moves to its support as well.

Churchill, still the leader of the Conservative opposition, finds himself in a difficult spot. Although far from an egalitarian himself, he finds the racist policies of the National Party of South Africa repulsive and has no wish to have his party associated with them. He prevaricates.

Russia gains valuable concessions to oil fields in Kurdistan, rather to the consternation of the British, who fear a potential threat to their Persian Gulf oil supply. It steps up its efforts to win concessions from the Republic of Iraq.

1954:
The South African Liberal Party, which controls the provincial government in Cape Town, takes steps to allow blacks to vote in local and provincial elections. It is well known that this is strictly against the apartheid laws of the Dominion, but the Liberals hope it will generate a court case which could go all the way to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in London (which functions as the supreme court of the British Empire). At the very least, it is hoped that it will generate further publicity for the racial problems in South Africa.

As expected, the National government in Pretoria is outraged at the actions of the Liberal Party and immediately begins legal proceedings. It is quickly found that they conflict with Dominion law, and the Liberal Party begins a long series of appeals.

Debate begins in the Imperial Parliament on the admission of Palestine as a Dominion of the Empire. Most opposition comes from Nationalist parties, whose arguments contain a thinly-veiled anti-Semitism. The Indian National Congress is also somewhat worried, fearing that the addition of additional Muslim votes into the Parliament will reduce their strength vis-à-vis the Muslim Alliance.

The Palestine debate prompts consideration of other areas of the Empire being incorporated as Dominions. Attention falls on Malaya, which has grown into a prosperous territory with a strong middle-class, a highly-skilled workforce and steadily developing economy. It already has an advisory council elected from Malayan subjects regardless of race (the voting qualification being the ownership of property and the ability to speak English fluently). The Governor-General is still appointed by the Imperial Parliament, although, taking into account Malayan sensitivities, it has always been an Indian Muslim in recent years.

The British ambassador to Iraq is assassinated, his car being sprayed with machine gun fire as he leaves the embassy. It is the worst incident in an ever-escalating cloak-and-dagger struggle for influence in the Middle East and Central Asia. Although suspicion falls on Russian operatives, no evidence can be gathered and the Iraqi authorities prove reluctant to pursue the matter.

In Egypt, the British military authorities have long since turned civil matters over to local authorities and have attempted to introduce the principle of elected governments. A program is launched whereby activists with the secular and moderate Muslim political groups in Palestine tour Egypt and attempt to spread the idea of a similar framework being established for Egypt.

Members of the Imperial Parliament from the Indian National Congress, the Muslim League and the Sikh Alliance jointly file a petition asking that the title of the British monarch be amended so as to remove references to “Defender of the Faith.” Since this is explicitly a reference to Christianity, and specifically can be interpreted as a reference to the Anglican Church, it is offensive to the vast majority of Indians.

1955:
After much consideration and debate, Palestine is admitted to the British Empire as a Dominion. It is allocated ten votes in the Imperial Parliament. Uniquely, it has a system of two Viceroys, one Jewish and one Muslim.

The Jerusalem Regiment arrives in the city and takes up its duties of protecting the holy sites, as well as serving as a special police force in certain cases.

In British elections, the Conservatives win the greatest number of seats in both the Imperial Parliament and the Westminster Parliament, returning to power after a long period of time in the political wilderness. Harold Macmillan becomes Imperial Prime Minister (Churchill, while still an MIP, is considered to old to take up the mantle of power), while Rab Butler became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.

It is noted that, in order to form a governing coalition in the Imperial Parliament, the Conservative Party is obliged to work with the Indian National Congress, which many observers consider a hugely symbolic event, showing how far the Empire has come as a political entity. The Imperial Foreign Minister in the new government is Nehru, who steps down from his position as Viceroy of India to accept the post

Nationalist politicians in Armenia make speeches protesting the extent of Russian influence over their country. Similar protests are seen in Kurdistan, Iraq and Persia, as Russian demands becomes increasingly heavy.

In the Caribbean, U.S. Marines intervene to restore order in Cuba, which had seen great political instability and rioting in Havana. Upon the completion of their mission, most U.S. forces withdraw, while elections are scheduled for the following year.

Nations are launching research into a wide variety of technological innovations, including jet aircraft and ballistic missiles. Nuclear science still remains an academic curiosity.

1956:
Imperial Petroleum, the largest oil company in the world, begins the laborious process of building a pipeline across the vast Arabian desert to the Palestinian port of Haifa, on the Mediterranean. A vast undertaking in incredibly harsh conditions, it will be one of the most demanding construction projects ever undertaken.

Egyptian authorities ask that British military bases be relocated out of the Nile Delta and focus instead on the Suez Canal itself. The Committee on Imperial Defense says that it will study the proposals. At the same time, a committee appointed by the Imperial Parliament meets with several Egyptian leaders to discuss the future status of Egypt.

In November, with anti-apartheid protests continuing to grip the country, a new round of elections in South Africa result in the Liberal Party winning 57% of the popular vote, but due to gerrymandering and other tactics, the National Party still returns to power with slightly over 50% of the parliamentary seats. The government announced an even stricter enforcement of apartheid laws than before.

On November 27, in a move later regarded as one of the most courageous political acts in the history of the British Empire, the Liberal-controlled provincial government of Cape Town announces that it does not recognize the results of the national election, claiming that the undemocratic electoral processes were “a violation of the liberties possessed by all subjects of the British Empire.” It ceases cooperation with the Dominion government and calls upon the Imperial Parliament for assistance.

South African army units, the majority of whom are made up of Afrikaners, are ordered to move into Cape Town to “restore order.” They meet no resistance from Cape Town authorities, but the Dominion authorities hesitate to arrest provincial government officials. The entire situation seems chaotic and uncertain.

The Imperial Parliament meets in emergency session. Macmillan finds himself well and truly stumped. It is clear that the situation in South Africa cannot be allowed to continue, yet Imperial law gives the Imperial Parliament no clear authority to interfere in the internal affairs of a Dominion.

While Macmillan huddles with Nehru and other leaders, attempting to come up with a strategy, word reaches London that a protest against the South African units occupying Cape Town has lead to several deaths, which in turns has sparked rioting. The situation seems about to fall apart.

On December 16, emergency legislation is passed, permitting the Imperial Parliament to intervene in Dominions when it seems that “democratic and/or effective government is unable to exercise authority.” Several regiments are mobilized in Britain and India, preparing for deployment to South Africa. The South African Parliament passes a resolution saying that the South African Army will resist with force any Imperial interference. At this, the Liberal Party walks out of the Parliament altogether, meeting in a rump session and declaring themselves loyal to the Empire.

1957:
With the Liberals out of the South African Parliament, the National Party passes legislation declaring the Liberal South African Party an outlaw organization. On the advice of Macmillan and Nehru, King Edward VIII communicates that the King’s consent is refused to this legislation, but the South Africans ignore this.

Violent incidents continue across the country, except in Afrikaner territory in the Transvaal and Orange Free State. On February 11, a Royal Navy task force arrives off Cape Town and lands a brigade-sized force made up of the South Wales Borderers Regiment, the Gordon Highlanders, the Royal Dublin Fusiliers and the Duke of Cornwall’s Light Infantry. Simultaneously, an Indian Army force lands at Durban, made up of the 18th Royal Garlwal Rifles, the 11th Sikh Regiment and the 8th Punjab Regiment.

Although there are some violent encounters with Afrikaner units, the white population of the two areas is mostly English-descended and they greet the Imperial units with open arms. Liberal and Socialist South African politicians arrive in Cape Town and declare the “legitimate” reopening of the South African Parliament.

Afrikaner units of the South African army gradually fall back towards Pretoria and Johannesburg, blowing up bridges along the way. The National Party, itself now declared an outlaw organization by the Imperial Parliament, passes a declaration of independent from the British Empire and the establishment of the “Boer Republic.”

British and Indian regiments, along with loyal units of the South African army, slowly follow the retreating Afrikaners but are careful to avoid a serious engagement. Attempts are made to reach the Afrikaner leadership so as to open negotiations, but these attempts are ignored. By this time, the charismatic Boer leader B. J. Vorster had gained control of the National Party and had declared himself President of the Boer Republic.

In Cape Town, the officially-recognized South African Parliament, with no National Party members, passes legislation which completely undoes the apartheid system. They go further, announcing initiatives for economic development and education reform in black areas. They also begin recruiting of blacks into the South African armies, organizing them into units called “impis,” the Zulu word for regiment.

Although the South African crisis (which is already being termed the “Third Boer War”) dominates the headlines, other event are taking place across the world.

In New Zealand, the legal equality of Maori subjects is enshrined in law. A few months later, a similar law is passed with regard to aborigines in Australia. Both groups, however, largely maintain their traditional ways of life. Politicians in both Dominions use the opportunity to laud how “civilized” and “advanced” their states are when compared to the racial chaos sweeping South Africa.

The racial issues raised by South Africa spill over into the political discourse of the United States, where Southern blacks have begun agitating for their rights in a stronger manner. Demonstrations for equal rights are usually broken up by police, which results in rioting and much violence.

In Indochina, Vietnamese nationalists initiate a guerrilla campaign against French rule. While largely ineffective, numerous terrorist attacks in large cities cause a good deal of trouble. French troops reinforce the colonial army already in position.

1958:
In early January, Imperial forces slowly work their way into Boer territory. The Boer units engage in guerrilla warfare, avoiding the large Imperial units and attacking supply lines and depots. As months pass, reinforcements arrive from other Dominions and Imperial forces gradually expand their control over Boer territory.

A key element in the Imperial strategy is to do as little material damage as possible and to avoid provoking the Afrikaner civilian population. With the lessons of the Second Boer War clearly in mind, the Imperial forces wish to avoid turning the civilian population into bitter enemies. This is not only for the successful prosecution of the war, but to win the peace after the conflict is over.

It had been intended to hold the new black impis of the loyal South African army in rear areas, guarding supply lines and other such duties. The guerrilla tactics of the Boers brings them into combat, however, and the Imperial military officers are delighted as they perform quite effectively.

Nehru, in his role as Foreign Secretary, visits Cape Town and meets with local officials. He makes a widely-publicized speech on May 24, laying out Imperial policies for South Africa. Order is to be restored as soon as possible, and the Afrikaner population will maintain equal rights as British subjects once hostilities end. However, a fair and equitable political system will be created, so as to prevent the Afrikaner minority from controlling the government of the Dominion. The economic and educational reforms initiated by the Cape Town Parliament the previous year shall be continued and augmented, with further financial assistance coming from the rest of the Empire.

Russian pressure on the Chinese government has lasted for a number of years. Russia remains in effective control of Manchuria and also has great influence in far-western China. Hoping to resist further encroachments, China begins the large-scale purchase of British weapons and equipment and requests British assistance in training their military.

Nehru counsels against such a deal, fearing that it will provoke Russia and that, in any event, the Empire must focus on restoring order in South Africa. But the Imperial Minister of War, Ralph Honner of Australia, feels that it may divert Russian attention away from the Middle East, which he considers most critical to Imperial interests. In the face of these arguments, Macmillan decides to accept the Chinese proposal.

Russian army officers are outraged when they learn that the British Empire will be supplying China with weaponry, including modern tanks and heavy artillery. The Chinese have gradually become more resistant to Russian pressure, and the possibility of British support makes the Russian position in Manchuria and western China less tenable.

The European Defense Organization (which now also includes Italy, the Low Countries and Austria) holds a series of conference on what to do in the event of a conflict between the British Empire and Russia. The main conclusion is that neutrality would not only be the best policy, but would help keep the war limited and reduce potential damage and loss of life. It is also believed that the British would win the war rather easily.

1959:
Imperial forces capture Pretoria and Johannesburg, ending conventional resistance in South Africa. The Parliament returns to its old home in Pretoria. Although sporadic guerrilla resistance continues for some months, the Third Boer War is effectively over.

B. J. Vorster gives himself up and encourages other Boer leaders to do the same. He is tried for treason against the Empire and sentenced to ten years imprisonment. The leniency of the sentence is seen as a gesture of goodwill to the Afrikaner people, who continue to regard him as a hero.

The South African Parliament announces new elections are to be held, in which all South Africans shall have the right to vote, regardless of race. The logistics of such an election are immense, as the isolated villages and shantytowns are scattered through the Dominion. The Imperial Parliament creates a special task force to oversee the election.

Almost immediately, a series of new political parties springs up in South Africa, representing various black African interests who have long been excluded from political participation. The Liberal Party make a strong effort to win black support, pointing to their role in bringing political equality to the Dominion, but many all-black organizations are also coming into being, such as the Zulu People’s Party